Computer Networks UNIT -2 ( iv - part)

CN - UNIT – 2 ( ii – part )
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Medium Access sub layer:

• The medium access control (MAC) is a sublayer of the data link layer of the open system
interconnections (OSI) reference model for data transmission.

• It is responsible for flow control for transmission medium.

• It controls the transmission of data via remotely shared channels. It sends data over the network.

MAC Layer in the OSI Model:

The Open System Interconnections (OSI) model is a layered networking framework that conceptualizes
how communications should be done between heterogeneous systems.

The data link layer is the second lowest layer.

It is divided into two sublayers:

* The logical link control (LLC) sublayer

* The medium access control (MAC) sublayer

Functions of MAC Layer:

• It provides an abstraction of the physical layer to the LLC(logical link control) and upper layers of
the OSI network.

• It is responsible for encapsulating frames so that they are suitable for transmission via the physical
medium.

• It resolves the addressing of source station as well as the destination station, or groups of
destination stations.

• It performs multiple access resolutions when more than one data frame is to be transmitted. It
determines the channel access methods for transmission.

• It also performs collision resolution and initiating retransmission in case of collisions.

• It generates the frame check sequences and thus contributes to protection against transmission
errors.
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 Channel Allocation Problem:

• Channel allocation is a process in which a single channel is divided and allotted to multiple users
in order to carry user specific tasks.

• There are user’s quantity may vary every time the process takes place.

• If there are N number of users and channel is divided into N equal-sized sub channels, Each user is
assigned one portion.

• If the number of users are small and don’t vary at times, than Frequency Division Multiplexing can
be used as it is a simple and efficient channel bandwidth allocating technique.

FDM ,TDM Pure Aloha, slotted Aloha ,

Persistent CSMA, Non -Persistent CSMA ..

1. Static Channel Allocation in LANs and MANs:

•
It is the classical or traditional approach of allocating a single channel among multiple competing
users Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM).

• if there are N users, the bandwidth is divided into N equal sized portions each user being assigned
one portion.

• In this way of allocating a single channel among multiple competing users is by using FDM
Frequency division multiplexing.

• For N number of users the Bandwidth is divided into N equal partitions , each user is assigned for
one portion.

• Since each user has fixed frequency and fixed Bandwidth .

• This is applicable only when number of users are less and each has constant Traffic.

• When number of users are large and continuously varying traffic then the bandwidth is divided
into equally number of regions .
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2. Dynamic Channel Allocation:

• Dynamic channel allocation method is incorporated in all LAN and WAN.

• Dynamic channel allocation method can handle all types of traffic condition.

• Work station or terminals are independent and work is generated at a constant rate.

• A single channel is available for all communication .

• All stations can transmits and receive through it.

• Two stations are transmits simultaneously the signals collide with each other this process is called
collision.

• If collision occur then retrammitts data.

• The work station can begin signal transmission at any time or in slotted time assigned to it.

Possible assumptions include:

1. Station Model:
Assumes that each of N stations independently produce frames. The probability of producing a
packet in the interval where It is the constant arrival rate of new frames.

2. Single Channel Assumption:

In this allocation all stations are equivalent and can send and receive on that channel.

3. Collision Assumption:
If two frames overlap in time-wise, then that’s collision. Any collision is an error, and both frames
must re transmitted. Collisions are only possible error.

4. Time can be divided into Slotted or Continuous.

5. Stations can sense a channel is busy before they try it.

[Link] Sense: A station can sense if a channel is already busy before transmission.

7. No Carrier Sense: Time out used to sense loss data.

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 Multiple Access Protocols:

• If there is a dedicated link between the sender and the receiver then data link control layer is
sufficient.

• however if there is no dedicated link present then multiple stations can access the channel
simultaneously.

• Hence multiple access protocols are required to decrease collision and avoid crosstalk.

For example: In a classroom full of students, when a teacher asks a question and all the students (or
stations) start answering simultaneously (send data at same time) then a lot of collisions is
created( data overlap or data lost) then it is the job of the teacher (multiple access protocols) to
manage the students and make them answer one at a time.

1. ALOHA –
• ALOHA is a multiple access protocol for transmission of data via a shared network
channel. ... In ALOHA, each node or station transmits a frame without trying to detect
whether the transmission channel is idle or busy. If the channel is idle, then the frames
will be successfully transmitted
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• It was designed for wireless LAN but is also applicable for shared medium.

• In this, multiple stations can transmit data at the same time and can hence lead to
collision and data being garbled (confuse).

1.1 Pure Aloha:

• Pure Aloha is an un-slotted, decentralized, and simple to implement a protocol.

• In pure ALOHA, the stations simply transmit frames whenever they want data to send.

• It does not check whether the channel is busy or not before transmitting.

• In case, two or more stations transmit simultaneously, the collision occurs and frames are
destroyed.

• Whenever any station transmits a frame, it expects the acknowledgment from the receiver.

• If it is not received within a specified time, the station assumes that the frame or
acknowledgment has been destroyed.

• Then, the station waits for a random amount of time and sends the frame again.

• This randomness helps in avoiding more collisions.

• This scheme works well in small networks where the load is not much. But in largely loaded
networks, this scheme fails poorly. This led to the development of Slotted Aloha.

• Since different stations wait for different amount of time, the probability of further collision
decreases.

For that to make some assumption:

Computer Networks UNIT -2 ( iv - part)

i) All the frames should be the same length.

ii) Stations can not generate frame while transmitting or trying to transmit frame.
iii)The population of stations attempts to transmit (both new frames and old frames that collided).

Efficiency of Pure ALOHA: Vulnerable Time = 2 * Tt

Throughput= G * e^-2G

where G is number of stations wants to transmit in Tt slot.

Maximum Efficiency: Maximum Efficiency will be obtained when G=1/2

Throughput (S pure)max = 1/2 * e^-1 = 0.184

1.2 Slotted Aloha:

• It is similar to pure aloha, except that we divide time into slots and sending of data is allowed
only at the beginning of these slots.

• If a station misses out the allowed time, it must wait for the next slot.

• This is quite similar to Pure Aloha, differing only in the way transmissions take place.

• Instead of transmitting right at demand time, the sender waits for some time.

• In slotted ALOHA, the time of the shared channel is divided into discrete intervals called Slots.

• The stations are eligible to send a frame only at the beginning of the slot and only one frame per
slot is sent.

• If any station is not able to place the frame onto the channel at the beginning of the slot, it has
to wait until the beginning of the next time slot.

• There is still a possibility of collision if two stations try to send at the beginning of the same time
slot.
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• But still the number of collisions that can possibly take place is reduced by a large margin and the
performance becomes much well compared to Pure Aloha.

• This reduces the probability of collision.

Collision is possible for only the current slot. Therefore, Vulnerable Time is Tt.

Vulnerable Time = Frame transmission time. V=Tt

The average amount of transmission-attempts for 2 consecutive frame

Efficiency of Slotted ALOHA: Sslotted = G * e^-G

Maximum Efficiency: (Sslotted)max = 1 * e^-1 = 1/e = 0.368

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Difference b/w Pure Aloha and Slotted Aloha :

2. CSMA – (Carrier Sense Multiple Access )

• Carrier means channel or medium .

• To minimize the chance of collision and therefore to Increase the performance.

• Principle of CSMA “ Sense(identify) before transmit the data or listen before transmits the data”.

• Without sensing the channel state to transmits the data through the channel collision may occur.

• Carrier busy = Transmission is taking place.

• Carrier idle = No transmission currently taking place.

• Carrier Sense Multiple Access ensures fewer collisions as the station is required to first sense the
medium (for idle or busy) before transmitting data.

• If it is idle then it sends data, otherwise it waits till the channel becomes idle.

• However there is still chance of collision in CSMA due to propagation delay.

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For example, if station A wants to send data, it will first sense the medium . If it finds the channel idle,
it will start sending data. However, by the time the first bit of data is transmitted (delayed due to
propagation delay) from station A, if station B requests to send data and senses the medium it will also
find it idle and will also send data. This will result in collision of data from station A and B.

• The possibility of Collison still exists because of propagation delay : a station may sense the
medium and find it is idle because the first bit sent by another station has not yet been received.

2. 1 Persistent and Non persistent CSMA

Types of CSMA:

a. 1-Persistent CSMA.

b. P-Persistent CSMA.

c. Non-Persistent CSMA.

d. O-Persistent CSMA.

CSMA access modes-

a. 1-persistent CSMA:
• Before sending the data the station first listens to the channel to see if anyone else to transmitting
the data at this moment.

• IF Listen Primitive tell if the channel is busy or idle if it is idle to transmits the data other wise
wait until free .

• If the channel is idle the station transmits the frame.

• If channel is busy then it sense the transmission medium continuously until it becomes idle.

• Since the station transmits the frame with the probability of 1 when the carrier or channel is idle ,
this scheme of CSMA is called 1- Persistent CSMA.

• The propagation delay has an important effect on the performance of the protocol.
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• The node senses the channel, if idle it sends the data, otherwise it continuously keeps on checking
the medium for being idle and transmits unconditionally(with 1 probability) as soon as the channel
gets idle.

• The longer propagation delay . The importance is more effected because performance of
protocol is decreases.

b. Non-Persistent CSMA:
• Before sending, a station senses the channel , if No one else is sending the station begins doing so
itself.

• If the channel is already in use the station does not sense (checks) continuously for the purpose
of seizing it immediately upon detecting the end of the previous transmission.

• It waits for random period of time not continuously. But in 1-persistent continuously
sensing(checking)

• In this Non –persistent CSMA when the station having a frame to transmit and find that the
channel is busy , it backs off for fixed interval of time .

• It checks the channel again and if the channel is free then it transmits.

• The back off delay is determined by the transmission time of a frame , propagation time and
other systems parameters.

• If the channel is already in use the station does not continuously sense it for the purpose of
seizing it immediately upon detecting the end of the previous transmission.

• The node senses the channel, if idle it sends the data, otherwise it checks the medium after a
random amount of time (not continuously) and transmits when found idle.

• But is waits random amount period of time and again it checks for activity.
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c. P-persistent CSMA:
• It applies to Slotted channels.

• When a station is ready to send it sense ( checks) the channel.

• If it is idle , it transmits with a probability p.

• The node senses the medium, if idle it sends the data with p probability. If the data is not
transmitted ((1-p) probability) then it waits for some time and checks the medium again, now if it
is found idle then it send with p probability. This repeat continues until the frame is sent.

• 1. If the channel is idle transmits the probability p ,and delay one time unit with probability (1-P).

• 2. If the channel is Busy , listen until idle repeat step 1.

• 3. If transmission is delayed one time unit repeat step 1.

d. O-persistent CSMA:
• Each node is assigned at transmission order by a supervisory node.

• Superiority of nodes is decided before and transmission occurs in that order.

• If the medium is idle, node waits for its time slot to send data.

• All the decisions take care by the supervisory node.

Fig : Comparison of the channel utilization versus load for various random access protocols.
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CSMA/CD – (CSMA with Collision Detection) :

• Carrier sense multiple access with collision detection.

• Stations can terminate transmission of data if collision is detected.

• Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) is a network protocol for carrier
transmission that operates in the Medium Access Control (MAC) layer.

• It senses or listens whether the shared channel for transmission is busy or not, and defers
transmissions until the channel is free.

• The collision detection technology detects collisions by sensing transmissions from other stations.

• EX: If 2 stations sense the channel to be idle and begin transmitting simultaneously , they will
both detect the collision .

• Immediately stop the transmission quickly terminating the damaged frames and Save Time and
Bandwidth.

• On detection of a collision, the station stops transmitting, sends a jam signal, and then waits for a
random time interval before retransmission.

The Steps for CSMA/CD is:

• When a frame is ready, the transmitting station checks whether the channel is idle or busy.

• If the channel is busy, the station waits until the channel becomes idle.

• If the channel is idle, the station starts transmitting and continually monitors the channel to detect
collision.

• If a collision is detected, the station starts the collision resolution algorithm.

• The station resets the retransmission counters and completes frame transmission.

The Steps for Collision Resolution is:

• The station continues transmission of the current frame for a specified time along with a jam
signal, to ensure that all the other stations detect collision.

• The station increments the retransmission counter.

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• If the maximum number of retransmission attempts is reached, then the station aborts
transmission.

• Otherwise, the station waits for a back off period which is generally a function of the number of
collisions and restart main algorithm.

CSMA/CA ( collision Avoidance ) or (Collision free protocols):

• CSMA/CA stands for Carrier Sense Multiple Access/ Collision Avoidance.

• It is a network protocol for transmission. It operates in the Medium Access Control Layer. This
protocol is effective before the collision.

• CSMA/CA is effective before a collision.

• CSMA/CA is generally used in wireless networks.

• CSMA/CA minimizes the risk of collision.

• CSMA/CA initially transmits the intent to send the data, once an acknowledgment is received, the
sender sends the data.

• CSMA/CA is part of the IEEE 802.11 standard.

• CSMA/CA is similar in efficiency as CSMA.

• In computer networks, when more than one station tries to transmit simultaneously via a shared
channel, the transmitted data is garbled. This event is called collision.

• The Medium Access Control (MAC) layer of the OSI model is responsible for handling collision of
frames.

• Collision – free protocols are devised so that collisions do not occur.

• Protocols like CSMA/CD and CSMA/CA nullifies the possibility of collisions once the transmission
channel is acquired by any station.

• However, collision can still occur during the contention period if more than one stations starts to
transmit at the same time.

• Collision – free protocols resolves collision in the contention period and so the possibilities of
collisions are eliminated.

Types of Collision – free Protocols:

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a. Bit – map Protocol: (Reservation protocol) :

• In bit map protocol, the contention period is divided into N slots, where N is the total number of
stations sharing the channel.

• If a station has a frame to send, it sets the corresponding bit in the slot.

• So, before transmission, each station knows whether the other stations want to transmit.

• Collisions are avoided by mutual agreement among the contending stations on who gets the
channel.

• Suppose that there are 10 stations. So the number of contention slots will be 10.

• If the stations 2, 3, 8 and 9 wish to transmit, they will set the corresponding slots to 1 as shown in
the following diagram:

• Once each station announces itself, one of them gets the channel based upon any agreed criteria.

• Generally, transmission is done in the order of the slot numbers.

• Each station has complete knowledge whether every other station wants to transmit or not,
before transmission starts. So, all possibilities of collisions are eliminated.

• In our first collision-free protocol, the basic bit-map method, each contention period consists of
exactly N slots.

• If station 0 has a frame to send, it transmits a 1 bit during the zeroth slot.

• No other station is allowed to transmit during this slot. Regardless of what station 0 does, station
1 gets the opportunity to transmit a 1 during slot 1, but only if it has a frame queued.

• In general, station j may announce that it has a frame to send by inserting a 1 bit into slot j.

• After all N slots have passed by, each station has complete knowledge of which stations wish to
transmit.

• Since everyone agrees on who goes next, there will never be any collisions.
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b. Binary Countdown:
• In Binary count down protocol all the stations on the channel are assigned a fixed length binary
addresses.

• If any station wants to transmits a message or data first it broad cast its address into binary bit
string . String with higher order bit.

• Different station addresses are together to decide the priority of transmitting the data.

Figure . The binary countdown protocol. A dash indicates silence.

For example: if stations 0010, 0100, 1001, and 1010 are all trying to get the channel, in the first bit time
the stations transmit 0, 0, 1, and 1, respectively. These are ORed together to form a 1. Stations 0010 and
0100 see the 1 and know that a higher-numbered station is competing for the channel, so they give up for
the current round. Stations 1001 and 1010 continue.

The next bit is 0, and both stations continue. The next bit is 1, so station 1001 gives up. The winner
is station 1010 because it has the highest address. After winning the bidding, it may now transmit a frame,
after which another bidding cycle starts. The protocol is illustrated in Fig. . It has the property that higher-
numbered stations have a higher priority than lower numbered stations, which may be either good or bad,
depending on the context.
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c. Limited Contention Protocols:

These protocols combines the advantages of collision based protocols and collision free protocols.

Under light load, they behave like ALOHA scheme. Under heavy load, they behave like bitmap protocols.

when more than one station tries to transmit simultaneously via a shared channel, the transmitted data is
garbled, an event called collision. In collision based protocols like ALOHA, all stations are permitted to
transmit a frame without trying to detect whether the transmission channel is idle or busy. In slotted
ALOHA, the shared channel is divided into a number of discrete time intervals called slots. Any station
having a frame can start transmitting at the beginning of a slot. Since, this works very good under light
loads, limited contention protocols behave like slotted ALOHA under low loads.

d. Adaptive Tree Walk Protocol:

Adaptive Tree Walk Protocol is a technique for transmitting data over shared channels that combines the
advantages of collision based protocols and collision free protocols.

In computer networks, when more than one station tries to transmit simultaneously via a shared
channel, the transmitted data is garbled, an event called collision. In collision based protocols like ALOHA,
all stations are permitted to transmit a frame without trying to detect whether the transmission channel is
idle or busy. This works very good under light loads. Under heavy loads, collision free protocols are
suitable, since channel access is resolved in the contention period that eliminates the possibilities of
collisions.

In adaptive tree walk protocol, the stationed are partitioned into groups in a hierarchical manner.
The contention period is divided into discrete time slots, and for each slot the contention rights of the
stations are limited. Under light loads, all the stations can participate for contention each slot like ALOHA.
However, under heavy loads, only a group can try for a given slot.

Working Principle:

In adaptive tree walk protocol, the stations or nodes are arranged in the form of a binary tree as shown in
the diagram. Here, the internal nodes (marked from 0 to 6) represent the groups while the leaf nodes
(marked A to H) are the stations contending for network access.
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EXAMPLE :
Initially all nodes (A, B ……. G, H) are permitted to compete for the channel. If a node is successful in
acquiring the channel, it transmits its frame. In case of collision,

The nodes are divided into two groups −

Stations under the group 1, i.e. A, B, C, D

Stations under the group 2, i.e. E, F, G, H

Nodes belonging to only one of them is permitted for competing. Say, for slot 1, all stations under group 1
are allowed to contend. If one of the stations successfully acquires the channel, then it transmits to
completion. In the next slot, i.e. slot 2, all stations under group 2 can contend.

However, if there is a collision, then the stations are further divided into groups as follows −

Stations under the group 3, i.e. A, B

Stations under the group 4, i.e. C, D

Stations under the group 5, i.e. E, F

Stations under the group 6, i.e. G, H

In order to locate the contending stations, depth-first search algorithm is used. The same principle of
contention is applied, only for those groups that has some contending stations. The division continues if
collisions occur, until each group contains only 1 node.

Difference b/w CSMA/CD and CSMA/CA :

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 Switched Local Area Network (Switched LAN):

In Computer Networks (CN), a Switched Local Area Network (Switched LAN) is a type of LAN that uses
network switches to connect devices instead of hubs or a shared bus.

 A switched local area network (LAN) uses network switches to interconnect devices within a
limited geographic area, like a building or campus.
 This allows multiple devices to communicate with each other efficiently, sharing resources and
data.
 Switched LANs enhance network performance by reducing congestion and improving scalability
compared to older technologies like hubs.

What is a Switched LAN:

A Switched LAN is a local network in which each device is connected to a switch port.
The switch uses MAC addresses to forward data frames only to the intended destination port rather
than broadcasting to all ports (like hubs do).

How it WORKS:
1. Connecting Devices:
Devices like computers, printers, and servers connect to the network through the
switch.
2. Packet Forwarding:
When a device sends data, the switch examines the destination MAC address
and forwards the packet only to the port connected to the intended recipient.
3. Reduced Congestion:
Unlike hubs, which broadcast data to all connected devices, switches only
forward data to the specific recipient, reducing network congestion.
4. Increased Scalability:
Switches allow for more devices to be added to the network without significant
performance degradation, making it more scalable.

Benefits of Switched LANs:

 Improved Performance: Reduced congestion and faster data transfer rates.
 Enhanced Scalability: Easier to add more devices to the network as needed.
 Reduced Network Failures: Well-designed switched LANs have a low probability
of failure.
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 Better Bandwidth Management: Each device on the network can potentially have
more dedicated bandwidth.
 Parallel Connections: Multiple devices can communicate simultaneously, unlike
hub-based networks.
 Security and Manageability: Switches can be configured to support VLANs,
enhancing security and manageability.
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 Link virtualization:
 Link virtualization in computer networks refers to the ability to create multiple,
isolated virtual networks over a single physical network infrastructure.
 It allows for the abstraction of physical network resources, enabling the creation of
customized virtual networks with specific configurations and functionalities, to
different applications or users.
 This can be achieved by either partitioning a single physical network into multiple
logical networks or by merging multiple physical networks into a single virtual
network,

Network as a Link Layer:

Link virtualization is a technique where the physical network link is divided into multiple
virtual links so that different services, protocols, or networks can share the same physical
infrastructure.

When we say “Network as a Link Layer”, we mean that the Internet treats the
underlying network (e.g., Ethernet, Wi-Fi, MPLS, etc.) as if it were just a point-to-point
link between routers.
This abstraction is achieved through virtualization.

Why Virtualize Links?

 To share a single physical link among multiple logical connections.

 To isolate different types of traffic (security, performance).
 To emulate point-to-point links even if the underlying physical medium is shared.

How It Works

Link virtualization is implemented using techniques such as:

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 VLANs (Virtual LANs) – Partition a physical LAN into multiple logical LANs.
 MPLS (Multiprotocol Label Switching) – Creates virtual circuits over IP networks.
 Tunneling (VPNs, GRE, IP-in-IP) – Encapsulates one protocol inside another to create a
virtual link.
 ATM/Frame Relay virtual circuits – (older technologies) create virtual point-to-point
paths.

Internet’s View: “Network as a Link Layer”

In the Internet architecture:

 The network layer (IP) assumes that it has point-to-point links between routers.
 Link virtualization hides the actual complexity of the underlying network.
 Even if the physical connection is a complex switched network (e.g., MPLS cloud), IP
just sees it as a direct link.

Data Centre Networking (DCN)

1. Definition

Data Centre Networking refers to the design, deployment, and management of the networking
infrastructure within a data centre to enable communication between servers, storage systems, and
external networks.

2. Purpose

 Provide high-speed, low-latency connections between servers.

 Ensure scalability for growing workloads.
 Offer redundancy and fault tolerance for uninterrupted services.

3. Key Components

 Core switches & routers – High-capacity devices that form the backbone.
 Top-of-Rack (ToR) switches – Connect servers within a rack.
 Aggregation/Distribution switches – Interconnect racks and link to core.
 Load balancers – Distribute traffic among multiple servers.
 Firewalls – Secure the data centre network.

4. Common Architectures

1. Three-Tier Architecture
o Core Layer → Connects to external networks.
o Aggregation Layer → Connects multiple access switches.
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oAccess Layer → Connects servers.

(Traditional but less flexible for large-scale cloud DCs.)
2. Leaf-Spine Architecture
o Leaf switches connect directly to servers.
o Spine switches interconnect all leaf switches.
o Provides equal latency between any two servers, scalable for cloud data centres.

 Retrospective: A Day in the Life of a Web Page (Packet):

1. Concept

This is an example used in computer networking to illustrate how different layers of the Internet
protocol stack work together when a user requests a web page.
It follows a packet (or set of packets) end-to-end from a client browser to a web server and back.

2. Steps
(a) User Action

 The user types a URL in the web browser, e.g., [Link]

(b) DNS Resolution

 Browser checks DNS to get the IP address of the server.

 If not cached, sends a DNS query using UDP over IP to the DNS server.
 DNS reply returns the server’s IP address.

(c) TCP Connection Setup

 Browser initiates a TCP 3-way handshake with the server’s IP on port 80 (HTTP) or 443
(HTTPS).

(d) HTTP Request

 Browser sends an HTTP GET request to fetch the web page.

 Request is segmented into packets and encapsulated:
o Application Layer: HTTP request
o Transport Layer: TCP segments
o Network Layer: IP packets
o Link Layer: Ethernet/Wi-Fi frames

(e) Packet Transmission

 Packets travel from the client to the server:

o Through the local network (switches, routers)
o ISP backbone
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o Internet routers
 Each hop forwards based on IP routing tables.

(f) Server Processing

 Server receives the HTTP request, processes it, and sends back the web page content in
HTTP response packets.

(g) Rendering

 Browser receives the packets, reassembles the data via TCP, interprets the HTML/CSS/JS,
and displays the web page.

3. Technologies Involved

 DNS – Name to IP mapping

 TCP/IP – Reliable data transfer
 HTTP/HTTPS – Application protocol
 Ethernet/Wi-Fi – Link layer delivery
 Routers – Forwarding between networks

4. Summary Flow
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