Integrity, Service, Excellence

SCHOOL OF MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCES EDUCATION

Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Foundation Calculus-MAT3100

2023 edition

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Author: Chingi Samuel

Publisher: Chalimbana University

Edition: 2023

Copy right: Chalimbana University

All rights reserved

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any
form or by any means, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without prior
permission of the copyright owner, Chalimbana University.

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Acknowledgement

The mind is fed from various streams whose sources may sometimes be not known. However, the
contribution of great mathematicians’ work in calculus like Gauss Jordan, Larsson, Hosteller, John
Bird and H.K. Dass is greatly acknowledged. Several ideas have been borrowed from prestigious
work written by Larsson, Edward, hosteller and John Bird. Some of their valued work was adapted
in this module and deepened the knowledge base and concepts of foundation calculus.

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Pre requisite: MAT 2100

Rationale

In recent years the number of topics in mathematics and in particular Foundation Calculus required
of students training as teachers of mathematics for senior secondary schools has greatly increased.
This is to be expected since mathematics plays a vital role as a language in the formulation and
solution of problems involving science and as these problems become more complex, it is natural
that the mathematical methods needed for their solution should increase in number and complexity.

It is the purpose of this module to provide important foundation mathematical concepts and
methods in calculus needed by students pursuing Bachelor of Education Secondary in mathematics
so as to equip them with relevance knowledge and skills required in their practice and further
education in additional mathematics.

The module has been designed as a supplement to all current standard text books and as a guide
textbook for a formal course in the mathematical methods of Foundation Calculus (MAT 3100).

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AIM: To enable students acquire knowledge of Foundation Calculus and foster critical thinking.
Learning Outcomes
▪ To enable students, work with limits and their properties
▪ To expose students to further differential calculus.
▪ To expose students to the application of differential calculus to real life problems.
▪ To expose students to further integral calculus and its application to real life problems.
▪ To enable students, acquire knowledge of differential equations and its application.
▪ To introduce students to all methods of differential and integral calculus.
▪ To enable students, acquire knowledge of hyperbolic functions and equations and their
solutions.

METHODS OF TEACHING
(i) Lectures…………………………………………3 hours per week
(ii) (ii) Tutorials……………………………………1 hour per week.
ASSESSMENT
Continuous assessment 50%: two tests [ 25% each]
Final examination 50%.

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Table of contents
1. Limits and their properties………………………………………………………..…..….8
1.1 An introduction to limits…………………………………………………………....……8
1.2 Properties of limits……………………………………………………………………...15
1.3 Techniques for evaluating limits…………………………………………………..……15
1.4 Infinite limits……………………………………………………………………………..18
2. Differential equations and other basic functions……………………………………..….20
2.1 Differential equations………………………………………………………………..…..20
2.2 Inverse trigonometric functions and differentiation……………………………………..25
2.3 Inverse trigonometric functions and integration…………………………………………37
2.4 Hyperbolic functions……………………………………………………………………..40
3. Differential Calculus……………………………………………………………………..48
3.1 Revision of basic calculus……………………………………………………………….48
3.2 Function notation………………………………………………………………………..48
3.3 The gradient curve………………………………………………………………………49
3.4 Differentiation from first principles……………………………………………………..50
3.5 Differentiation by rule……………………………………………………………………51
3.6 Differentiation of sine and cosine functions……………………………………………..51
3.7 Differentiation of exponential and natural logarithmic functions………………………..52
4. Methods of differentiation and its application…………………………………………...55
4.1 Differentiation of common functions…………………………………………………….58
4.2 Differentiation of a product……………………………………………………………...56
4.3 Differentiation of a quotient……………………………………………………………..57
4.4 Function of a function…………………………………………………………………...59
4.5 Successive differentiation……………………………………………………………….61
4.6 Rates of change………………………………………………………………………….62
4.7 Velocity and acceleration………………………………………………………………..63
4.8 Turning point…………………………………………………………………………….64
5. Integral calculus………………………………………………………………………….70
5.1 The process of integration………………………………………………………………..70
5.2 The general solution of integrals…………………………………………………………71
5.3 Standard integrals………………………………………………………………………...71
5.4 Definite integrals…………………………………………………………………………72
5.4.1 Change of variables…………………………………………………………………….73
5.5 Integration by substitution……………………………………………………………….74
5.5.1 Algebraic substitution………………………………………………………………..76
5.5.2 Trigonometric substitution…………………………………………………………...76
𝜃
5.5.3 The 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛………………………………………………………...78
5.6 Integration by parts………………………………………………………………………79
5.7 Reduction formulae………………………………………………………………………82

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6. Applications of integration……………………………………………………………...94
6.1 Area between two curves………………………………………………………………..94
6.2 Volume: disc method…………………………………………………………………...100
6.3 Arc length and surfaces of revolution…………………………………………………..109
6.4 Work…………………………………………..………………………………………..111
6.5 Moments, Centers of Mass and Centroids……………………………………………...116
7. Infinite series……………………………………………………………………………123
7.1 Sequences……………………………………………………………………………….123
7.2 Series and convergence…………………………………………………………………124
7.3 Alternating series……………………………………………………………………….126
7.4 Taylor polynomials and approximations……………………………………………….127
7.5 Power series…………………………………………………………………………….128
7.6 Representation of functions by power series…………………………………………...130
7.7 Taylor and Maclaurin polynomials……………………………………………………..131
7.8 Taylor and Maclaurin series…………………………………………………………….132

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 Chapter one
1.0 Limits and their properties
The notion of a limit is fundamental to the study of calculus. To give you some idea of the way
limits are used, we begin this section with a brief introduction to a classic problem in calculus; the
tangent line problem. In this problem, you are given a function f and a point P on its graph and are
asked to find an equation of the tangent to the graph at point P.
Except for cases involving a vertical tangent line, the problem of finding the tangent line at a point
P is equivalent to finding the slope of the tangent line at P. you can approximate this slope by
using a line through the point of tangency and a second point on the curve. Such a line is called a
secant line.
𝐼𝑓 𝑃 = [𝑐, 𝑓(𝑐)]𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄 = [𝑐 + ∆𝑥, 𝑓(𝑐 + ∆𝑥)] 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 on
the graph 𝑜𝑓 𝑓, then the slope of the secant line through these two points is given by
𝑓(𝑐 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑐) 𝑓(𝑐 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑐)
𝑚𝑠𝑒𝑐 = = .
𝑐 + ∆𝑥 − 𝑐 ∆𝑥
As point Q approaches point P, the slope of the secant line will approach the slope of the tangent
line. When such a “limiting position” exists, the slope of the tangent line is said to be the limit of
the slope of the secant line.
1.1 An introduction to limits
Suppose that you are asked to sketch the graph of the function f given by
𝑥3 − 1
𝑓(𝑥) = , 𝑥 ≠ 1.
𝑥−1
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑘𝑒𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑛𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑠. 𝐻𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟, 𝑎𝑡
𝑥 = 1, 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡. 𝑇𝑜 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑒ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑓
𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠; 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 1 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 1 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑎𝑠 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤.
𝑥 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 1 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑣𝑠 𝑥 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 1 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

𝑥 0.75 0.9 0.99 0.999 1 1.001 1.01 1.1 1.25

𝑓(𝑥) 2.313 2.710 2.970 2.997 ? 3.003 3.030 3.310 3.813

𝑓(𝑥)𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 3 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(𝑥)𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 3 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

When you plot these points, it appears that the graph of f is a parabola that has a gap at point
(1,3), 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑔ℎ ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦.

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Although 𝑥 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 1, 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑜 1, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑜 3. 𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒:
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 3, 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑠 "𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 1 𝑖𝑠 3. "
𝑥→1

This discussion leads to an informal description of a limit.

𝐼𝑓 𝑓(𝑥)𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝐿 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 𝑐 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟
𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑥), 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 𝑐, 𝑖𝑠 𝐿. 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿.
𝑥→𝑐

Example 1
Evaluate the function
𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) =
√𝑥 + 1 − 1
𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡
𝑥
lim .
𝑥→0 √𝑥 +1−1
Solution
Here, the table below lists values of 𝑓(𝑥)𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 0.
𝑥 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 0 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑣𝑠 𝑥 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 0 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

𝑥 -0.01 -0.001 -0.0001 0 0.0001 0.001 0.01

𝑓(𝑥) 1.9950 1.9995 1.9999 ? 2.0001 2.0005 2.0050

𝑓(𝑥)𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 2 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(𝑥)𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 2 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

From the results shown in the table above, you can estimate the limit to be 2.
Note!
When studying calculus (or any branch of mathematics), remember that there are always several
ways to solve most problems. Often, a problem can be solved numerically, graphically or
analytically.
For instance, the limit in the preceding example was found numerically (by constructing a table
of values).
In the next section of this chapter, you will study an analytic technique for evaluating limits.

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Example 2
Find the limit of 𝑓(𝑥)𝑎𝑠 𝑥 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 2 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦
1, 𝑥 ≠ 2
𝑓(𝑥) = {
0, 𝑥 = 2
Solution
Here, because 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑥 = 2, 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 1.
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓(2) = 0 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑛𝑜 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑎𝑠 𝑥
𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 2.
Note!
In the next three examples, you will examine some functions for which limits do not exist.
Example 3
Show that the following limit does not exist;
|𝑥|
lim
𝑥→0 𝑥

Solution
This means that no matter how close 𝑥 𝑔𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑡𝑜 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
𝑥 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑓(𝑥0 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(𝑥) = −1.
Specifically, if 𝛿 (𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑘 𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑎)𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 −
𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑓𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦
0 < |𝑥| < 𝛿
|𝑥|
𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑓𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 , 𝑎𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑠
𝑥
|𝑥| |𝑥|
𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑: = −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑: = 1.
𝑥 𝑥
This implies that the limit does not exist.
Example 4
Discuss the existence of the limit
1
lim .
𝑥→0 𝑥 2

Solution
1
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 .

10
 1
When you sketch the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 , 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 0 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚
𝑒𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡, 𝑓(𝑥)𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑. 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑏𝑦
𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑥 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡𝑜 0, 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑓(𝑥)𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑤𝑎𝑛𝑡. For
1
𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑓(𝑥)𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 100 𝑖𝑓 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑥 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛 10 𝑜𝑓 0. 𝑇ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠

1 1
0 < |𝑥| < → 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 > 1 000 000.
10 𝑥
Similarly, you can force 𝑓(𝑥)𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 1 000 000.
Thus, because 𝑓(𝑥)𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝐿, 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 0, 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑐𝑎𝑛
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡.
Example 5
1
Discuss the existence of the limit lim sin (𝑥) .
𝑥→0

Solution
1 1
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = sin (𝑥) . 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) = sin (𝑥) , 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑠
𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 0, 𝑓(𝑥)𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 − 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1.
Therefore, the limit does not exist, because no matter how small you choose 𝛿, 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒
1 1
𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑥1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥2 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛 𝛿 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 0 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 sin (𝑥 ) = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 sin (𝑥 ) = −1, 𝑎𝑠 indicated
1 2
in the table below:
𝑥 2 2 2 2 2 2 𝑥→0
𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋 7𝜋 9𝜋 11𝜋
1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 Limit does not exist
sin ( )
𝑥

Examples 3, 4 and 5 show three of the most common types of behavior associated with the
nonexistence of a limit.
Therefore
(i) 𝑓(𝑥)𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 𝑎 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑡
𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒.
(ii) 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 𝑐.
(iii) 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 𝑐.
There are many other interesting functions that have unusual limit behavior. An often cited one is
the Dirichlet function
0, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙
𝑓(𝑥) = {
1, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙.

11
This function has no limit at any real number c.
In the early development of calculus, the definition of a function was much more restricted
than it is today and functions such as the Dirichlet function would not have been considered.
The modern definition of a function was given by the German mathematician Peter Gustav
Dirichlet (1805 – 1859).
1.1.1 A Formal Definition of a Limit
Let’s take another look at the informal description of a limit. If 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒
𝑡𝑜 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝐿 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 𝑐 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑥), 𝑎𝑠 𝑥
𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 𝑐, 𝑖𝑠 𝐿, 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿.
𝑥→𝑐

At first glance, this description looks fairly technical. Even so, we call it informal because we
have yet to give exact meanings to the two phrases
f(x) becomes arbitrarily close to L𝑎𝑛𝑑 "𝑥 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 𝑐. "
The first person to assign mathematically rigorous meanings to these two phrases was
Augustin-Louis Cauchy (1789 – 1857). His 𝜺 − 𝜹 𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒊𝒕 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒅
used today.
Definition of a Limit
Let 𝑓 𝑏𝑒 𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐 (𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑐)𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝐿 𝑏𝑒 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟. 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑐

𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝜀 > 𝛿 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠 𝑎 𝛿 > 0 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑓
0 < |𝑥 − 𝑐| < 𝛿, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝐿| < 𝜀.
Example 6
Given the limit
lim(2𝑥 − 5) = 1
𝑥→3

𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝛿 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 |(2𝑥 − 5) − 1| < 0.01 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟 0 < |𝑥 − 3| < 𝛿.

Solution
In this problem, you are working with a given value of 𝜀, 𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝜀 = 0.01. 𝑇𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑛
𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝛿, 𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡
|(2𝑥 − 5) − 1| = |2𝑥 − 6| = 2|𝑥 − 3|
Here, because the inequality

12
 |(2𝑥 − 5) − 1| < 0.01 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑜 2|𝑥 − 3| < 0.01, 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑒
1
𝛿= (0.01) = 0.005.
2
This choice works because
0 < |𝑥 − 3| < 0.005
𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡
|(2𝑥 − 5) − 1| = 2|𝑥 − 5| < 2(0.005) = 0.01.
Note!
In example 6, that 0.005 is the largest value of 𝛿 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑔𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑒 |(2𝑥 − 5) − 1| < 0.01
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟 0 < |𝑥 − 3| < 𝛿. 𝐴𝑛𝑦 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝛿 𝑤𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘.
In example 6, you found a 𝛿 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝜀. 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡. 𝑇𝑜 𝑑𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡, 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑎 𝛿 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝜀, 𝑎𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 7.
Example 7
Use the 𝜀 − 𝛿 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡
lim(3𝑥 − 2) = 4.
𝑥→2

Solution
Here, you must show that for each 𝜀 > 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠 𝑎 𝛿 > 0 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 |(3𝑥 − 2) − 4| < 𝜀
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟 0 < |𝑥 − 2| < 𝛿.
Then, because your choice for 𝛿 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝜀, 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑖𝑠ℎ 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠
|(3𝑥 − 2) − 4| 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝑥 − 2|.
⇒ |(3𝑥 − 2) − 4| = |3𝑥 − 6| = 2|𝑥 − 2|
𝜀
Thus, you can choose 𝛿 = . 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒
3
𝜀
0 < |𝑥 − 2| < 𝛿 =
3
𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡
𝜀
|(3𝑥 − 2) − 4| = 3|𝑥 − 2| < 3 ( ) = 𝜀.
3

13
Activity 1.1
Evaluate numerically and estimate the following limits:
𝑥−2
(i) lim
𝑥→2 𝑥 2 −𝑥−2
𝑥−2
(ii) lim
𝑥→2 𝑥 2 −4
√𝑥+3−√3
(iii) lim
𝑥→0 𝑥
√1−𝑥−2
(iv) lim
𝑥→−3 𝑥+3
cos 𝑥−1
(v) lim
𝑥→0 𝑥

14
1.2 Properties of Limits
Theorem 1.2.1
Let 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 𝑏𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟.
(i) lim 𝑏 = 𝑏
𝑥→𝑐
(ii) lim 𝑥 = 𝑐
𝑥→𝑐
(iii) lim 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑐 𝑛
𝑥→𝑐
Theorem 1.2.2
Let 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 𝑏𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠, 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 𝑏𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑠.
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐾
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

(i) 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒: lim[𝑏𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑏𝐿

𝑥→𝑐
(ii) 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒: lim[𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝐿 ± 𝐾
𝑥→𝑐
(iii) 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡: lim[𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝐿𝐾
𝑥→𝑐
𝑓(𝑥) 𝐿
(iv) 𝑄𝑢𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡: lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐾 , 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑘 ≠ 0.
𝑥→𝑐
(v) 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟: lim[𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛 = 𝐿𝑛
𝑥→𝑐

Example 8
Evaluate lim(4𝑥 2 + 3)
𝑥→2

Solution
Here
lim(4𝑥 2 + 3) = lim (4𝑥 2 ) + lim 3
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2

= 4(lim 𝑥 2 ) + lim 3
𝑥→2 𝑥→2

= 4(2)2 + 3
= 19
1.3 Techniques for Evaluating Limits
Theorem 1.3.1
Let 𝑐 𝑏𝑒 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥)𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 ≠ 𝑐 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑐. 𝐼𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 𝑐 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑔(𝑥).
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

15
Example 9
(𝑥 3 −1)
Show that the functions 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙
(𝑥−1)
𝑥 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑥 = 1.
Solution
Here, factorizing the numerator of 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑠
𝑥 3 − 1 (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1)
𝑓(𝑥) = =
𝑥−1 𝑥−1
= 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 = 𝑔(𝑥)
Thus, for all points other than 𝑥 = 1, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑥)𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔(𝑥)𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙.
Example 10
Find the limit:

𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 6
lim
𝑥→−3 𝑥+3
Solution
Here
𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6 (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 2)
=
𝑥+3 𝑥+3
=𝑥−2
Then
𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 6 (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 2)
lim = lim
𝑥→−3 𝑥+3 𝑥→−3 𝑥+3
= lim (𝑥 − 2)
𝑥→−3

= −5

16
Activity 1.2
Find the limit (if it exists) of the following functions:
𝑥 2 −1
(i) lim
𝑥→−1 𝑥+1
2𝑥 2 −𝑥−3
(ii) lim
𝑥→−1 𝑥+1
𝑥 3 +8
(iii) lim
𝑥→−2 𝑥+2
𝑥 3 +1
(iv) lim
𝑥→−1 𝑥+1
𝑥−5
(v) lim
𝑥→5 𝑥 2 −25
2−𝑥
(vi) lim
𝑥→2 𝑥 2 −4

17
1.4 Indefinite Limits
Definition of Infinite Limits
Let
𝑓 𝑏𝑒 𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑐, (𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑐 𝑖𝑡𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑓). 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞
𝑥→𝑐

𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑀 > 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠 𝛿 > 0 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓(𝑥) > 𝑀 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟
0 < |𝑥 − 𝑐| < 𝛿.
Similarly, the statement
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞
𝑥→𝑐

𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑁 < 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠 𝑎 𝛿 > 0 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓(𝑥) < 𝑁 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟
0 < |𝑥 − 𝑐| < 𝛿.
To define the infinite limit from the left, replace
0 < |𝑥 − 𝑐| < 𝛿 𝑏𝑦 𝑐 − 𝛿 < 𝑥 < 𝑐.
To define the infinite limit from the right, replace
0 < |𝑥 − 𝑐| < 𝛿 𝑏𝑦 𝑐 < 𝑥 < 𝑐 + 𝛿.
Note!
Be sure you see that the equal sign in the statement lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞ 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 the limit
exists! On the contrary, it tells you how the limit fails to exist by denoting the unbounded
behavior of 𝑓(𝑥)𝑎𝑠 𝑥 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 𝑐.

18
Activity 1.3
Find the limit
𝑥−3
(i) lim
𝑥→2 𝑥−2
2+𝑥
(ii) lim
𝑥→1 1−𝑥
𝑥2
(iii) lim
𝑥→4 𝑥 2 −16
𝑥2
(iv) lim
𝑥→4 𝑥 2 +16
𝑥 2 +2𝑥−3
(v) lim
𝑥→−3 𝑥 2 +𝑥−6

19
 Chapter two
2.0 Differential Equations and other basic Functions
2.1 Differential Equations
A differential equation is one that contains differential coefficients.
Examples include:
𝑑𝑦
(i) = 3𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
(ii) + 5 𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑥 2

Differential equations are classified according to the highest derivative which occurs in them. Thus
example (i) above is a first order differential equation, and example (ii) is a second order
differential equation.
The degree of a differential equation is that of the highest power of the highest differential which
the equation contains after simplification.
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Thus, ( 𝑑𝑡 2 )3 + 2( 𝑑𝑡 )5 = 7 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑒.

Starting with a differential equation it is possible, by integration and by being given sufficient data
to determine unknown constants, to obtain the original function.
This process is called ‘solving the differential equation’. A solution to a differential equation which
contains one or more arbitrary constants of integration is called the general solution of the
differential equation.
When additional information is given so that constants may be calculated the particular solution
of differential equation is obtained. The additional information is called boundary conditions.
𝑑𝑦
Given the differential equation = 3, 𝑤𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑦 = 3𝑥 + 𝑐, 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠
𝑑𝑥
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 3.
𝐼𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑦 = 5 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 1, 𝑤𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑐 = 2,
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑦 = 3𝑥 + 2
Thus, in simple graphical terms
(i) 𝑎 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑎 𝑓𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑠.
(ii) 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠, 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑦.
(iii) 𝑎 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑦.

20
2.1.1 First Order Separating the Variable
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 1
The solutions of = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 𝑓(𝑦) (𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑚𝑎𝑦 𝑏𝑒 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛 = 𝑓(𝑦)) 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑢𝑝𝑜𝑛
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
1
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑠 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∫ 𝑓(𝑦) 𝑑𝑦.

There are other differential equations equally susceptible to direct integration once they have been
written in a suitable form.
Consider
𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑𝑦
= 𝑥𝑦, 𝑤𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑠 = 𝑥, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑥:
𝑑𝑥 𝑦 𝑑𝑥

1 𝑑𝑦
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝑦 𝑑𝑥
1
⇒ ∫ 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝑦
𝑥2
⇒ 𝑙𝑛𝑦 + 𝑐 =
2
𝑥2 𝑥2
∴ ln(𝑘𝑦) = 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑒 ⁄2 .
2
Note how the arbitrary constant of integration appears in different forms; we have written
1
𝑐 𝑎𝑠 𝑙𝑛𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴 𝑎𝑠 𝑘.

Example 1
𝑑𝑦
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑦(𝑦 − 1).

Solution
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠, 𝑤𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛:
1 1
∫ 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑦(𝑦 − 1) 𝑥
1 1 1
⇒ ∫[ − ] 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑦−1 𝑦 𝑥
𝑘(𝑦 − 1) 1 1
∴ 𝑙𝑛 = − 𝑜𝑟 𝑘(𝑦 − 1) = 𝑦𝑒 − ⁄𝑥 .
𝑦 𝑥

21
Activity 2.1
Solve the following differential equations
𝑑𝑦 𝑥
(i) =𝑦
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑦
(ii) =𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
(iii) = 𝑥𝑦
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦
(iv) 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑦

22
2.1.2 First Order Exact Equations
The equation
𝑑𝑦
2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑒 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑦 𝑏𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑. 𝐻𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆. 𝑖𝑠 (𝑥𝑦 2 )
𝑑𝑥
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑦 𝑏𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑥; 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑
𝑒 2𝑥
𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠: 𝑥𝑦 2 = + 𝐴.
2

23
Activity 2.2
Solve the following exact differential equations:
𝑑𝑦
(i) 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑦 = 1
𝑡 2 𝑑𝑥
(ii) + 2𝑡 𝑙𝑛𝑥 = 3 cos 𝑡.
𝑥 𝑑𝑡

24
2.1.3 Integrating Factor
There are some differential equations which are not exact as they stand, but which may be
made so by multiplying each side by an integrating factor.
Example 2
𝑑𝑦
Solve 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑦 2 = 3𝑥.

Solution
Here, note that we cannot separate the variables.
Can we find a function whose derivative is the L.H.S.? I don’t think so!
Then we can find a function whose derivative is 𝑓(𝑥)𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆. ? 𝐿𝑒𝑡 ′ 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑦!
𝑑 𝑑𝑦
(𝑥𝑦 2 ) = 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 , 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑔𝑜𝑜𝑑!
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑙𝑒𝑡 ′ 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠:
𝑑 2 2 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
(𝑥 𝑦 ) = 2𝑥𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 2 𝑦 × = 2𝑥 (𝑦 2 + 𝑥𝑦 ) = 2𝑥 × 𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟, 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠 2𝑥.
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑑𝑦
2𝑥 (𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 ) = (3𝑥)2𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
⇒ 2𝑥 2 𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑦 2 = 6𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥

⇒ ∫ 2𝑥 2 𝑦𝑑𝑦 + ∫ 2𝑥𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 6𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

∴ 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 = 2𝑥 3 + 𝐴.

25
Activity 2.3
Find the integrating factors required to make the following differential equations into exact
equations and hence, solve them:
𝑑𝑦 2
(i) 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥
𝑑𝑦
(ii) 𝑥𝑒 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑥
𝑑𝑦
(iii) 2𝑥 2 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥𝑦 2 = 1

26
2.1.4 First Order Linear Equations
A differential equation is linear in y if it is of the form
𝑑𝑛 𝑦 𝑑 𝑛−1 𝑦 𝑑 𝑛−2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑛
+ 𝑃1 𝑛−1
+ 𝑃2 𝑛−2
+ ⋯ + 𝑃𝑛−1 + 𝑃𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑄
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , … , 𝑃𝑛 , 𝑄 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠; 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟.
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝑎 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
𝑑𝑦
+ 𝑃𝑦 = 𝑄
𝑑𝑥
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑃, 𝑄 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠.
This type of differential equation deserves special attention because an integrating factor, when
required and if obtainable, is of standard form.
Let us assume that the general first order linear equation given above can be made into an exact
equation by using the integrating factor R, a function of x.
If this is so
𝑑𝑦
𝑅 + 𝑅𝑃𝑦 = 𝑅𝑄 … 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑖)
𝑑𝑥
𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆. of equation
(i) is
𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑅
(𝑅𝑦) = 𝑅 +𝑦 , 𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑖)𝑚𝑎𝑦𝑏𝑒 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠:
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑅
𝑅 +𝑦 = 𝑅𝑄 … 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑖𝑖).
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Equating the second terms on the L.H.S. of equations (i) and (ii), we obtain
𝑑𝑅
𝑦 = 𝑅𝑃𝑦
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑅
∴ = 𝑅𝑃
𝑑𝑥
And separating the variables, we have
1
∫ 𝑑𝑅 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑥
𝑅

∴ 𝑙𝑛𝑅 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑥, ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑅 = 𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑥 .

Thus, the required integrating factor is 𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑥 .

27
The initial assumption that an integrating factor exists is therefore justified provided that it is
possible to find ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑥.
Example 3
𝑑𝑦 6
Solve the differential equation 𝑑𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 𝑒 2𝑥 , 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑦 = 5 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 0.

Solution
Here, the integrating factor is

𝑒 ∫ 3𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 3𝑥 .
Multiplying each side of the given equation by 𝑒 3𝑥 , 𝑤𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛:
𝑑𝑦
𝑒 3𝑥 + 3𝑒 3𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑒 5𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑒 5𝑥
∴ 𝑒 3𝑥 𝑦 = +𝐴
5
Therefore, the general solution is
𝑒 2𝑥
𝑦= + 𝐴𝑒 −3𝑥
5
6
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑦 = , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 0.
5
6 1
∴ = + 𝐴, ∴ 𝐴 = 1
5 5
Therefore, the particular solution is
𝑒 2𝑥
𝑦= + 𝑒 −3𝑥 .
5
Example 4
𝑑𝑦
Solve 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 = cos 𝑥.

Solution
Here, the integrating factor is:

𝑒 ∫ cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 ln sin 𝑥 = sin 𝑥.

Multiplying each side of the given differential equation by sin 𝑥, 𝑤𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛:
𝑑𝑦
sin 𝑥 + 𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 = cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥.
𝑑𝑥

28
 1
∴ 𝑦 sin 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 + 𝐴.
2
Therefore, the general solution is
1
𝑦= sin 𝑥 + 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥.
2
2.1.5 First Order Homogeneous Equations
In a homogeneous differential equation, all the terms are of the same dimensions. A first order
homogeneous equation is of the form
𝑑𝑦
𝑃 =𝑄
𝑑𝑥
Since
𝑑𝑦
𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑂, 𝑃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄 𝑎𝑟𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠,
𝑑𝑥

𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒.

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡, 𝑖𝑓 𝑃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑛, 𝑤𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑦 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑥 𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑏𝑦 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑑𝑦
𝑃′𝑑𝑥 = 𝑄′
𝑦
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑃′ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄 ′ 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 .
𝑥
For example, the differential equation
𝑑𝑦
𝑥𝑦 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2
𝑑𝑥
Where each side is divided by 𝑥 2 , 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠
𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑦
= 1 + ( )2
𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
This suggests the substitutions
𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
= 𝑢 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑢𝑥, =𝑢+𝑥
𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Example 5
𝑑𝑦
Solve 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 .

Solution
Here, dividing each side of the differential equation by 𝑥 2 , 𝑤𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛:

29
 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑦
= 1 + ( )2
𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
Then
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑦 = 𝑢𝑥, 𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 =𝑢+𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢
∴ 𝑢 (𝑢 + 𝑥 ) = 1 + 𝑢2
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢
⇒ 𝑢𝑥 =1
𝑑𝑥
Upon separating variables, we obtain
1
∫ 𝑢𝑑𝑢 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
𝑢2
⇒ = ln(𝐵𝑥)
2
𝑦
⇒ ( )2 = 2 ln(𝐵𝑥))
𝑥
𝑦
⇒ ( )2 = ln(𝐴𝑥 2 ) , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐴 = 𝐵 2
𝑥
Therefore, the general solution is
𝑦 2 = 𝑥 2 ln(𝐴𝑥 2 ).

30
Activity 2.4
1. Solve the following exact differential equations
𝑑𝑦 1
(i) 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦
(ii) 𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑥 2 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 2𝑥
𝑥 𝑑𝑦
(iii) 𝑙𝑛𝑦 + 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥
2. Find by inspection, the integrating factors required to make the following differential
equations into exact equations and solve them:
1 𝑑𝑦
(i) sin 𝑦 + 2 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 3
𝑑𝑦 𝑦 𝑒𝑥
(ii) + =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
1 𝑑𝑦 2
(iii) 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑦 + 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑒 𝑥
𝑥
𝑑𝑥
(iv) 𝑦𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑦 2 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 1
3. Solve the following first order linear equations
𝑑𝑦
(i) + 𝑦 = 𝑒 −2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
𝑑𝑥
1 𝑑𝑠
(ii) = 1 − 2𝑠
𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦 2
(iii) + (2𝑥 + 1)𝑦 − 𝑒 −𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑥
4. Solve the following homogeneous equations
𝑑𝑦
(i) 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦
𝑑𝑦
(ii) 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2
𝑑𝑦
(iii) 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2

31
2.1.6 Second Order Equations reducible to first Oder
In this section, we shall consider some rather special second order differential equations which
can be reduced to first order form.
𝑑2 𝑦
To the form 𝑑𝑥 2 = 𝑓(𝑦), 𝑤𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑤𝑖𝑐𝑒, 𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑎𝑠
𝑑 2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑥 + = 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡, 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑑𝑦 2 2
𝑥2
𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = + 𝐴 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 + 𝐵.
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦
Of wide application to other forms of second order equations is the substitution 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑝, 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚
𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑤𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑝
= = × = 𝑝 .
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
Thus
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑝
(i) 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑓(𝑦)𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑝 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑦).
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
(ii) 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 , , 𝑦 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑥 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑎 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑝
𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝 𝑑𝑦 , 𝑝, 𝑦.
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
(iii) 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 , , 𝑥 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑦 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑎 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑝
𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 , 𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥.
𝑑𝑥

Example 6
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Solve (1 + 𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥 2 = 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 .

Solution
𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑝
Let 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑝, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑠
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

Then
𝑑𝑝
(1 + 𝑥 2 ) = 2𝑥𝑝
𝑑𝑥
Upon separating the variables, we obtain

32
 1 2𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑝 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑝 1 + 𝑥2
⇒ ln 𝑝 = ln[𝑐(1 + 𝑥 2 )]
𝑑𝑦
⇒𝑝= = 𝑐 + 𝑐𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥
𝑐𝑥 3
⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑥 + +𝐵
3
Therefore, writing 3𝐴 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠
𝑦 = 𝐴𝑥 3 + 3𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵… equation (i)
Here, note that this equation contains two arbitrary constants A and B. when we considered the
𝑑𝑦
solution 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑥, 𝑤𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑐 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 if
we were given some further information, for instance a point through which a particular curve
passes, we could find the value of C which gives the equation of this particular solution.
The solution to equation (i) represents a set of cubic curves. To identify one particular member
of this set, we must be given sufficient information to find the values of both constants. This
could be done either by giving two points through which the curve passes, or by giving one point
and the gradient at that point (or indeed at some other point).
For instance, if we are told that the curve passes through (0, −5)𝑎𝑛𝑑 (1,3), 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
these coordinates in equation (i), we obtain
−5 = 𝐴 × 03 + 3 × 𝐴 × 0 + 𝐵
∴ 𝐵 = −5
𝑎𝑛𝑑
3 = 𝐴 × 13 + 3 × 𝐴 × 1 + 𝐵
⇒ 4𝐴 + 𝐵 = 3
⇒ 4𝐴 = 8
∴𝐴=2
Hence, the particular member of the set of curves represented by equation (i) which passes
through the two given points is
𝑦 = 2𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 − 5.

33
Activity 2.5
1. Solve
𝑑2 𝑦
(i) 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 = 2
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
(ii) 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 + 𝑑𝑥 = 9𝑥 2
𝑑2 𝑦
(iii) = 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2
2. Solve
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
(i) 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 2 = (𝑑𝑥 )2
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
(ii) (2𝑥 − 1) − 2 𝑑𝑥 = 0, 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 3.
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

34
2.2 Inverse Trigonometric Functions and Differentiation
The functions 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥, 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 (𝑜𝑟 arcsin 𝑥, 𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan 𝑥) 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
year. We will now turn to the process of differentiating such inverse trigonometrical functions.
This will be illustrated by examples, but you are also advised to research more on this topic for
your deeper understanding of inverse trigonometric functions and their derivatives. Remember
that, in this context, radians must be used.
If 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥, 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡, 𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 (𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟)𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑥, 𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 = 𝑥.
Example 6
Differentiate with respect to x:
(i) 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥
(ii) 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑥 2 + 1)
Solution
(i) Here, let 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥
⇒ sin 𝑦 = 𝑥.
Now differentiating with respect to x we obtain
𝑑𝑦
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 =1
𝑑𝑥
We know that
1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑦 = 1 − 𝑥 2
⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑦 = 1 − 𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑦 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑠𝑜 𝑤𝑒 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑥.
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
⇒ √(1 − 𝑥 2 ) =1
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 1
∴ =
𝑑𝑥 √(1 − 𝑥 2 )
(ii) Here, differentiating with respect to x, we obtain
𝑑𝑦
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑦 = 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥
We know that
1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑦 = 1 + (𝑥 2 + 1)2
⇒ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑦 = 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 2 + 2
𝑑𝑦
𝑊𝑒 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑥.
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
⇒ (𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 2 + 2) = 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 2𝑥
∴ = 4
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 + 2

35
Activity 2.6
Differentiate with respect to x:
(i) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥
(ii) 𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 𝑥
(iii) 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (2𝑥 + 1)

36
2.3 Inverse trigonometric functions and integration
The frequency with which we meet inverse sine and inverse tangent functions in integration is
just one good reason why we should be adept at differentiating these functions on sight.
If 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑢, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑢 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑥, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢 1 𝑑𝑢
= × = ×
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥 √(1 − 𝑢2 ) 𝑑𝑥

Thus
𝑑 𝑥 1 1 3
[3𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ] = 3 × =
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑥2 2 √(4 − 𝑥 2 )
√(1 − )
4
𝑑 1 10
𝑎𝑛𝑑 [2𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 5𝑥] = 2 × 2
×5= .
𝑑𝑥 1 + 25𝑥 1 + 25𝑥 2
Example 7
1
Find ∫ 𝑑𝑥.
√(1−𝑥 2 )

Solution
𝑑𝑥
Here, let 𝑥 = sin 𝑢, 𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 = cos 𝑢
𝑑𝑢

1 𝑑𝑥 1
∫ 𝑑𝑢 = ∫ cos 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
√(1 − 𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑢 √1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑢)
1
=∫ cos 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
cos 𝑢
=𝑢+𝑐
= 𝑎𝑟𝑐 sin 𝑥 + 𝑐.
Example 8
1
Find ∫ 𝑑𝑥.
√(9−4𝑥 2 )

Solution
Here
3
𝑙𝑒𝑡 4𝑥 2 = 9𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑢, 𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = sin 𝑢
2
3
⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = cos 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
2

37
 𝑑𝑥 3
⇒ = cos 𝑢
𝑑𝑢 2
Then
1 𝑑𝑥 1 3
∫ 𝑑𝑢 = ∫ × cos 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
√(9 − 4𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑢 √(9 − 9𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑢) 2
1 3
=∫ × cos 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
3 cos 𝑢 2
1
= ∫ 𝑑𝑢
2
𝑢
= +𝑐
2
1 2𝑥
= 𝑎𝑟𝑐 sin ( ) + 𝑐.
2 3
Note that this can also be written as
1 2𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( ) + 𝑐.
2 3

38
Activity 2.7
Find the following integrals
1
(i) ∫ √(4−𝑥 2) 𝑑𝑥
1
(ii) ∫ √(1−3𝑥 2) 𝑑𝑥
1
(iii) ∫ √(16−9𝑥 2) 𝑑𝑥

39
2.4 Hyperbolic Functions
We will begin by defining two new functions, the hyperbolic cosine and the hyperbolic sine. No
attempt to explain the reason for adopting these definitions will be given at present, as more
knowledge of complex numbers is needed if the reason is to be fully appreciated. The students
studying mathematics education will however, very soon find some strong similarities between
hyperbolic functions and the familiar trigonometrical functions, referred to as circular functions.
These similarities would not, by themselves, justify the inclusion of a study of a study of the
hyperbolic functions in this module, they are being introduced because they will very quickly
extend the base knowledge of students’ concept of integration.
We will study the functions themselves which were introduced by J.H. Lambert in a paper read in
1768.
Definitions
𝑇ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑥
(𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑦 )
cosh 𝑥 =
2
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑥
(𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑦 )
sinh 𝑥 = .
2
In general, the properties of hyperbolic functions are easily proved and this will be left to individual
students to do as activities.
Example 9
Prove the identity 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ2 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2 𝑥 = 1
Solution
From the definitions of cosh x 𝑎𝑛𝑑 sinh 𝑥, 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒:

2 2
𝑒 2 + 𝑒 −𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑥 = [( ) ] − [( ) ]
2 2

𝑒 2𝑥 + 2 + 𝑒 −2𝑥 𝑒 2𝑥 − 2 + 𝑒 −2𝑥
=( )−( )
4 4

𝑒 2𝑥 1 𝑒 −2𝑥 𝑒 2𝑥 1 𝑒 −2𝑥
= + + − + −
4 2 4 4 2 4
1 1
= +
2 2
= 1.

40
 ∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ2 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2 𝑥 = 1.
Definitions
𝑇ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑡, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑠:
sinh 𝑥 1 1 1
tanh 𝑥 = , coth 𝑥 = , sech 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ 𝑥 = .
cosh 𝑥 tanh 𝑥 cosh 𝑥 sinh 𝑥

41
Activity 2.8
Prove that
(i) cosh 𝑥 + sinh 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥
(ii) cosh 𝑥 − sinh 𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝑥

42
Osborn’s rule
The student will have noticed a striking similarity between the identities connecting hyperbolic
functions and those connecting the corresponding trigonometric functions. In fact, the standard
identities are in the same form except that certain signs are changed.
Osborn’s rule provides a simple way of remembering these changes of signs.
The rule is to change the sign of any term containing the square of a sine (or cosecant, tangent,
because these all contain a sine by implication).
Let’s have a look at the functions below:
(i) sin 2𝑥 = 2 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥; sinh 2𝑥 = 2 sinh 𝑥 cosh 𝑥.
(ii) cos 2𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥; cosh 2𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ2 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2 𝑥.
2 tan 𝑥 2 tanh 𝑥
(iii) tan 2𝑥 = ; tanh 2𝑥 = .
1−𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 1+𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ2 𝑥

2.4.1 Derivatives of Hyperbolic functions

The derivatives of
cosh 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 sinh 𝑥 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑒
𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠. 𝑇ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠:
𝑑 𝑑 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥
(cosh 𝑥) = [( )]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2
𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥
=( )
2
𝑑
∴ (cosh 𝑥) = sinh 𝑥.
𝑑𝑥
Similarly
𝑑
(sinh 𝑥) = cosh 𝑥.
𝑑𝑥
Note!
The derivatives of other hyperbolic functions are easily obtained by first expressing them in
terms of cosh 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 sinh 𝑥.

43
Activity 2.9
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡
Remembering that 𝑑𝑥 = × 𝑑𝑥 , 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓:
𝑑𝑡

(i) cosh 2𝑥
𝑥
(ii) sinh 2
𝑥
(iii) 3 cosh 3
1
(iv) sinh 4𝑥
2
(v) sin ℎ2 𝑥
(vi) 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ3 2𝑥

44
2.4.2 Integration of Hyperbolic Functions
Once the student has grasped the forms which require the substitution of a hyperbolic function,
then the process of integration should present no new difficulty.
The following examples illustrate how a knowledge of integrating with trigonometric functions
helps with the integration of hyperbolic functions.
Example 10
Find
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥.
√𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 10
Solution
Here, first factorize by completing the square
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 10 = (𝑥 + 1)2 + 9.
The substitution
(𝑥 + 1) = 3 sinh 𝜃 𝑚𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑠 (𝑥 + 1)2 + 9 = 9 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ2 𝜃
Then
Let 𝑥 + 1 = 3 sinh 𝜃
𝑑𝑥
∴ = 3 cosh 𝜃.
𝑑𝜃
Hence
1 1 𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2
𝑑𝜃
√𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 10 [(𝑥 + 1) + 9] 𝑑𝜃
1
=∫ 3 cosh 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
3 cosh 𝜃

= ∫ 𝑑𝜃

=𝜃+𝑐
1 𝑥+1
∴∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ−1 ( )+𝑐
√𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 10 3

45
Example 11
Evaluate
3
∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ−1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.
2

Solution
Here, we know that we integrate by parts: ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 1 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.
Then
3 3
−1 −1
3 1
∫ 1 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = [𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑥] − ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 2 2 √(𝑥 2 − 1)
3
= 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ−1 3 − 2 cos ℎ−1 2 − [√(𝑥 2 − 1)]
2
= 3 ln(3 + √8) − 2 ln(2 + √3) − (√8 − √3)

= 1.56, 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑠.

46
Activity 2.10
1. Integrate with respect to x
1
(i) 2
√(𝑥 +9)
1
(ii) 𝑥 2 +𝑥+1
2
(iii)
√(4𝑥 2 −1)
2. Evaluate
1 1
(i) ∫0 𝑑𝑥
√(𝑥 2 +4)
2 1
(ii) ∫1 √(𝑥 2 +4𝑥+5) 𝑑𝑥
3. Integrate with respect to x
(i) 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ2 𝑥
(ii) tanh 𝑥
(iii) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ 𝑥
(iv) 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ4 𝑥
8 1
4. Evaluate ∫1 𝑑𝑥, 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑠 𝑎 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚.
√(𝑥 2 −2𝑥+2)
1
5. Find ∫ 𝑑𝑥.
√(𝑥 2 +4𝑥−5)

47
 Chapter three
3.0 Differentiation
3.0 Differential calculus

3.1 Revision of basic calculus

Calculus is a branch of mathematics involving or leading to calculations dealing with continuously

varying functions. Calculus is a subject that falls into two parts:

(i) differential calculus (or differentiation) and

(ii) integral calculus (or integration).
Differentiation is used in calculations involving velocity and acceleration, rates of change and
maximum and minimum values of curves.

3.2 Function notation

In an equation such as 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 5, y is said to be a function of x and may be written as

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).

An equation written in the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 5 is termed functional notation. The value of
f (x) when x = 0 is denoted by f (0), and the value of f (x) when x = 2 is denoted by f (2) and so
on. Thus when 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 5, then

𝑓(0) = 3(0)2 + 2(2) − 5 = −5

𝑎𝑛𝑑

𝑓(2) = 3(2)2 + 2(2) − 5 = 11.

Example 1

𝐼𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2, 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑:

(i) 𝑓(0)
(ii) 𝑓(−1)
(iii) 𝑓(3) − 𝑓(−1)
Solution

(i) 𝑓(0) = 4(0)2 − 3(0) + 2 = 2

(ii) 𝑓(−1) = 4(−1)2 − 3(−1) + 2 = 9
(iii) 𝑓(3) − 9 − 1) = 4(3)2 − 3(3) + 2 − 9 = 20

48
3.3 The gradient curve

If a tangent is drawn at a point P on a curve as shown in figure 1, then the gradient of this tangent
is said to be the gradient of the curve at P, the gradient of the curve at P is equal to the gradient of
the tangent PQ. The gradient of a straight line is constant.

f(x)

x 𝑓(𝑥) = −𝑥 2

0 x

Figure 1

Let points 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) 𝑏𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑃𝑄. 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦:
𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑚=
𝑥2 − 𝑥1

We now find a gradient function, derived from the function represented by the curve, using a
method called a limiting process. From the gradient formula above, we have

𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑚 = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
Hence

𝑑𝑦 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = = lim
𝑑𝑥 ℎ→0 ℎ

49
3.4 Differentiation from first principles

When determining the gradient of a tangent to a curve there are two notations used. The gradient
of the curve at P in Fig. 1 can either be written as:

𝛿𝑦 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)

lim 𝑜𝑟 lim { }
𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥

In Leibniz notation

𝑑𝑦 𝛿𝑦
= lim
𝑑𝑥 𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥
In functional notation

𝑓(𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim { }
𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥
𝑑𝑦
Note that is the same as 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)and is called the differential coefficient or the derivative. The
𝑑𝑥
process of finding the differential coefficient is called differentiation.

Example 2

Differentiate from first principles 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 and determine the value of the gradient of the curve
at x = 2.

Solution

To ‘differentiate from first principles’ means ‘to find 𝑓′(𝑥)’ by using the expression

𝑓(𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim { }
𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥

𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 (𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥)𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠:

𝑓(𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥)2 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝛿𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥 2

𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝛿 + 𝛿𝑥 2 − 𝑥 2
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim { }
𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥

2𝑥𝛿𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥 2
= lim { }
𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥

= lim {2𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥}

𝛿𝑥→0

50
 = 2𝑥 + 0, 𝑎𝑠 𝛿𝑥 → 0

= 2𝑥

∴ 𝑓 ′ (2) = 2(2)

=4

3.5 Differentiation by rule

From differentiation by first principles, a general rule for differentiating 𝑎𝑥 𝑛 emerges where a and
n are any constants. This rule is:

𝑑𝑦
𝐼𝑓 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑛 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1
𝑑𝑥
𝑜𝑟

𝑖𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 𝑛 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 .

Example 3

Using the general rule, differentiate the following with respect to x:

(i) 𝑦 = 5𝑥 7
4
(ii) 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 8𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 3
Solution

(i) Here, comparing𝑦 = 5𝑥 7 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑛 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑎 = 5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 = 7. 𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒

𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑢𝑙𝑒, 𝑤𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛:
𝑑𝑦
= 5(7)𝑥 7−1 = 35𝑥 6 .
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 −12
(ii) = − 16𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑥4

3.6 Differentiation of sine and cosine functions

The rate of change of sin θ is cos θ, i.e.

𝒅𝒚
𝒊𝒇 𝒚 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽, 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
𝒅𝜽
It may also be shown that:

𝒅𝒚
𝒊𝒇 𝒚 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽, 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 = −𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
𝒅𝜽
Further

51
 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
If 𝑦 = sin 𝑎𝜃, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 = 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎𝜃, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑓 𝑦 = sin(𝑎𝜃 + 𝛼) 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 =
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃
acos(𝑎𝜃 + 𝛼) , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛼 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠.
𝑑𝑦
Moreover, if 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎𝜃, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 = −𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎𝜃, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑓 𝑦 = cos(𝑎𝜃 +
𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑦
𝛼) , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 = − asin(𝑎𝜃 + 𝛼) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛼 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠.
𝑑𝜃

Example 4

Differentiate the following with respect to the variable:

(i) 𝑦 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝜃
(ii) 𝑓(𝑡) = 3𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑡
Solution
𝑑𝑦
(i) Here, 𝑑𝑥 = (2)(3)𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝜃 = 6𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝜃.
(ii) 𝑓 ′ (𝑡) = −(3)(2)𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑡 = −6𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑡
Example 5

Find the differential coefficient of 𝑦 = 7𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 − 3𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝑥.

Solution

Here, 𝑦 = 7𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 − 3𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝑥

Then

𝑑𝑦
= (7)(2)𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 − (3)(4)(−𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
= 14𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 + 12𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝑥.

3.7 Differentiation of exponential and natural logarithmic functions

A function in the form 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.

𝑑𝑦
If 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 .
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
It may also be shown that if 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎𝑒 𝑎𝑥 .

A function in the form 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑛𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑠 𝑎 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.

𝑑𝑦 1
Moreover, if 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑛𝑥, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 = 𝑥.
𝑑𝑥

It may also be shown that

52
 𝑑𝑦 1
If 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑛𝑎𝑥, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 = 𝑥.
𝑑𝑥

Example 6

Differentiate the following with respect to the variable:

(i) 𝑦 = 3𝑒 2𝑥
4
(ii) 𝑓(𝑡) = 4𝑒 5𝑡
Solution
𝑑𝑦
(i) Here, 𝑦 = 3𝑒 2𝑥 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒 = 2(3)𝑒 2𝑥 = 6𝑒 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥
5 5𝑒 −5𝑡 5(−5)𝑒 −5𝑡 −25
(ii) Here, 𝑓(𝑡) = 4𝑒 5𝑡 = , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓 ′ (𝑡) = = 4𝑒 5𝑡
4 4
Example 7

Differentiate 𝑦 = 5𝑙𝑛𝑥

Solution
𝑑𝑦 1 5
Here, 𝑦 = 5𝑙𝑛𝑥, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 = (5) (𝑥) = 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

53
Activity Three

1. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 6𝑥 2 ) − 2𝑥 + 1, 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑:
(i) 𝑓(−2)
(ii) 𝑓(2)
(iii) 𝑓(−3) + 2𝑓(5)
(iv) 𝑓(0)
2. Find the differential coefficient of 𝑦 = 4𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 − 3 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑠 and
determine the gradient of the curve at x = −3.
3. Find the differential coefficients of the following functions from first principles:
(i) 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 2
2𝑥 3
(ii) 𝑓(𝑥) = 5
(iii) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 15𝑥 − 9
(iv) 𝑦=4
𝑑
4. Determine 𝑑𝑥 (3𝑥 2 − 10)𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑠.
𝑑
5. Determine 𝑑𝑥 (5𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 4)𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑠.
2𝑥 3 4
6. Find the differential coefficient of 𝑦 = − 𝑥 3 + 4√𝑥 5 + 7.
5
7. Find the differential coefficient of 𝑦 = 2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 1 and determine the gradient of
the curve at x = 2.
8. Given f (θ) = 2 sin 3θ − 5 cos 2θ, find f’ (θ).
9. Differentiate with respect to x:
(i) 𝑦 = 5𝑒 7𝑥
3
(ii) 𝑓(𝑡) = 6𝑒 2𝑥+1
10. If 𝑓(𝑡) = 4𝑙𝑛3𝑡 + 4 evaluate 𝑓 ′ (𝑡)𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡 = 3.
5
11. Evaluate 𝑦 = 3𝑒 4𝑥 − 2𝑒 3𝑥 + 8𝑙𝑛5𝑥, 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙
𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠.

54
 Chapter Four

4.0 Methods of differentiation

4.1 Differentiation of common functions

The standard derivatives summarized below were derived in Chapter one and are true for all
real values of x.

function Derivative
function

𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒇(𝒙) 𝑑𝑦
𝑜𝑟 𝑓′(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

𝒂𝒙𝒏 𝑎𝑥 𝑛−1

𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒂𝒙 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑥

𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒂𝒙 −𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑥

𝒍𝒏𝒂𝒙 1
𝑥

Figure 2

The differential coefficient of a sum or difference is the sum or difference of the differential
coefficients of the separate terms.

Thus, if 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑝(𝑥) + 𝑞(𝑥) − 𝑟(𝑥), (𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓, 𝑝, 𝑞 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠), 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑝′ (𝑥) + 𝑞 ′ (𝑥) − 𝑟 ′ (𝑥).

Differentiation of common functions is demonstrated in the following worked problems.

Example 1
1 1
Differentiate 𝑦 = 5𝑥 4 + 4𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 + − 3 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑥.
√𝑥

Solution
1 1 𝑥 −2 1⁄
Here, 𝑦 = 5𝑥 4 + 4𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 + − 3 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑦 = 5𝑥 4 + 4𝑥 − + 𝑥− 2 − 3.
√ 𝑥 2

When differentiating a sum, each term is differentiated in turn.

55
Thus

𝑑𝑦 1 1 1
= (5)(4)𝑥 4−1 + (4)(1)𝑥1−1 − (−2)𝑥 −2−1 + (1) (− ) 𝑥 − ⁄2−1 − 0
𝑑𝑥 2 2
3
3 −3
𝑥 − ⁄2
= 20𝑥 + 4 − 𝑥 −
2
1 1
= 20𝑥 3 + 4 − −
𝑥 3 2√𝑥 3

4.2 Differentiation of a product

When 𝑦 = 𝑢(𝑥)𝑣(𝑥)and u and v are both functions of x, then

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
= 𝑢(𝑥) + 𝑣(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
This is known as the product rule.

Example 2

Find the differential coefficient of 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥.

Solution

Here,3𝑥 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 is a product of two terms 3𝑥 2 and 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥. Let 𝑢(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 and 𝑣(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥.
Then

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
= 6𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Using the product rule:

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
= 𝑢(𝑥) + 𝑣(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= (3𝑥 2 )(2𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥) + (𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥)(6𝑥)

= 6𝑥 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 + 6𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥

= 6𝑥(𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥)

Note that the differential coefficient of a product is not obtained by merely differentiating each
term and multiplying the two answers together. The product rule formula must be used when
differentiating products.

56
 Example 3

Find the rate of change of y with respect to x given 𝑦 = 3√𝑥𝑙𝑛2𝑥.

Solution
𝑑𝑦
The rate of change of y with respect to x is given by 𝑑𝑥 .

1⁄
Here, 𝑦 = 3√𝑥𝑙𝑛2𝑥 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑦 = 3(𝑥) 2 𝑙𝑛2𝑥, 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡. Then let
1⁄
𝑢(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑛2𝑥

So that

𝑑𝑢 3 𝑑𝑣 1
= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =
𝑑𝑥 2√𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥

Using the product rule, we obtain

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
= 𝑢(𝑥) + 𝑣(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 3
= 3√𝑥 ( ) + (𝑙𝑛2𝑥) ( )
𝑥 2√𝑥
3 1
= (1 + 𝑙𝑛2𝑥)
√𝑥 2

4.3 Differentiation of a quotient

𝑢
When 𝑦 = and 𝑢(𝑥) and 𝑣(𝑥) are both functions of x, then
𝑣

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑦 𝑣(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑢(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
=
𝑑𝑥 [𝑣(𝑥)]2

This is known as the quotient rule.

Example 4
4𝑠𝑖𝑛5𝑥
Find the differential coefficient of 𝑦 = .
5𝑥 4

57
Solution
4𝑠𝑖𝑛5𝑥
Here, 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑞𝑢𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡. 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑢(𝑥) = 4𝑠𝑖𝑛5𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣(𝑥) = 5𝑥 4 .
5𝑥 4

Note that v is always the denominator and u the numerator!

Hence

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
= 20𝑐𝑜𝑠5𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 20𝑥 3
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Now, using the quotient rule, we obtain:

𝑑𝑦 (5𝑥 4 )((20𝑐𝑜𝑠5𝑥) − (4𝑠𝑖𝑛5𝑥)(20𝑥 3 )

=
𝑑𝑥 (5𝑥 4 )2

100𝑥 4 𝑐𝑜𝑠5𝑥 − 80𝑥 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛5𝑥

=
25𝑥 8
20𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠5𝑥 − 16𝑠𝑖𝑛5𝑥
=
5𝑥 5
Note that the differential coefficient is not obtained by merely differentiating each term in turn and
then dividing the numerator by the denominator. The quotient formula must be used when
differentiating quotients.

Example 5

Determine the differential coefficient of 𝑦 = tan 𝑎𝑥.

Solution
sin 𝑎𝑥
Here, 𝑦 = tan 𝑎𝑥 = cos 𝑎𝑥. Hence differentiation of tan 𝑎𝑥 is thus treated as a quotient with 𝑢(𝑥) =
sin 𝑎𝑥 and 𝑣(𝑥) = cos 𝑎𝑥.

Then

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
= 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = −𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Now, using the quotient rule, we obtain:

𝑑𝑦 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑥)(𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑥) − (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑥)(−𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑥)
=
𝑑𝑥 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑥)2

𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑎𝑥
=
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑎𝑥

58
 𝑎(𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑎𝑥)
=
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑎𝑥
𝑎
= , 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑎𝑥 = 1
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑎𝑥
1
= 𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑎𝑥, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑎𝑥.
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑎𝑥
4.4 Function of a function

If y is a function of x, then

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
= ×
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
This is known as the ‘function of a function’ rule (or sometimes the chain rule).

It is often easier to make a substitution before differentiating.

For example, if 𝑦 = (3𝑥 − 4)10 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑢 = (3𝑥 − 4), 𝑦 = 𝑢10 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ
𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑓 "𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚. "

𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
= 10𝑢9 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =3
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
= ×
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
= (10𝑢9 )(3)

= 30𝑢9

𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝑟𝑒𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑢 𝑎𝑠 (3𝑥 − 4), 𝑤𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛:

𝑑𝑦
= 30(3𝑥 − 4)9 .
𝑑𝑥
Example 6

Differentiate 𝑦 = 3 cos(5𝑥 2 − 7𝑥).

Solution

Here, let 𝑢 = 5𝑥 2 − 7𝑥, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑦 = 3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑢.

59
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
= −3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑢 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 10𝑥 − 7
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑢𝑙𝑒. 𝑤𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛:

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
= ×
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
= (−3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑢)(10𝑥 − 7)

𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑢 = (5𝑥 2 − 7𝑥)

𝑑𝑦
∴ = −3(10𝑥 − 7) sin(5𝑥 2 − 7𝑥).
𝑑𝑥
Example 7

Determine the differential coefficient of 𝑦 = √3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 4.

Solution
1⁄
Here, 𝑦 = √3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 4 can be written as 𝑦 = (3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 4) 2.

Then
1⁄
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 4, 𝑦 = 𝑢 2

Hence

𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑𝑢
= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 6𝑥 + 5
𝑑𝑢 2√𝑢 𝑑𝑥

Therefore, using function of a function rule, we obtain:

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
= ×
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
1
=( ) × (6𝑥 + 5)
2 √𝑢
(6𝑥 + 5)
=
2√𝑢

But 𝑢 = 3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 4, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒:

60
 𝑑𝑦 (6𝑥 + 5)
=
𝑑𝑥 2√3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 4

4.5 Successive differentiation

When a function y = f (x) is differentiated with respect to x the differential coefficient is written
𝑑𝑦
as 𝑑𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑓′(𝑥).

If the expression is differentiated again, the second differential coefficient is obtained and is
𝑑𝑦 2
written as 𝑑𝑥 2 (pronounced dee two y by dee x squared) or 𝑓′′(𝑥) (pronounced f double–dash x).
𝑑𝑦 3 𝑑𝑦 4
By successive differentiation further higher derivatives such as 𝑑𝑥 3 and 𝑑𝑥 4 may be obtained.

Thus if 𝑦 = 5𝑥 4 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑤𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛:

𝑑𝑦 3
𝑑𝑦 2 2
𝑑𝑦 3 𝑑𝑦 4 𝑑𝑦 5
= 20𝑥 , 2 = 60𝑥 , 3 = 120𝑥, 4 = 120 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 0.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 5
Example 8

If 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 5 − 4𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 1, 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑓 ′′′′ (𝑥).

Solution

Here

𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 5 − 4𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 1

Then

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 10𝑥 4 − 12𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 8

𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 40𝑥 3 − 24𝑥 + 6

𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = 120𝑥 2 − 24

𝑓 ′′′′ (𝑥) = 240𝑥.

Example 9
𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦
Given that 𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑒 −3𝑥 , 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 + 6 𝑑𝑥 + 9𝑦 = 0.
𝑑𝑥 2

Solution

Here, 𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑒 −3𝑥 , 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑏𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑟𝑢𝑙𝑒, 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒:

61
 𝑑𝑦
= (2𝑥)(−3𝑒 −3𝑥 ) + (2)(𝑒 −3𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥
= −6𝑥𝑒 −3𝑥 + 2𝑒 −3𝑥

𝑑𝑦 2
= [(−6𝑥)(−3𝑒 −3𝑥 ) + (−6)(𝑒 −3𝑥 )] + (−6𝑒 −3𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥 2
= 18𝑥𝑒 −3𝑥 − 12𝑒 −3𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦
Now, substituting 𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 + 6 𝑑𝑥 + 9𝑦 = 0, 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 2

18𝑥𝑒 −3𝑥 − 12𝑒 −3𝑥 + 6(−6𝑥𝑒 −3𝑥 + 2𝑒 −3𝑥 ) + 9(2𝑥𝑒 −3𝑥 ) = 0

18𝑥𝑒 −3𝑥 − 12𝑒 −3𝑥 − 36𝑥𝑒 −3𝑥 + 12𝑒 −3𝑥 + 18𝑥𝑒 −3𝑥 = 0

Thus

𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦
2
+6 + 9𝑦 = 0, 𝑄𝑢𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐸𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑑 (𝑄. 𝐸. 𝐷).
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
4.6 Rates of change

If a quantity y depends on and varies with a quantity x then the rate of change of y with respect to
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑝
x is 𝑑𝑥 . Thus, for example, the rate of change of pressure p with height h is 𝑑ℎ .

A rate of change with respect to time is usually just called ‘the rate of change’, the ‘with respect
𝑑𝑖
to time’ being assumed. Thus, for example, a rate of change of current, i, is 𝑑𝑡 and a rate of change
𝑑𝜃
of temperature, θ, is , and so on.
𝑑𝑡

Example 10

The length 𝑙 metres of a certain metal rod at temperature 𝜃 0 𝐶 is given by:

𝑙 = 1 + 0.00005𝜃 + 0.0000004𝜃 2 .

Determine the rate of change of length, in mm/◦C, when the temperature is:

(i) 1000 𝐶.
(ii) 4000 𝐶.
Solution
𝑑𝑙
The rate of change of length means 𝑑𝜃 .

𝑙 = 0.00005𝜃 + 0.0000004𝜃 2

62
Then

𝑑𝑙
= 0.00005 + 0.0000008𝜃
𝑑𝜃
(i) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜃 = 1000 𝐶
𝑑𝑙
= 0.00005 + 0.0000008(100)
𝑑𝜃
= 0.00013𝑚/0 𝐶
= 0.13𝑚𝑚/0 𝐶
(ii) 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜃 = 4000
𝑑𝑙
= 0.00005 + 0.0000008(400)
𝑑𝜃
= 0.00037𝑚/0 𝐶
= 0.37𝑚𝑚/0 𝐶
4.7 Velocity and acceleration

When a car moves a distance x metres in a time t seconds along a straight road, if the velocity v is
𝑥
constant then 𝑣 = 𝑡 𝑚/𝑠.

If, however, the velocity of the car is not constant then the distance/time graph will not be a straight
line.

The average velocity over a small time 𝛿𝑡 and distance 𝛿𝑥 is given by the gradient of the chord
𝛿𝑥
i.e. the average velocity over time 𝛿𝑡 is . As 𝛿𝑡 →0, the chord becomes a tangent, such that at
𝛿𝑡
𝑑𝑥
a given point, say A, the velocity is given by 𝑣 = .
𝑑𝑡

Hence the velocity of the car at any instant is given by the gradient of the distance/time graph. If
an expression for the distance x is known in terms of time t then the velocity is obtained by
differentiating the expression.

The acceleration 𝑎 of the car is defined as the rate of change of velocity. If 𝛿𝑣 is the change in v
𝛿𝑣
and 𝛿𝑡 the corresponding change in time, then 𝑎 = . As 𝛿𝑡 → 0, the chord becomes a tangent,
𝛿𝑡
𝑑𝑣
such that at any given point, the acceleration is given by 𝑎 = .
𝑑𝑡

Hence the acceleration of the car at any instant is given by the gradient of the velocity/time graph.
If an expression for velocity is known in terms of time t then the acceleration is obtained by
differentiating the expression.

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑥
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑎 = , ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟, 𝑣 = .
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

63
 𝑑 𝑑𝑥
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑎 = ( )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑2𝑥
= 2
𝑑𝑡
The acceleration is given by the second differential coefficient of distance x with respect to time
t.

Summarizing, if a body moves a distance x metres in a time t seconds then:

(i) distance 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡).

𝑑𝑥
(ii) Velocity, 𝑣 = 𝑓 ′ (𝑡)𝑜𝑟 which is the gradient of the distance/time graph.
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣 𝑑2 𝑥
(iii) 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑎 = = 𝑓 ′′ (𝑡) 𝑜𝑟 , 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ𝑦.
Example 11

The distance x metres moved by a car in a time t seconds is given by 𝑥 = 3𝑡 3 − 2𝑡 2 + 4𝑡 − 1.

Determine the velocity and acceleration when

(i) t = 0, and
(ii) t = 1.5 s
Solution

Here

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠: 𝑥 = 3𝑡 3 − 2𝑡 2 + 4𝑡 − 1 𝑚

𝑑𝑥
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦: = 9𝑡 2 − 4𝑡 + 4 𝑚/𝑠
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2𝑦
𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: = 18𝑡 − 4 𝑚/𝑠 2
𝑑𝑡 2
Then

(i) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡 = 0
𝑣 = 9(0)2 − 4(0) + 4 = 4 𝑚/𝑠.
𝑎 = 18(0) − 4 𝑚/𝑠 2 .
(ii) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡 = 1.5 𝑠
𝑣 = 9(1.5)2 − 4(1.5) + 4 = 18.25 𝑚/𝑠.
𝑎 = 18(1.5) − 4 = 23 𝑚/𝑠 2 .

64
4.8 Turning points f(x) 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟑

O Q

Figure 3

In Fig 3, the gradient (or rate of change) of the curve changes from positive between O and P
to negative between P and Q, and then positive again between Q and R. At point P, the gradient
is zero and, as x increases, the gradient of the curve changes from positive just before P to
negative just after. Such a point is called a maximum point and appears as the ‘crest of a wave’.
At point Q, the gradient is also zero and, as x increases, the gradient of the curve changes from
negative just before Q to positive just after. Such a point is called a minimum point, and appears
as the ‘bottom of Maximum and minimum points and points of inflexion are given the general
term of stationary points.

Procedure for finding and distinguishing between stationary points.

𝑑𝑦
(i) 𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒 , 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑓 ′ (𝑥).
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
(ii) 𝐿𝑒𝑡 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑥.
𝑑𝑥
(iii) 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒
𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑦 − 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒. 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑖𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠.
To determine the nature of the stationary points:

Either
𝑑2 𝑦
(iv) 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛 (𝑖𝑖). 𝐼𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡 𝑖𝑠
𝑑𝑥 2
(a) 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 − 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑛𝑒.
(b) 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 − 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑛𝑒.
(c) 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 − 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.

65
𝑜𝑟

(v) Determine the sign of the gradient of the curve just before and just after the stationary
points. If the sign change for the gradient of the curve is:
(a) positive to negative — the point is a maximum one
(b) negative to positive — the point is a minimum one
(c) positive to positive or negative to negative — the point is a point of inflexion.
Example 12

Locate the turning point on the curve 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 and determine its nature by examining the
sign of the gradient on either side.

Solution

Following the above procedure:

𝑑𝑦
(i) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥, 𝑑𝑥 = 6𝑥 − 6.
𝑑𝑦
(ii) 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡, 𝑑𝑥 = 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 6𝑥 − 6 = 0. 𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑥 = 1.
(iii) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 3(1)2 − 6(1) = −3. 𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 (1, −3).
𝑑𝑦
(iv) 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑙𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 1, 𝑠𝑎𝑦 0.9 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 = 6(0.9) − 6(0.9) = −0.6; 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑓 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑙𝑦 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 1, 𝑠𝑎𝑦 1.1, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 = 6(1.1) − 6(1.1) = 0.6.
𝑑𝑥
Since the gradient of the curve is negative just before the turning point and positive just after,

(1, −3) is a minimum point.

Example 13

A rectangular area is formed having a perimeter of 40 cm. Determine the length and breadth of the
rectangle if it is to enclose the maximum possible area.

Solution

Let the dimensions of the rectangle be x and y.

Then the perimeter of the rectangle is (2x + 2y).

Hence 2x + 2y = 40, or x + y = 20 equation (i)

Since the rectangle is to enclose the maximum possible area, a formula for area A must be obtained
in terms of one variable only.

Area A = xy. From equation (1), x = 20 – y

66
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝐴 = (20 − 𝑦)𝑦 = 20𝑦 − 𝑦 2 . 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝑑𝐴
= 20 − 2𝑦 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡, 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑦 = 10 𝑐𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 10 𝑐𝑚, 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑢
𝑑𝑦
(𝑖).

Hence the length and breadth of the rectangle are each 10 cm, i.e. a square gives the maximum
possible area. When the perimeter of a rectangle is 40 cm, the maximum possible area is

10 𝑐𝑚 × 10 𝑐𝑚 = 100𝑐𝑚2 .

67
Activity Four

1. Find the differential coefficients of:

(i) y = 3 sin 4x,
(ii) f (t) = 2 cos 3t, with respect to the variable.
2. Determine the co-ordinates of the point on the graph 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 2 where the gradient
is −1.
3. Find the gradient of the curve 𝑦 = 3𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 2 at the points (0, −2) and (1, 4).
4. Find the co-ordinates of the point on graph 𝑦 = 5𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 1 where the gradient is 2.
5. Find the derivative of the following functions:
(i) 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑙𝑛9𝑥 + 2
𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥
(ii) 𝑓(𝑥) = 2
−1 1
(iii) 𝑓(𝑥) = +
𝑥2 2√𝑥 3
6. Differentiate 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑥𝑙𝑛𝑥.
7. Differentiate the given products with respect to the variable:
(i) 𝑓(𝑥) = 2√𝑥 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛5𝑥 2
(ii) 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 3 𝑙𝑛3𝑥
(iii) 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑒 3𝑡+4 𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝑡
8. Find the derivative of 𝑦 = sec 𝑎𝑥.
𝑡𝑒 2𝑡
9. Differentiate 𝑦 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡.
10. Find the derivative of 𝑦 = (4𝑡 3 + 4𝑡)8 .
11. Differentiate: 𝑦 = 3𝑡𝑎𝑛4 3𝑥.
2𝑡
12. Find the differential coefficient of: 𝑓(𝑡) = (2𝑡 3 −5𝑡)6
𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦
13. Show that the differential equation 𝑑𝑥 2 + 4 𝑑𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 0 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑓 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑒 2𝑥 .
𝑑𝑦 2
14. Evaluate 𝑑𝜃2 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜃 = 0, 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑦 = 4𝑠𝑒𝑐2𝜃.
15. Newton’s law of cooling is given by 𝜃 = 𝜃0 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 , where the excess of temperature at zero
time is 𝜃00 𝐶 and at time t seconds is θ◦C. Determine the rate of change of temperature after
40 s, given that 𝜃0 = 160 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘 = −0.03.
16. The displacement s cm of the end of a stiff spring at time t seconds is given by 𝑠 =
𝑎𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋𝑓𝑡. Determine the velocity of the end of the spring after 1 s, if a = 2, k = 0.9
and f = 5.
17. Supplies are dropped from a helicopter and the distance fallen in a time t seconds is given
1
by 𝑥 = 2 𝑔𝑡 2 , where 𝑔 = 9.8𝑚/𝑠 2 . Determine the velocity and acceleration of the supplies
after it has fallen for 2 seconds.
18. The displacement x cm of the slide valve of an engine is given by 𝑥 = 2.2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋𝑡 +
3.6 sin 5𝜋𝑡. Evaluate the velocity (in m/s) when time 𝑡 = 30 𝑚𝑠.
19. Find the maximum and minimum values of the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 + 5 by

68
 (i) examining the gradient on either side of the turning points, and
(ii) determining the sign of the second derivative.
20. Determine the turning points on the curve y = 4 sin x − 3 cos x in the range x = 0 to x = 2π
radians, and distinguish between them. Sketch the curve over one cycle.
21. Determine the maximum and minimum values on the graph y = 12 cos θ − 5 sin θ in the
range θ = 0 to θ = 360◦. Sketch the graph over one cycle showing relevant points.
22. A rectangular sheet of metal having dimensions 20 cm by 12 cm has squares removed from
each of the four corners and the sides bent upwards to form an open box. Determine the
maximum possible volume of the box.
23. Determine the height and radius of a cylinder of volume 200 𝑐𝑚3 which has the least
surface area.
24. Find the diameter and height of a cylinder of maximum volume which can be cut from a
sphere of radius 12 cm.

69
 Chapter Five
5.0 Integral calculus
5.1 The process of integration
The process of integration reverses the process of differentiation.
In differentiation, if 𝑓(𝑥) =, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 4𝑥. Thus the integral of 4𝑥 𝑖𝑠 2𝑥 2 , i.e. integration is
the process of moving from 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) 𝑡𝑜 𝑓(𝑥). By similar reasoning, the integral of 2𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑡 2 .
𝑑𝑦
In differentiation, the differential coefficient 𝑑𝑥 indicates that a function of x is being differentiated
with respect to x, the dx indicating that it is ‘with respect to x.
In integration the variable of integration is shown by adding d (the variable) after the function to
be integrated.
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠, ∫ 4𝑥𝑑𝑥, 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 4𝑥 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∫ 2𝑡𝑑𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙
𝑜𝑓 2𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑡.
As stated above, the differential coefficient of 2𝑥 2 𝑖𝑠 4𝑥.
Hence ∫ 4𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑥 2 . However, the differential coefficient of 2𝑥 2 + 9 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 4𝑥.
Hence ∫ 4𝑥𝑑𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 2𝑥 2 + 9.
To allow for the possible presence of a constant, whenever the process of integration is performed,
a constant ‘c’ is added to the result.
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠

∫ 4𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑥 2

+ 𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∫ 2𝑡𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡 2 + 𝑐; c 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.

5.2 The general solution of integrals

The general solution of integrals of the form ∫ 𝑎𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥, where a and n are constants is given by:

𝑛
𝑎𝑥 𝑛+1
∫ 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = + 𝑐.
𝑛+1
This rule is true when n is fractional, zero, or a positive or negative integer, with the exception of
n = −1.
Using this rule gives:
5𝑥 6+1 5𝑥 7
(i) ∫ 5𝑥 6 𝑑𝑥 = 6+1
+𝑐 = 7
+ 𝑐.
4 4𝑥 −3+1 4𝑥 −2 −2
(ii) ∫ 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 4𝑥 −3 𝑑𝑥 = −3+1
+𝑐 = −2
+ 𝑐 = −2𝑥 −2 + 𝑐 = 𝑥2
+𝑐

70
 1 3
1⁄ 𝑥 ⁄2+1 𝑥 ⁄2 2
(iii) ∫ √𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 1 +𝑐 = 3 + 𝑐 = 3 √𝑥 3 + 𝑐
+1
2 2
Each of these three results may be checked by differentiation.
Note the following:
(i) 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑐, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 ∫ 4𝑑𝑥 = 4𝑥 + 𝑐.
(ii) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑠
𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠. 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒,
𝑥 3 3𝑥 2
∫(𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 4)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 3𝑥𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 4𝑑𝑥 = + − 4𝑥 + 𝑐.
3 2

5.3 Standard integrals

Since integration is the reverse process of differentiation the standard integrals listed below may
be deduced and readily checked by differentiation.
𝑎𝑥 𝑛+1
(i) ∫ 𝑎𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛+1
+ 𝑐, 𝑛 ≠ −1.
1
(ii) ∫ cos 𝑎𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 sin 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐
1
(iii) ∫ sin 𝑎𝑥𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑎 cos 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐
1
(iv) ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑎𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 tan 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐
1
(v) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑎𝑥𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑎 cot 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐
1
(vi) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑎𝑥 cot 𝑎𝑥𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐
1
(vii) ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐
1
(viii) ∫ 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐
1
(ix) ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐
Example 1
3𝑥
Determine ∫ (4 + − 9𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥.
7

Solution
Here
3𝑥 3𝑥
∫ (4 + − 9𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 4𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 9𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
7 7
3𝑥 2 9𝑥 3
= 4𝑥 + − +𝑐
14 3
3𝑥 2
= 4𝑥 + − 6𝑥 2 + 𝑐
14

71
Note!
Each term is integrated separately. (This splitting up of terms only applies, however, for addition
and subtraction).
Example 2
2𝑥 3 −3𝑥
Determine ∫ 𝑑𝑥.
5𝑥

Solution
Here, re-arrange the integrand first.
2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2𝑥 3 3𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥
5𝑥 5𝑥 5𝑥
2𝑥 2 3
=∫ 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥
5 5
2𝑥 3 3𝑥
= − +𝑐
15 5
Note!
Note that when an integral contains more than one term there is no need to have an arbitrary
constant for each; just a single constant at the end is sufficient.
5.4 Definite integrals
Integrals containing an arbitrary constant c in their results are called indefinite integrals since
their precise value cannot be determined without further information.

Definite integrals are those in which limits are applied. If an expression is written as 𝑥⌈𝑎𝑏, ‘b’ is
called the upper limit and ‘a’ the lower limit.
The operation of applying the limits is defined as:
𝑏
𝑥 ⌈ = (𝑏) − (𝑎)
𝑎
3
The increase in the value of the integral 𝑥 2 as x increases from 1 to 3 is written as ∫1 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
Applying the limits gives:
3
𝑥3 3
∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = ⌈
1 3 1

33 1
= ( )−( )
3 3

72
 27 1
= −
3 3
1
=9−
3
2
=8
3
Note that the ‘c’ term always cancels out when limits are applied and it need not be shown with
definite integrals.
Example 3
𝜋
Evaluate ∫02 3𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥𝑑𝑥

Solution
Here
𝜋 𝜋
2 1
∫ 3𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥𝑑𝑥 = (3) (− ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 ⌈ 2
0 2 0

3 𝜋 3
= {− 𝑐𝑜2 ( )} − {− 𝑐𝑜𝑠2(0)}
2 2 2
3 3
= (− 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋) − (− 𝑐𝑜𝑠0)
2 2
3 3
= +
2 2
=3

5.5 Integration by substitution

Functions that require integrating are not always in the ‘standard form’ shown above. However, it
is often possible to change a function into a form which can be integrated by using either:
(i) algebraic substitution
(ii) trigonometric substitution
(iii) partial fractions
𝜃
(iv) 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
(v) Integration by parts
(vi) Reduction formula

73
5.5.1 Algebraic substitution
With algebraic substitutions, the substitution usually made is to let u be equal to f (x) such that
𝑓(𝑢)𝑑𝑢 is a standard integral. It is found that integrals of the forms

𝑛 ′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑓′(𝑥)𝑛
𝑘 ∫[𝑓(𝑥)] 𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘 ∫ 𝑑𝑥
[𝑓(𝑥)]
(𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠)𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑏𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑢 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓(𝑥).
Example 4
Determine ∫ cos(3𝑥 + 1) 𝑑𝑥.
Solution
Here, the integral is not in standard form. Then
𝑑𝑢
Let 𝑢 = 3𝑥 + 1, 𝑑𝑥 = 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑

1
∫ cos(3𝑥 + 1) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑢𝑑𝑢
3
1
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑢 + 𝑐
3
1
= sin(3𝑥 + 1) + 𝑐
3
Example 5
Determine ∫(3𝑥 − 5)8 𝑑𝑥
Solution
Here, let 𝑢 = 3𝑥 − 5, 𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑢 = 3𝑑𝑥.
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛
1
∫(3𝑥 − 5)8 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑢8 𝑑𝑢
3
𝑢9
= +𝑐
27
1
= (3𝑥 − 5)9 + 𝑐
27
Example 6
5
Find ∫ (5𝑥−9) 𝑑𝑥.

74
Solution
Here, let 𝑢 = 5𝑥 − 9 𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑢 = 5𝑑𝑥.
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛
5 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑢
(5𝑥 − 9) 𝑢
= 𝑙𝑛𝑢 + 𝑐
= ln(5𝑥 − 9) + 𝑐
Example 7
Determine ∫ 3𝑥(4𝑥 2 + 3)5 𝑑𝑥.
Solution
1
Here, let 𝑢 = 4𝑥 2 + 3, 𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑢 8𝑥𝑑𝑥, 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 8 𝑑𝑢.

𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛
3
∫ 3𝑥(4𝑥 2 + 3)5 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑢5 𝑑𝑢
8
3 1
= × × 𝑢6 + 𝑐
8 6
1
= (4𝑥 2 + 3)6 + 𝑐
16
Example 8
𝑥
Find ∫ 3𝑥 2+2 𝑑𝑥.

Solution
1
Here, let 𝑢 = 3𝑥 2 + 2 𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑢 = 6𝑥𝑑𝑥, 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 6 𝑑𝑢.

𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝑥 1 𝑑𝑢
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫
3𝑥 2 + 2 6 𝑢
1
= 𝑙𝑛𝑢 + 𝑐
6
1
= ln(3𝑥 2 + 2) + 𝑐
6

75
5.5.2 Change of Limits
When evaluating definite integrals involving substitutions, it is sometimes more convenient to
change the limits of the integral.
Example 9
3
Evaluate ∫1 5𝑥√(2𝑥 2 + 7) 𝑑𝑥.

Solution
1
Here, let 𝑢 = 2𝑥 2 + 7 𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑥𝑑𝑥.
4

Note!
It is possible in this case to change the limits of integration. Thus
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 3, 𝑢 = 2(3)2 + 7 = 25
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 1, 𝑢 = 2(1)2 + 7 = 9.
Hence
3
5 25 1
∫ 5𝑥√(2𝑥 2 + 7)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑢2 𝑑𝑢
1 4 9
5 2 2 25
= ( ) ( ) . 𝑢3 |
4 3 9
5
= [(√25)3 − (√9)3 ]
6
5
= (125 − 27)
6
2
= 81 .
3

5.5.3 Trigonometric substitution

The following gives a summary of the integrals that require the use of trigonometric
substitutions.
(i) 𝐼𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥, 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 − 1.
𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 + 1 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥
∴ ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = (𝑥 + )+𝑐
2 2 2
(ii) 𝐼𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥, 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 = 1 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥.

76
 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥
∴ ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = (𝑥 − ) + 𝑐.
2 2 2
(iii) 𝐼𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥, 𝑢𝑠𝑒 1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥.
∴ ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 − 1)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑐.
(iv) 𝐼𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝑥, 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝑥 + 1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥.
∴ ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 − 1)𝑑𝑥 = −𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑐.
(v) 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑚 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛 𝑥:
(𝑎)𝑖𝑓 𝑒𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑚 𝑜𝑟 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑 (𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ), 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 = 1.
(𝑏)𝑖𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛, 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑒𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 − 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥
= 1 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥.
1
(vi) 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴 cos 𝐵, 𝑢𝑠𝑒 2 [sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) + sin(𝐴 − 𝐵)].
1
(vii) 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵, 𝑢𝑠𝑒 2 [sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) − sin(𝐴 − 𝐵)].
1
(viii) 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵, 𝑢𝑠𝑒 2 [cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) + cos(𝐴 − 𝐵)].
1
(ix) 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵, 𝑢𝑠𝑒 2 [cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) − cos(𝐴 − 𝐵)].
1
(x) 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑎2 , 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃.
−𝑥 2
(xi) 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) = 2
√𝑎 − 𝑥 2 , 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃.
1
(xii) 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎2 +𝑥 2 , 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃.
Example 10
1
Determine ∫ √𝑎2 𝑑𝑥.
−𝑥 2

Solution
𝑑𝑥
Here, let 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 = 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑑𝜃.
𝑑𝜃

Hence
1 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑑𝜃
√𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 √𝑎2 − 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑑𝜃
=∫ , 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = 1, 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒
√𝑎2 (1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃)
𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑑𝜃
=∫
√𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑑𝜃
=∫
𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

= ∫ 𝑑𝜃

77
 =𝜃+𝑐
𝑥 𝑥
𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 .
𝑎 𝑎
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒
1 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 + 𝑐.
√𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑎
Example 11
1
Determine ∫ 𝑎2 +𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥.

Solution
Here, let 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃, 𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃𝑑𝜃.
Hence
1 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2 (𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃𝑑𝜃)
𝑎2 +𝑥 2 𝑎 + 𝑎2 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃
𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃𝑑𝜃
=∫
𝑎2 (1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃)
𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃𝑑𝜃
=∫
𝑎2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃
𝑑𝜃
=∫
𝑎
𝜃
= +𝑐
𝑎
𝑥
𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃, 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝑎
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒
1 1 −1
𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 + 𝑐.
(𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 ) 𝑎 𝑎

𝜽
5.5.3 The 𝒕 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝟐 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
1
Integrals of the form ∫ 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃+𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃+𝑐 𝑑𝜃 where a, b and c are constants, may be determined by
𝜃
using the substitution 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2.

78
Example 12
𝑑𝜃
Determine ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 .

Solution
𝜃 2𝑡 2𝑑𝑡
Here, let 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 1+𝑡 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝜃 = 1+𝑡 2 .

Thus
𝑑𝜃 1
∫ =∫ 𝑑𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
1 2𝑑𝑡
=∫ ( )
2𝑡⁄ 1 + 𝑡2
1+𝑡 2

1
= ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝑡
= 𝑙𝑛𝑡 + 𝑐
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒
𝑑𝜃 𝜃
∫ = ln (𝑡𝑎𝑛 ) + 𝑐.
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 2
5.6 Integration using partial fractions
The process of expressing a fraction in terms of simpler fractions is called partial fractions.
Certain functions have to be resolved into partial fractions before they can be integrated, as
demonstrated in the following worked problems.
Example 13
11−3𝑥
Determine ∫ 𝑥 2 +2𝑥−3 𝑑𝑥.

Solution
11−3𝑥 2 5
Here, 𝑥 2 +2𝑥−3 = 𝑥−1 − 𝑥+5 . (𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑤 𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑔𝑒𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜
𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑛 ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒).
Then
11 − 3𝑥 2 5
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ( − ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2+ 2𝑥 − 3 𝑥−1 𝑥+5
= 2 ln(𝑥 − 1) − 5 ln(𝑥 + 5) + 𝑐
(𝑥 − 1)2
= ln { } + 𝑐, 𝑏𝑦 𝑙𝑎𝑤𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚𝑠.
(𝑥 + 5)5

79
Example 14
2𝑥 2 −9𝑥−35
Find ∫ (𝑥+1)(𝑥−2)(𝑥+3) 𝑑𝑥.

Solution
2𝑥 2 −9𝑥−35 4 3 1
We know that (𝑥+1)(𝑋−2)(𝑥+3) = 𝑥+1 − 𝑥−2 + 𝑥+3 , 𝑏𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.

Hence
2𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 − 35 4 3 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ( − + ) 𝑑𝑥 .
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 3) 𝑥+1 𝑥−2 𝑥+3
= 4 ln(𝑥 + 1) − 3 ln(𝑥 − 2) + ln(𝑥 + 3) + 𝑐
(𝑥 + 1)4 (𝑥 + 3)
= ln { }+𝑐
(𝑥 − 2)3

5.7 Integration by parts

From the product rule of differentiation:
𝑑 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
(𝑢𝑣) = 𝑣 +𝑢
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
where u and v are both functions of x.
𝑑𝑣 𝑑 𝑑𝑢
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑢 = (𝑢𝑣) − 𝑣
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Integrating with respect to x gives:
𝑑𝑣 𝑑 𝑑𝑢
∫𝑢 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (𝑢𝑣) − ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
∫𝑢 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑜𝑟

∫ 𝑢𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑢.

This is known as the integration by parts formula and provides a method of integrating such
products of simple functions as:

∫ 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥, ∫ 𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑑𝑡, ∫ 𝑒 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑑𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∫ 𝑥𝑙𝑛𝑥𝑑𝑥.

80
Given a product of two terms to integrate the initial choice is: ‘which part to make equal to u’ and
‘which part to make equal to dv’. The choice must be such that the ‘u part’ becomes a constant
after successive differentiation and the ‘dv part’ can be integrated from standard integrals.
Invariable, the following rule holds:
‘If a product to be integrated contains an algebraic term (such as 𝑥, 𝑡 2 𝑜𝑟 3𝜃) then this term is
chosen as the u part. The one exception to this rule is when a ′𝑙𝑛𝑥′ term is involved; in this case
𝑙𝑛𝑥 is chosen as the ‘u part’.
Example 15
Find ∫ 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑑𝑥.
Solution
From the integration by parts formula, we know that:

∫ 𝑢𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑢.

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 𝑥, 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑑𝑥, 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑣 = ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥.

𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑢, 𝑣 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑢 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎.
Hence

∫ 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 − (−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥) + 𝑐

= 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑐.
Example 16
Find ∫ 3𝑡𝑒 2𝑡 𝑑𝑡.
Solution
1 2𝑡
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 3𝑡, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑑𝑢 = 3𝑑𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑒 2𝑡 𝑑𝑡, 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑣 = ∫ 𝑒 2𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑒 .
2

𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 ∫ 𝑢𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑢 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠:

1 3
∫ 3𝑡𝑒 2𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = (3𝑡) ( 𝑒 2𝑡 ) − ∫ 𝑒 2𝑡 𝑑𝑡
2 2
3 2𝑡 3 𝑒 2𝑡
= 𝑡𝑒 − ( ) + 𝑐
2 2 2

Hence

81
 3 2𝑡 1
∫ 3𝑡𝑒 2𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑒 (𝑡 − ) + 𝑐.
2 2

82
5.8 Reduction Formulae
When using integration by parts, an integral such as ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠
twice, similarly, ∫ 𝑥 3 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠.

Thus, integrals such as ∫ 𝑥 5 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥, ∫ 𝑥 6 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∫ 𝑥 8 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒, 𝑤𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑎 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔
time to determine using integration by parts.
Reduction formulae provide a quicker method for determining such integrals and the method is
demonstrated in the following sections.
5.8.1 Using Reduction Formulae for Integrals of the Form ∫ 𝒙𝒏 𝒆𝒙 𝒅𝒙.
To determine ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠, 𝑙𝑒𝑡
𝑢 = 𝑥 𝑛 ⇔ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥, 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ

𝑣 = ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 .

Thus

∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑢

= 𝑒 𝑛 𝑒 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= 𝑥 𝑛 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑛 ∫ 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎,

∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑛 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑛 ∫ 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.

The integral on the far right is seen to be of the same form as the integral on the left hand side,
except that 𝑛 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑛 − 1.
Thus, if we let

∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛

𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛

∫ 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛−1

Hence

83
 ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑛 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑛 ∫ 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠
𝐼𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑛𝐼𝑛−1 … 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑖).
Equation (i) is an example of a reduction formula since it expresses an integral n in terms of same
integral in n – 1.
Example 17
Determine ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎.
Solution
Using equation (i), 𝑛 = 2.
Then

∫ 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐼2

= 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 − 2𝐼2−1
= 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 − 2𝐼1
𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝐼1 = 𝑥1 𝑒 𝑥 − 1𝐼1−1
= 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 − 1𝐼0
𝑎𝑛𝑑

𝐼0 = ∫ 𝑥 0 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐1

Hence
𝐼2 = 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 − 2[𝑥𝑒 𝑥 − 1𝐼0 ]
= 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 − 2[𝑥𝑒 𝑥 − 1(𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐1 )]
= 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 − [𝑥𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑐1 ]
= 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + 2𝑒 𝑥 + 2𝑐1

∴ ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + 2𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 2𝑐1 = 𝐶

= 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 2) + 𝐶

84
Activity 5.8.1
1. Use a reduction formula to determine ∫ 𝑥 3 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.
1
2. Evaluate ∫0 5𝑡 3 𝑒 2𝑡 𝑑𝑡, 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠.

85
5.8.2 Using Reduction Formula for Integrals of the form ∫ 𝒙𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝒂𝒏𝒅 ∫ 𝒙𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 𝒅𝒙.
(i) ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Let 𝐼𝑛 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒:
𝑙𝑟𝑡 𝑢 = 𝑥 𝑛 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑣 = cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

⇒ 𝑣 = ∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑥

Hence

𝐼𝑛 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑢

= 𝑥 𝑛 sin 𝑥 − ∫(sin 𝑥) 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥

= 𝑥 𝑛 sin 𝑥 − 𝑛 ∫ 𝑥 𝑛−1 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ:

𝑢 = 𝑥 𝑛−1 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑑𝑢 = (𝑛 − 1)𝑥 𝑛−2 𝑑𝑥
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑣 = sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

⇒ 𝑣 = ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cos 𝑥.

Hence

𝐼𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 sin 𝑥 − 𝑛[𝑥 𝑛−1 (− cos 𝑥) − ∫(− cos 𝑥)(𝑛 − 1)𝑥 𝑛−2 𝑑𝑥]

= 𝑥 𝑛 sin 𝑥 + 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 cos 𝑥 − 𝑛(𝑛 − 1) ∫ 𝑥 𝑛−2 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

∴ 𝐼𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 sin 𝑥 + 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 cos 𝑥 − 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)𝐼𝑛−2 … 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑖𝑖).

Example 18
Use a reduction formula to determine ∫ 𝑥 2 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.
Solution
Here, 𝑛 = 2 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 ∫ 𝑥 2 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐼2 .
Then
𝐼2 = 𝑥 2 sin 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 cos 𝑥 − 2(1)𝐼0

86
𝑎𝑛𝑑

𝐼0 = ∫ 𝑥 0 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= ∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= sin 𝑥
Hence

∫ 𝑥 2 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 2 sin 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 cos 𝑥 − 2 sin 𝑥 + 𝑐

87
Activity 5.8.2
2
Evaluate ∫1 4𝑡 3 cos 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑠.

88
(ii)∫ 𝒙𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
Let 𝐼𝑛 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥, 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒:
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 𝑥 𝑛 , 𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑣 = sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

⇒ 𝑣 = ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cos 𝑥.

Hence

∫ 𝑥 𝑛 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛

⇒ 𝐼𝑛 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑢

= −𝑥 𝑛 cos 𝑥 − ∫(− cos 𝑥)𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥

= −𝑥 𝑛 cos 𝑥 + 𝑛 ∫ 𝑥 𝑛−1 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝐴𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 𝑥 𝑛−1 , 𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑢 = (𝑛 − 1)𝑥 𝑛−2 𝑑𝑥𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑣 = cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥,

⇒ 𝑣 = ∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑥.

Then

𝐼𝑛 = −𝑥 𝑛 cos 𝑥 + 𝑛[𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑢]

= −𝑥 𝑛 cos 𝑥 + 𝑛[𝑥 𝑛−1 sin 𝑥 − ∫(𝑛 − 1)𝑥 𝑛−2 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥]

= −𝑥 𝑛 cos 𝑥 + 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 sin 𝑥 − 𝑛(𝑛 − 1) ∫ 𝑥 𝑛−2 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.

Hence
𝐼𝑛 = −𝑥 𝑛 cos 𝑥 + 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 sin 𝑥 − 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)𝐼𝑛−2 . . . 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑖𝑖𝑖).
Example 19
Use the reduction formula to determine ∫ 𝑥 3 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.
Solution
Here, using equation (iii), we have:

89
 ∫ 𝑥 3 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐼3 , 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑛 = 3.

Then
𝐼3 = −𝑥 3 cos 𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 sin 𝑥 − 3(2)𝐼1
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼1 = −𝑥 cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥 = −𝑥 cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥.
Hence

∫ 𝑥 3 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑥 3 cos 𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 sin 𝑥 − 6[−𝑥 cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥] + 𝑐

= −𝑥 3 cos 𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 sin 𝑥 + 6𝑥 cos 𝑥 − 6 sin 𝑥 + 𝑐.

90
Activity 5.8.3
𝜋
Evaluate ∫02 3𝜃 4 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃, 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠.

91
Activity Five
1. Determine the following integrands:
(i) ∫(1 − 𝑡 2 )𝑑𝑡
(1+𝜃)2
(ii) ∫ 𝑑𝜃
√𝜃
(iii) ∫ 4𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑥𝑑𝑥
(iv) ∫ 7𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃𝑑𝜃
(v) ∫ 8 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 4𝑡𝑑𝑡
(vi) 5 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 2𝜃𝑑𝜃
3
(vii) ∫ 4 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 7𝑥𝑑𝑥
2. Evaluate the following
2
(i) ∫1 4𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑡𝑑𝑡
1
(ii) ∫0 3𝑒 3𝑡 𝑑𝑡
3
(iii) ∫1 (𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3)𝑑𝑥
𝜋⁄
6 24𝑠𝑖𝑛5 𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑑𝜃
(iv) ∫0
1
(v) ∫0 2𝑒 6𝑥−1 𝑑𝑥
2
(vi) ∫0 2√2𝑥 2 + 1𝑑𝑥
3. Determine the following
2𝑥
(i) ∫ √4𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 −1
(ii) ∫ 3𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 3𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛3𝑥𝑑𝑥
(iii) ∫ 5𝑐𝑜𝑠 5 𝑡 sin 𝑡𝑑𝑡
4. Evaluate the following
3
(i) ∫1 5𝑥√2𝑥 2 + 7𝑑𝑥
2 3𝑥
(ii) ∫1 √2𝑥 2 +1
𝑑𝑥
5. Determine the following:
(i) ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 3𝑥𝑑𝑥
(ii) 3 ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 4𝑥𝑑𝑥
(iii) ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛5 𝜃𝑑𝜃
(iv) ∫ 4𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃𝑑𝜃
(v) ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝑡𝑑𝑡
(vi) ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑡 𝑑𝑡
1
(vii) ∫ 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠5𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
(viii) 3 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛5𝑥 sin 3𝑥𝑑𝑥
6. Evaluate the following:
1
(i) ∫0 2𝑐𝑜𝑠6𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑑𝜃.
1
(ii) ∫0 3 cos 8𝑡 sin 3𝑡 𝑑𝑡

92
 𝜋
(iii) −4 ∫03 sin 5𝜃 sin 2𝜃 𝑑𝜃.
3 𝑑𝑥
7. Evaluate ∫0 √9−𝑥 2
.
8. Find ∫ √𝑎 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
2
4
9. Evaluate ∫0 √16 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
3𝑑𝑡
10. Determine ∫ (4+𝑡 2) .
11. Determine the following
𝑑𝑥
(i) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 .
𝑑𝑥
(ii) ∫ 1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
𝑑𝑥
(iii) ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
12. Find
𝑥 2 +1
(i) ∫ 𝑥 2 −3𝑥+2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 +9𝑥+8
(ii) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 +𝑥−6
3𝑥 3 −2𝑥 2 −16+20
(iii) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥−2)(𝑥+2)
2𝑥+3
(iv) ∫ (𝑥−2)2 𝑑𝑥
3+6𝑥+4𝑥 2 −2𝑥 3
(v) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 (𝑥 2 +3)
13. Determine the following
(i) ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑑𝑥
(ii) ∫ 𝑥 3 𝑙𝑛𝑥𝑑𝑥
(iii) ∫ 3𝑡 2 𝑒 2𝑡 𝑑𝑡.
2 3𝑥
14. Evaluate ∫0 𝑑𝑥, 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦.
√(2𝑥 2 +1)
15. Evaluate the definite integrals correct to four significant figures:
1 2 −1)
(i) ∫0 3𝑥𝑒 (2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
(ii) ∫0 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 𝜃 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2

1 3𝑥
(iii) ∫0 𝑑𝑥
(4𝑥 2 −1)

93
 Chapter six
6.0 Application of Integration
6.1 Area of region between two curves
With a few modifications you can extend the application of definite integrals from the area of a
region under a curve to the area of a region between two curves.
Consider two functions f and g that are continuous on the interval [𝑎, 𝑏]. If the graphs of both f
and g lie above the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑔 𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑓, 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑐𝑎𝑛
geometrically interpret the area of the region between the graphs as the area of the region under
the graph of g subtracted from the area of the region under the graph of f.
To verify the reasonableness of the result, you can partition the interval [𝑎, 𝑏] 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑏 −
𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑠, 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑎 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ ∆𝑥. The sketch a representative rectangle of width ∆𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 height
𝑓(𝑥𝑖 ) − 𝑔(𝑥𝑖 )𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥𝑖 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙. 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 rectangle is
∆𝐴𝑖 = (ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡)(𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ) = [𝑓(𝑥𝑖 ) − 𝑔(𝑥𝑖 )].
By adding the areas of the n rectangles and taking the limit as ‖∆‖ ⟶ 0(𝑛 ⟶ ∞), 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛:
𝑛

lim ∑[𝑓(𝑥𝑖 ) − 𝑔(𝑥𝑖 )]∆𝑥

𝑛⟶∞
𝑖=1

Because f and g are continuous on [𝑎, 𝑏], 𝑓 − 𝑔 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑛 [𝑎, 𝑏]𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡
𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠. 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠:
𝑛 𝑏
𝐴𝑟𝑒 = lim ∑[𝑓(𝑥𝑖 ) − 𝑔(𝑥𝑖 )]∆𝑥 = ∫ [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥.
𝑛⟶∞ 𝑎
𝑖=1

Theorem
𝐼𝑓 𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑛 [𝑎, 𝑏]𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔(𝑥) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 [𝑎, 𝑏], 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 𝑏 𝑖𝑠
𝑏
𝐴 = ∫ [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥.
𝑎

Example 1
Find the area of the region bounded by the graphs of 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 2, 𝑦 = −𝑥, 𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 1.
Solution
Let 𝑔(𝑥) = −𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 2.
Then 𝑔(𝑥) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 [0,1].
Thus, the area of the representative rectangle is

94
 ∆𝐴 = [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)]∆𝑥 = [(𝑥 2 + 2) − (−𝑥)]∆𝑥
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠
𝑏 1
𝐴 = ∫ [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 = ∫ [(𝑥 2 + 2) − (−𝑥)]𝑑𝑥
𝑎 0

𝑥3 𝑥2 1
= [ + + 2𝑥]
3 2 0
1 1
= + +2
3 2
17
=
6
6.1.2 Area of a Region between Intersecting Curves
In example 1, the graphs of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔(𝑥) = −𝑥 𝑑𝑜 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠
𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑙𝑦. 𝐴 𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑚 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ𝑠, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑.
Example 2
Find the area of the region bounded by the graphs of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 − 𝑥 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥.
Solution
Here, when you plot the graphs of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 − 𝑥 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥, 𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑦 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜
𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛. 𝑇𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠, 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥.
Hence
2 − 𝑥2 = 𝑥
⇒ −𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 2 = 0
⇒ −(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 1) = 0
⇒ 𝑥 = −2 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 1
Thus
𝑎 = −2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = 1.
Here, because 𝑔(𝑥) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 [−2,1], 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑛
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓
∆𝐴 = [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)]∆𝑥 = [(2 − 𝑥 2 ) − 𝑥]∆𝑥
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠

95
 1
2)
−𝑥 3 𝑥 2 1
𝐴 = ∫ [(2 − 𝑥 − 𝑥]𝑑𝑥 = [ − + 2𝑥]
−2 3 2 −2
9
=
2
6.1.3 A region Lying Between Two Intersecting Graphs
The sine and cosine curves intersect infinitely many times bounding regions of equal areas.
Example 3
Find the area of one of these regions.
Solution
Here, set
𝑓(𝑥)𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑖. 𝑒. sin 𝑥 = cos 𝑥
sin 𝑥
Now divide both sides by cos 𝑥, 𝑡𝑜 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛: =1
cos 𝑥

⇒ tan 𝑥 = 1, 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦.

𝜋 5𝜋
⇒𝑥= 𝑜𝑟 , 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋
4 4
Thus
𝜋 5𝜋
𝑎= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 =
4 4
𝜋 5𝜋
Moreover, because sin 𝑥 ≥ cos 𝑥 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 [ 4 , ] , 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠
4

5𝜋 5𝜋
4 4
𝐴 = ∫ [sin 𝑥 − cos 𝑥]𝑑𝑥 = [− cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥] 𝜋
𝜋
4 4
= 2√2
6.1.4 Curve that Intersect at More than Two Points
If two curves intersect at more than two points, then to find the area of the region between two
curves, you must find all points of intersection and check to see which curve is above the other in
each interval determined by these points.
Example 4
Find the area of the region between the graphs of 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑

96
𝑔(𝑥) = −𝑥 2 + 2𝑥.
Solution
Here, begin by setting 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔(𝑥)𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥. 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 yield
the 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ𝑠.
Then
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥)
⇒ 3𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 = −𝑥 2 + 2𝑥
⇒ 3𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 = 0
⇒ 3𝑥(𝑥 2 − 4) = 0
⇒ 𝑥 = −2, 0,2
Thus, the two graphs intersect when 𝑥 = −2,0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2. When plot the graph of the two functions,
you will notice that 𝑔(𝑥) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 [−2,0]. However, the two graphs switch at the
origin and 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑏𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 [0,2].
Hence you need two integrals, one for the interval [−2,0]𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 [0,2].
Thus
0 2
𝐴 = ∫ [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 + ∫ [𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥
−2 0
0 2
=∫ (3𝑥 3 − 12𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (−3𝑥 3 + 12𝑥)𝑑𝑥
−2 0

3𝑥 4 0 −3𝑥 4 2
=[ − 6𝑥 2 ] +[ + 6𝑥 2 ]
4 −2 4 0

= −(12 − 24) + (−12 + 24)

= 24

6.1.5 Horizontal Representative Rectangles

If the graph of a function of y is a boundary of a region, it is often convenient to use representative
rectangles that are horizontal and find the area by integrating with respect to y. in general, to
determine the area between two curves, you can use:
𝑦2
𝐴 = ∫ (𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 − 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒)𝑑𝑥, 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑥, 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑠.
𝑦1

97
 𝑦2
𝐴 = ∫ [(𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒) − (𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒)]𝑑𝑦, 𝑖𝑛 𝑦 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒; ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑦1

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 )𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑠
involved or points on the specified boundary lines.
Example 5
Find the area bounded by the graphs of 𝑥 = 3 − 𝑦 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 1.
Solution
Here, consider 𝑔(𝑦) = 3 − 𝑦 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(𝑦) == 𝑦 + 1. These two curves intersect when 𝑦 = −2 and
𝑦 = 1.
Now because 𝑓(𝑦) ≤ 𝑔(𝑦) 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙, 𝑦𝑜𝑢 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒
∆𝐴 = [𝑔(𝑦) − 𝑓(𝑦)]∆𝑦 = [(3 − 𝑦 2 ) − (𝑦 + 1)]𝑑𝑦.
Hence the area is
1
𝐴 = ∫ [(3 − 𝑦 2 ) − (𝑦 + 1)]𝑑𝑦
−2
1
= ∫ (−𝑦 2 − 𝑦 + 2)𝑑𝑦
−2

𝑦3 𝑦2 1
= [− − + 2𝑦]
3 2 −2
−1 1 8
=( − + 2) − ( − 2 − 4)
3 2 3
9
=
2
Note!
Here, observe that in example 5, by integrating with respect to y, we need only one integral. If we
had integrated with respect to x, we would have needed two integrals.

98
Activity 6.1
Sketch the region bounded by the graphs of the algebraic functions and find the area of the region:
(i) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥, 𝑔(𝑥) = 0
(ii) 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 − 2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 , 𝑔(𝑥) = 0
(iii) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1, 𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 3
(iv) 𝑓(𝑥) = −𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 2, 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 2
(v) 𝑓(𝑦) = 𝑦 2 , 𝑔(𝑦) = 𝑦 + 2
(vi) 𝑓(𝑦) = 𝑦(2 − 𝑦), 𝑔(𝑦) = −𝑦.
(vii) 𝑓(𝑦) = 𝑦 2 + 1, 𝑔(𝑦) = 0, 𝑦 = −1, 𝑦 = 2.

99
6.2 Volume
6.2.1 Disc method
In the preceding section, we mentioned that area is only one of the many applications of the definite
integral. Another important application is its use in finding the volume of a three dimensional solid.
In this section you will study a particular type of three dimensional solid; one whose cross sections
are similar. We begin with solids of revolution. Such solids are used commonly in engineering and
manufacturing. Some examples are axles, funnels, pills and pistons.
If a region in the plane is revolved about a line, the resulting solid is a solid of revolution, and the
line is called the axis of revolution. The simplest such solid is a right circular cylinder or disc,
which is formed by revolving a rectangle about an axis adjacent to one side of the rectangle. The
volume of such a disc is
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐 = (𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐)(𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐)
= 𝜋𝑅 2 𝑤
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑅 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ.
To see how to use the volume of disc to find the volume of a general solid of revolution, consider
a solid of revolution formed by revolving the plane region. To determine the volume of this solid,
consider a representative rectangle in the plane region. When this rectangle is revolved about the
region of revolution, it generates a representative disc whose volume is
∆𝑉 = 𝜋𝑅 2 ∆𝑥.
Approximating the volume of the solid by n such discs of width ∆𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑅(𝑥𝑖 ) 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑠:
𝑛

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 = ∑ 𝜋[𝑅(𝑥𝑖 )]2 ∆𝑥 = 𝜋[𝑅(𝑥𝑖 )]2 ∆𝑥.

𝑖=1

This approximation appears to become better and better as ‖∆‖ → 0, 𝑛 → ∞. Therefore, we define
the volume of the solid as
𝑛

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 = lim 𝜋 ∑[𝑅(𝑥𝑖 )]2 ∆𝑥

|∆|→0
𝑖=1
𝑏
= 𝜋 ∫ [𝑅(𝑥𝑖 )]2 𝑑𝑥.
𝑎

6.2.2 The Disc Method

To find the volume of a solid of revolution with the disc method, use one of the following:
(i) 𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.

100
 𝑏
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑉 = 𝜋 ∫ [𝑅(𝑥𝑖 )]2 𝑑𝑥
𝑎
𝑑
(ii) 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑉 = 𝜋 ∫𝑐 [𝑅(𝑦)]2 𝑑𝑦.

Note!
You can determine the variable of integration by placing a representative rectangle in the plane
region “perpendicular” to the axis of revolution. If the width of the rectangle is∆𝑥, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
integrate with respect to x, and if the width of the rectangle is ∆𝑦, 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜
𝑦.
The simplest application of the disc method involves a plane region bounded by the graph of f
and the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠. 𝐼𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑅(𝑥)𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑓(𝑥).
Example 6
Find the volume of the solid formed by revolving the region bounded by the graph of

𝑓(𝑥) = √sin 𝑥 and the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 (≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋) 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.

𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
From the representative rectangle, you can deduce that the radius of this solid is

𝑅(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) = √sin 𝑥.

𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠:
𝑏 𝜋
𝑉 = 𝜋 ∫ [𝑅(𝑥)]2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ∫ (√sin 𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 0
𝜋
= 𝜋 ∫ sin 𝑥𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
= −𝜋 cos 𝑥 |
0
= 𝜋(1 + 1)
= 2𝜋
𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒2
Find the volume of the solid formed by revolving the region bounded by 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 − 𝑥 2 and
𝑔(𝑥) = 1 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑦 = 1.
Solution
Here, begin by finding the points of intersection of 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔(𝑥).
Set 𝑓(𝑥)𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑔(𝑥).

101
 ⇒ 2 − 𝑥2 = 1
⇒ 𝑥2 = 1
⇒ 𝑥 = ±1
𝑇𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠, 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑔(𝑥)𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓(𝑥).
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠
𝑅(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)
= (2 − 𝑥 2 ) − 1
= 1 − 𝑥2
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦, 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 − 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒.
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑏
𝑉 = 𝜋 ∫ [𝑅(𝑥)]2 𝑑𝑥
𝑎
1
= 𝜋 ∫ (1 − 𝑥 2 )2 𝑑𝑥
−1
1
= 𝜋 ∫ (1 − 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 4 )𝑑𝑥
−1

2𝑥 3 𝑥 5 1
= [(𝑥 − + )]
3 5 −1
16𝜋
=
15

6.2.3 The Washer Method

The disc method can be extended to cover solids of revolution with a hole by replacing the
representative disc with a representative washer. The washer is formed by revolving a rectangle
about an axis.
If r and R are the inner and outer radii of the washer and w is the width of the washer, then the
volume is given by
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑟 = 𝜋(𝑅 2 − 𝑟 2 )𝑤.
To see how this concept can be used to find the volume of solid of revolution, consider a region
bounded by an outer R(x) and an inner radius r(x). if the region is revolved about its axis of
revolution, then the volume of the resulting solid is given by

102
 𝑏 𝑏
𝑉 = 𝜋 ∫ [𝑅(𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥 − 𝜇 ∫ [𝑟(𝑥)]2 𝑑𝑥
2
𝑎 𝑎

𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑏
𝑉 = 𝜋 ∫ ([𝑅(𝑥)]2 − [𝑟(𝑥)]2 )𝑑𝑥, 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑.
𝑎

Note that the integral involving the inner radius represents the volume of the hole and is subtracted
from the integral involving the outer radius.
Example 3

Find the volume of the solid formed by revolving the region bounded by the graphs of 𝑦 = √𝑥
and 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.
Solution
Here, the outer and inner radii are as follows:

𝑅(𝑥) = √𝑥: 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠.

𝑟(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 : 𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠.
Integrating between 0 and 1 produces
𝑏
𝑉 = 𝜋 ∫ ([𝑅(𝑥)]2 − [𝑟(𝑥)]2 )𝑑𝑥
𝑎
1
= 𝜋 ∫ (𝑥 − 𝑥 4 )𝑑𝑥
0

𝑥2 𝑥5 1
= 𝜋[ − ]
2 5 0
3𝜋
=
10
6.2.4 Integrating with Respect to y, Two-integral Case
Example 4
Find the volume of the solid formed by revolving the region bounded by the graphs of 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 1
,𝑦 = 0, 𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 1 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.
Solution
Here, the outer radius is simply 𝑅 = 1. There is , however, no convenient formula to represent the
inner radius.

103
When 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 1, 𝑟 = 0 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 1 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 2, 𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 1
which implies that 𝑟 = √𝑦 − 1.

Hence
0, 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 1
𝑟(𝑦) = {
√𝑦 − 1, 1 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 2
Using this definition of the inner radius, you can use two integrals to find the volume.
1 2
𝑉 = 𝜋∫ (12 −0 2 )𝑑𝑦
+ 𝜋 ∫ [12 − (√𝑦 − 1)2 ]𝑑𝑦
0 1
1 2
= 𝜋 ∫ 𝑑𝑦 + 𝜋 ∫ (2 − 𝑦)𝑑𝑦
0 1

1 𝑦2 2
= 𝜋𝑦 | + 𝜋 [2𝑦 − ]
0 2 1
1
= 𝜋 (1 + 4 − 2 − 2 + )
2
3𝜋
=
2
1
Note that the first integral; ∫0 𝑑𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓
radius 1 and height 1. This portion of volume could have been determined without using calculus.

104
Activity 6.2
1. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region bounded by the graphs of
the equations about the indicated lines:
(i) 𝑦 = √𝑥, 𝑦 = 0, 𝑥 = 0, 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.
(ii) 𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 , 𝑦 = 0, 𝑥 = 2, 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.
(iii) 𝑦 = 6 − 2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 6 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.
2. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region bounded by the graphs of
the equations about the line 𝑦 = 4:
(i) 𝑦 = 𝑥, 𝑦 = 3, 𝑥 = 0.
(ii) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 = 4.
1
(iii) 𝑦 = 𝑥 , 𝑦 = 0, 𝑥 = 1, 𝑥 = 4.
𝜋
(iv) 𝑦 = sec 𝑥, 𝑦 = 0,0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3

105
6.2.5 The Shell Method
In this section, you will study an alternative method for finding the volume of a solid of revolution.
This method is called the shell method because it uses cylindrical shells. We will compare the
advantages of the disc and shell methods later in this section.
To begin, consider a representative rectangle where w is the width of the rectangle, h the height of
the rectangle and p is the distance between the axis of revolution and the center of the rectangle.
When this rectangle is revolved about its axis of revolution, it forms a cylindrical shell (or tube)
of thickness w. to find the volume of this shell, consider two cylinders. The radius of the larger
cylinder corresponds to the outer radius of the shell, and the radius of the smaller cylinder
corresponds to the inner radius of the shell.
𝑤
Here, because p is the average radius of the shell, you know that the outer radius is 𝑝 + ( 2 ) and
𝑤
the inner radius is 𝑝 − ( 2 ).

Thus, the volume of the shell is given by

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙 = (𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟) − (𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒)
𝑤 𝑤
= 𝜋(𝑝 + )2 ℎ − 𝜋(𝑝 − )2 ℎ
2 2
= 2𝜋𝑝ℎ𝑤
= 2𝜋(𝐴𝑛 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠)(𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡)(𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠).
Note!
You can use this formula to find the volume of a solid of revolution as follows: assume that the
plane region is revolved about a line to form the solid.
If you consider a horizontal rectangle of width ∆𝑦, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡
a line parallel to the 𝑎 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑠𝑒
volume is given by
∆𝑉 = 2𝜋[𝑝(𝑦)ℎ(𝑦)]∆𝑦.
You can approximate the volume of the solid by n such shells of thickness ∆𝑦, ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 ℎ(𝑦𝑖 ) and
average radius 𝑝(𝑦𝑖 ).
Therefore
𝑛

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 ≈ ∑ 2𝜋[𝑝(𝑦𝑖 )ℎ(𝑦𝑖 )]∆𝑦

𝑖=1
𝑛

= 2𝜋 ∑[𝑝(𝑦𝑖 )ℎ(𝑦𝑖 )]∆𝑦.

𝑖=1

106
6.2.6 The Shell Method Theorem
To find the volume of a solid of revolution with the shell method, use one of the following theories:
(i) Horizontal axis of revolution
𝑏
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑉 = 2𝜋 ∫ 𝑝(𝑦)ℎ(𝑦)𝑑𝑦
𝑎
(ii) Vertical axis of revolution
𝑑
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑉 = 2𝜋 ∫ 𝑝(𝑥)ℎ(𝑥)𝑑𝑥.
𝑐

Example1
Find the volume of the solid of revolution formed by revolving the region bounded by
𝑦 = 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 (0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1) 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.
Solution
Here, because the axis of revolution is vertical, use a vertical representative rectangle. The width
∆𝑥 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛. The distance from the center of the
rectangle to the axis of revolution is 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑠
ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 . Moreover, because 𝑥 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 0 𝑡𝑜 1, 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑖𝑠:
𝑑
𝑉 = 2𝜋 ∫ 𝑝(𝑥)ℎ(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑐
1
= 2𝜋 ∫ 𝑥(𝑥 − 𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥
0
1
= 2𝜋 ∫ (−𝑥 4 + 𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥
0

𝑥5 𝑥3 1
= 2𝜋 [− + ]
5 3 0
1 1
= 2𝜋 (− + + 0 − 0)
5 3
4𝜋
= .
15

107
Activity 6.2.1
1. Use the shell method to find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region
about the specified line:
(i) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 = 4𝑥 − 𝑥 2 , 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑥 = 4.
(ii) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 = 4𝑥 − 𝑥 2 , 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑥 = 2.
(iii) 𝑦 = 4𝑥 − 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 = 0, 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑥 = 5.
(iv) 𝑦 = √𝑥, 𝑦 = 0, 𝑥 = 4, 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑥 = 6.
2. Use the disc or shell method to find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the
region bounded by the graphs of the equations about the specified line:
(i) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 = 0, 𝑥 = 2, 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.
1
(ii) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 = 0, 𝑥 = 1, 𝑥 = 4, 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.

108
6.3 Arc Length and Surfaces of Revolution
In this section, definite integrals are used to find the arc length of a plane curve and the area of a
surface of revolution. In both cases, we approximate an arc (a segment of a curve) by straight line
segments whose lengths are given by the familiar distance formula

𝑑 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 .
A rectifiable curve is one that has a finite arc length. You will see that a sufficient condition for
the graph of a function f to be rectifiable between [𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎)]𝑎𝑛𝑑 [𝑏. 𝑓(𝑏)]𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓 ′ 𝑏𝑒 continuous
on [𝑎, 𝑏]. 𝑆𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑛 [𝑎, 𝑏]𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒
interval [𝑎, 𝑏]𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒.
Consider a function, 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 [𝑎, 𝑏].
You can approximate the graph of 𝑓 𝑏𝑦 𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑔𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 determined by
the partition
𝑎 = 𝑥0 < 𝑥1 < 𝑥2 < ⋯ < 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏.
By letting ∆𝑥𝑖 = 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥𝑖−1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝑦𝑖 = 𝑦𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖−1, you can approximate the length of the graph by
𝑛 𝑛
∆𝑦𝑖 2
𝑠 ≈ ∑ √(∆𝑥𝑖 )2 + (∆𝑦𝑖 )2 = ∑ √1 + ( ) (∆𝑥𝑖 ).
∆𝑥𝑖
𝑖=1 𝑖=1

6.3.1 Definition of Arc Length

Let the function given by 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎 𝑠𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 [𝑎, 𝑏]. The arc
length of 𝑓 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 𝑖𝑠:
𝑏
𝑠 = ∫ √1 + [𝑓′(𝑥)]2 𝑑𝑥.
𝑎

Similarly, for a smooth curve given by 𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑦), 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑔 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑 𝑖𝑠:
𝑑
𝑠 = ∫ √1 + [𝑔′(𝑦)]2 𝑑𝑦.
𝑐

Definite integrals representing arc length often are very difficult to evaluate. In this section, we
present a few examples.
Example 1
Find the arc length of the graph of
𝑥3 1
𝑦= +
6 2𝑥
1
𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 [2 , 2].

109
Solution
Here, first find the derivative of the given function and deduce that
𝑑𝑦 3𝑥 2 1
= − 2
𝑑𝑥 6 2𝑥
1 1
= (𝑥 2 − 2 )
2 𝑥
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓

𝑏
𝑑𝑦 2
𝑠 = ∫ √1 + ( ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑑𝑥

2
1 1
= ∫ √1 + [ (𝑥 2 − 2 )]2 𝑑𝑥
1 2 𝑥
2

2
1 1
= ∫ √ (𝑥 2 + 2 + 4 ) 𝑑𝑥
1 4 𝑥
2
2
1 2 1
=∫ (𝑥 + 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
1 2 𝑥
2

1 𝑥3 1 2
= [ ( − )] 1
2 3 𝑥
2
1 13 47
= ( + )
2 6 24
33
=
16
Example 2
Find the arc length of the graph of (𝑦 − 1)3 = 𝑥 2 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 [1,5].
Solution
Here, start by solving for 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑦:
3⁄
𝑥 = ±(𝑦 − 1) 2.

Now, choosing the positive value of 𝑥 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑠:

𝑑𝑦 3 1
= (𝑦 − 1) ⁄2 .
𝑑𝑥 2

110
Therefore, the arc length is

𝑑
𝑑𝑦 2
𝑠 = ∫ √1 + ( ) 𝑑𝑦
𝑐 𝑑𝑥

5
3 1
= ∫ √1 + [ (𝑦 − 1) ⁄2 ]2 𝑑𝑦
1 2

5
9𝑦 5
= ∫ √( − )𝑑𝑦
1 4 4

1 5
= ∫ √(9𝑦 − 5)𝑑𝑦
2 1
3⁄
1 (9𝑦 − 5) 2 5
= [ ]
18 3⁄ 1
2
1 3 3
= (40 ⁄2 − 4 ⁄2 )
27
= 9.0734
Example 3
𝜋
Find the arc length of the graph of 𝑦 = ln (cos 𝑥) 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑥 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑥 = 2 .

Solution
Here, using
𝑑𝑦 sin 𝑥
=− = − tan 𝑥 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓
𝑑𝑥 cos 𝑥
𝑏
𝑑𝑦 2
𝑠 = ∫ √1 + ( ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
4
= ∫ √1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
4
= ∫ √𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
4
= ∫ sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0

111
 𝜋⁄
= [𝑙𝑛|sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥|] 4
0
= ln(√2 + 1) − 𝑙𝑛1

≈ 0.8814
6.3.2 Area of a Surface of Revolution
We now look at a procedure for finding the area of a surface of revolution.
6.3.3 Definition of a Surface of Revolution
If the graph of a continuous function is revolved about a line, the resulting surface is a surface of
revolution.
6.3.4 Definition of the Area of Surface of Revolution
Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 [𝑎, 𝑏]. 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑆 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒
surface of revolution formed by revolving the graph of 𝑓 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑎 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
is
𝑏
𝑆 = 2𝜋 ∫ 𝑟(𝑥)√1 + [𝑓′(𝑥)]2 𝑑𝑥
𝑎

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑟(𝑥)𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛. 𝐼𝑓
𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑦)𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 [𝑐, 𝑑], 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑖𝑠
𝑑
𝑆 = 2𝜋 ∫ 𝑟(𝑦)√1 + [𝑔′(𝑦)]2 𝑑𝑦
𝑐

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑟(𝑦)𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
Example 4
Find the area of the surface formed by revolving the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙
[0,1] 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.
Solution
The distance between the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑟(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦
𝑏
𝑆 = 2𝜋 ∫ 𝑟(𝑥)√1 + [𝑓′(𝑥)]2 𝑑𝑥
𝑎
1
= 2𝜋 ∫ 𝑥 3 √1 + (3𝑥 2 )2 𝑑𝑥
0

112
 2𝜋 1 1
= ∫ (36𝑥 3 )(1 + 9𝑥 4 ) ⁄2 𝑑𝑥
36 0
3⁄
𝜋 (1 + 9𝑥 4 ) 2 1
= [ ]
18 3⁄ 0
2
= 3.563

113
Activity 6.3
Find the arc length of the graph of the function over the indicated interval:
3
2𝑥 ⁄2
(i) 𝑦= + 1, [0,1]
3
𝑥4 1
(ii) 𝑓(𝑥) = + 4𝑥 2 , [1,2]
8
1
(iii) 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 (𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 ), [0,2]
2
3𝑥 ⁄3
(iv) 𝑓(𝑥) = , [1,8]
2

114
6.4 Work
The concept of work is important to scientists and engineers for determining the energy needed
to perform various jobs.
For instance, it is useful to know the amount of work done when a crane lifts a steel girder, when
a spring is compressed, when a rocket is propelled into the air, or when a truck pulls a load along
a highway.
In general, we say that work is done by a force when it moves an object. If the force applied to
the object is constant, we have the following definition of work.
6.4.1 Definition of Work Done by a Constant Force
If an object is moved a distance 𝐷 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑊 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠
𝑊 = 𝐹𝐷.
There are many types of force namely: centrifugal, electromotive and gravitational, to state but a
few.
A force can be thought of as a push or pull; a force changes the state of rest or state of motion of
a body. For gravitational forces on the earth, it is common to use units of measure corresponding
to the weight of an object.
Example 1
Determine the work done in lifting a 950g object 9 meters.
Solution
Here, the magnitude of the required force 𝐹 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡. 𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
in lifting the object 9m is:
𝑊 = 𝐹𝐷
= 950 × 9
= 8650 𝑚. 𝑙𝑏

115
6.5 Moments, Centers of Mass and Centroids
6.5.1 Mass
In this section, you will study several important applications of integration that are related to mass.
Mass is a measure of a body’s resistance to changes in motion and is independent of the particular
gravitational system in which the body is located. However, because so many applications
involving mass occur on the earth’s surface, we tend to equate an object’s mass with weight. This
is technically correct.
Weight is a type of force and as such is dependent on gravity. Force and mass are related by the
equation
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = (𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠)(𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛).
Example 2
Find the mass (in slugs) of an object whose weight at sea level is 1 pound.
Solution
Using 32 feet per second per second as the acceleration due to gravity produces:
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 =
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
1 𝑙𝑏
=
32 𝑓𝑡/𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
= 0.03125 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔.
6.5.2 Moments and Center of Mass: One-dimensional System
Let the point masses 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , … , 𝑚𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑦.
(i) 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑀0 = 𝑚1 𝑥1 + 𝑚2 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑚𝑛 𝑥𝑛 .
𝑀
(ii) 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑥̅ = 𝑚0 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑚 = 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + ⋯ + 𝑚𝑛 , 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 mass
of the system.
6.5.3 Center of Mass in Two-Dimensional System
you can extend the concept of moment to two dimensions by considering a system of masses
located in the 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ), … , (𝑥𝑛 , 𝑦𝑛 ). Rather than defining a
single moment (with respect to the origin), we define two moments: one with respect to the 𝑥 −
𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.
Theorem
Let the point masses 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , … , 𝑚𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ), … 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑥𝑛 , 𝑦𝑛 ) respectively.
(i) 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑀𝑦 = 𝑚1 𝑥1 + 𝑚2 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑚𝑛 𝑥𝑛 .

116
 (ii) 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑀𝑥 = 𝑚1 𝑦1 + 𝑚2 𝑦2 + ⋯ + 𝑚𝑛 𝑦𝑛 .
(iii) 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑥̅ , 𝑦̅) 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑠
𝑀𝑦 𝑀𝑥
𝑥̅ = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦̅ =
𝑚 𝑚
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑚 = 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + ⋯ + 𝑚𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚.
The moment system of masses in the plane can be taken about any horizontal or vertical line. In
general, the moment about a line is the sum of the product of the masses and the directed distances
from the points to the line.
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑚1 (𝑦1 − 𝑏) + 𝑚2 (𝑦2 − 𝑏) + ⋯ + 𝑚𝑛 (𝑦𝑛 − 𝑏): ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑏.
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑚1 (𝑥1 − 𝑎) + 𝑚2 (𝑥2 − 𝑎) + ⋯ + 𝑚𝑛 (𝑥𝑛 − 𝑎): 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑎.
Example 3
Find the center of mass of a system of point masses 𝑚1 = 6, 𝑚2 = 3, 𝑚3 = 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚4 = 9 located
at (3, −2), (0,0), (−5,3)𝑎𝑛𝑑 (4,2).
Solution
Here
𝑚 = 6 + 3 + 2 + 9 = 20; 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠.
𝑀𝑦 = 6(3) + 3(0) + 2(−5) + 9(4) = 44; 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.

𝑀𝑥 = 6(−2) + 3(0) + 2(3) + 9(2) = 12; 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.

Therefore
𝑀𝑦 44 11 𝑀𝑥 12 3
𝑥̅ = = = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦̅ = = =
𝑚 20 5 𝑚 20 5
11 3
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑠 ( 5 , 5).

6.5.4 Center of Mass of a Planar Lamina

So far in this section, we have assumed the total mass of a system to be distributed at discrete
points in a plane or on a line.
We now consider a thin flat plate of material of uniform density called a planar lamina. Density is
a measure of mass per unit of volume such as grams per cubic centimeter. For planar laminas,
however, density is considered to be a measure of mass per unit of area.
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒎
Let 𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 𝑏𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑜𝑛 [𝑎, 𝑏]𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒
planar lamina of function 𝜌 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥), 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏.
(i) 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒:

117
 𝑏
𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑀𝑥 = 𝜌 ∫ [ ] [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥
𝑎 2
𝑏
𝑀𝑦 = 𝜌 ∫ 𝑥[𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥.
𝑎
𝑀𝑦 𝑀𝑥
(ii) 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑥̅ , 𝑦̅) 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑥̅ = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦̅ =
𝑚 𝑚
𝑏
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑚 = 𝜌 ∫ [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎.
𝑎

Example 4
Find the center of mass of the lamina of uniform density 𝜌 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ 𝑜𝑓
𝑓(𝑥) = 4 − 𝑥 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.
Solution
Here, because the center of mass lies on the axis of symmetry, you know that 𝑥̅ = 0. Moreover,
the mass of the lamina is
2
𝑚 = 𝜌 ∫ (4 − 𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥
−2

𝑥3 2
= 𝜌 [4𝑥 − ]
3 −2
32𝜌
= .
3
To find the moment about 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠, 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛. The
distance from the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑠:
𝑓(𝑥) 4 − 𝑥 2
𝑦𝑖 = = .
2 2
Here, because the mass of the representative triangle is
𝜌𝑓(𝑥)∆𝑥 = 𝜌(4 − 𝑥 2 )∆𝑥, 𝑦𝑜𝑢 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒
2
4 − 𝑥2
𝑀𝑥 = 𝜌 ∫ (4 − 𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥
−2 2

𝜌 2
= ∫ (16 − 8𝑥 2 + 𝑥 4 )𝑑𝑥
2 −2

𝜌 8𝑥 3 𝑥 5 2
= [16𝑥 − + ]
2 3 5 −2

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 256𝜌
=
15
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦̅ 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦
𝑀𝑥
𝑦̅ =
𝑚
256𝜌⁄
= 15
32𝜌⁄
3
8
= .
5
8
Thus, the center of mass (the balancing point) of the lamina is (0, 5).

Example 5
Find the centroid of the region bounded by the graphs of 𝑓(𝑥) = 4 − 𝑥 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 2.
Solution
The graphs intersect at the points (−2,0)𝑎𝑛𝑑 (1,3). Thus, the area of the region is
1
𝐴 = ∫−2[𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥
1
= ∫ (2 − 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥
−2

9
=
2
The centroid (𝑥̅ , 𝑦̅) 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠:
1 1
𝑥̅ = ∫ 𝑥[(4 − 𝑥 2 ) − (𝑥 + 2)]𝑑𝑥
𝐴 −2

2 1
= ∫ (−𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥)𝑑𝑥
9 −2

2 −𝑥 4 𝑥 3 1
= [ − + 𝑥2]
9 4 3 −2
−1
=
2
1 1 (4 − 𝑥 2 ) + (𝑥 + 2)
𝑦̅ = ∫ [ ] [(4 − 𝑥 2 ) − (𝑥 + 2)]𝑑𝑥
𝐴 −2 2

119
 2 1 1
= ( ) ( ) ∫ (−𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 6)(−𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 2)𝑑𝑥
9 2 −2

1 1
= ∫ (𝑥 4 − 9𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 12)𝑑𝑥
9 −2

1 𝑥5 1
= [ − 3𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 12𝑥]
9 5 −2
12
=
5
−1 12
Thus, the center of the region is (𝑥̅ , 𝑦̅ ) = ( 2 , 5 ).

6.5.6 Theorem of Pappus

The final topic in this section is a useful theorem credited to Pappus of Alexandria (300 A.D), a
Greek mathematician whose eight-volume mathematical collection is a record of much of classical
Greek mathematics.
[Link] The theorem of Pappus
Let 𝑅 𝑏𝑒 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝐿 𝑏𝑒 𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝐿 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡
𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑅. 𝐼𝑓 𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒,
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑅 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑠:
𝑉 = 2𝜋𝑟𝐴
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑅.
Note that 2𝜋𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑖𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡
the line.
Example 6
Find the volume of the torus formed by revolving the circular region bounded by
(𝑥 − 2)2 + 𝑦 2 = 1
𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.
Solution
Here, you see that the centroid of the circular region is (2,0). Thus, the distance between the
centroid and the axis of revolution is 𝑟 = 2.
Because the area of the circular region is 𝐴 = 𝜋, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑢𝑠 𝑖𝑠:
𝑉 = 2𝜋𝑟𝐴
= 2𝜋(2)(𝜋)

120
= 4𝜋 2
≈ 39.5

121
Activity 6.5
1. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑀𝑥 , 𝑀𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑥̅ , 𝑦̅)𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜌 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒
graphs of the equations:
(𝑖)𝑦 = √𝑥, 𝑦 = 0, 𝑥 = 4.
(𝑖𝑖) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 = 0, 𝑥 = 4.
(𝑖𝑖𝑖)𝑦 = √𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥.
(𝑖𝑣) 𝑦 = −𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 2, 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 2.
2. Find the centroid of the region bounded by the graphs of the equations:
(i) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 = 𝑥.
1
(ii) 𝑦 = 𝑥 , 𝑦 = 0,1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4.
(iii) 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 2, 𝑦 = 0,0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3.
(iv) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 4, 𝑦 = 0.
3. Sketch the region bounded by the graphs of the equations and determine the area of the
region.
1
(i) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 = 0, 𝑥 = 1, 𝑥 = 5.
1
(ii) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 +1 , 𝑦 = 0, 𝑥 = −1, 𝑥 = 1.
(iii) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 3, 𝑦 = 3 + 8𝑥 − 𝑥 2
(iv) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3, 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 , 𝑥 = 0.

122
 Chapter Seven
7.0 Infinite Series
A series is a patterned sequence of numbers that is being added together, such as 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 +
5. An infinite series is a series that goes on forever, such as 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 +... up to infinity, or
16 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1 +.... out to an infinite number of terms.
7.1 Sequences
In mathematics, the word “sequence” is used in much the same way as in ordinary English. To say
that a collection of objects or events is in a sequence usually means that the collection is ordered
so that it has an identified first member, second member, third member, and so on.
Mathematically, a sequence is defined as a function whole domain is the set of positive
integers. Although a sequence is a function, it is common to represent sequences by subscript
notation, rather than the standard function notation.
For instance; 1, 2, 3, 4,… is a sequence.
7.1.1 Limit of a Sequence
The primary focus of this chapter concerns sequences whose terms approach limiting values.
Such sequences are said to converge.
For instance, the sequence
1 1 1 1 1
, , , , ,…
2 4 8 16 32
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜.
7.1.2 Definition of the Limit of a Sequence
Let 𝐿 𝑏𝑒 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟. 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 {𝑎𝑛 }𝑖𝑠 𝐿, 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠
lim 𝑎𝑛 = 𝐿
𝑛→∞

𝑖𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝜀 > 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠 𝑀 > 0 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 |𝑎𝑛 − 𝐿| < 𝜀 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑛 > 𝑀. Sequences
that have limits converge, whereas sequences that do not have limits diverge.
Theorem
Let 𝑓 𝑏𝑒 𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿.
𝑥→∞

If {𝑎𝑛 }𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓(𝑛) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑛, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 lim 𝑎𝑛 = 𝐿.
𝑛→∞

Example 1
1
Find the limit of the sequence whose 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 = (1 + 𝑛)𝑛 .

123
Solution
Here, you know that
1
lim (1 + )𝑥 = 𝑒.
𝑥→∞ 𝑛
Therefore, you can apply the stated theory to conclude that
1
lim 𝑎𝑛 = lim (1 + )𝑛 = 𝑒.
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ 𝑛
7.2 Series and Convergence
One important application of infinite sequences is in representing “infinite summations.”
Informally, if {𝑎𝑛 }𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
∞

∑ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 + ⋯
𝑛=1

𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 (𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠).

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠. For some series, it is
convenient to begin the index at 𝑛 = 0 (𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟).
To find the sum of an infinite series, consider the following sequence of partial sums:
𝑆1 = 𝑎1
𝑆2 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2
𝑆3 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3
.
.
.
𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛
If this sequence of partial sums converges, then the series is said to converge and has the sum
indicated in the following definition.
7.2’1 Definition of Convergent and Divergent Series
For the infinite series ∑ 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦
𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 .
If the sequence of partial sums {𝑆𝑛 }𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑆, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 ∑ 𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠. The
limit 𝑆 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠.

124
 𝑆 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 + ⋯
If {𝑆𝑛 }𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠.
As you study this chapter, you will see that there are two basic questions involving infinite series.
Does a series converge or does it diverge? If a series converges, what is its sum? These questions
are not always easy to answer, especially the second one.
Example 2
The series
∞
1 1 1 1 1
∑ = + + + +⋯
2𝑛 2 4 8 16
𝑛=1

ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑠.

1
𝑆1 =
2
1 1 3
𝑆2 = + =
2 4 4
1 1 1 7
𝑆3 = + + =
2 4 8 8
1 1 1 1 2𝑛 − 1
𝑆𝑛 = + + + ⋯ + 𝑛 =
2 4 8 2 2𝑛
Hence, because
2𝑛 − 1
lim =1
𝑛→∞ 2𝑛

𝑖𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑖𝑠 1.

Example 3
The 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠
∞
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
∑( − ) = (1 − ) + ( − ) + ( − ) + ⋯
𝑛 𝑛+1 2 2 3 3 4
𝑛=1

𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦
1
𝑆𝑛 = 1 − .
𝑛+1
Hence, because the limit 𝑆𝑛 𝑖𝑠 1, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑖𝑠 1.

125
Example 4
The series
∞

∑1=1+1+1+⋯
𝑛=1

𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠.

7.3 Alternating Series
So far, most series we have dealt with have had positive terms. In this section and the following
section, you will study series that contain both positive and negative terms. The simplest such
series is an alternating series whose terms alternate in sign. For example, the geometric series
∞ ∞
−1 1 1 1 1 1
∑( )𝑛 = ∑(−1)𝑛 𝑛 = 1 − + − + −⋯
2 2 2 4 8 16
𝑛=0 𝑛=0
1
𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑔𝑒𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟 = − 2.

Alternating series occur in two ways: either the odd terms are negative or the even terms are
negative.
7.3.1 Alternating Series Test Theorem
Let 𝑎𝑛 > 0. 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠
∞ ∞

∑(−1) 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∑(−1)𝑛+1

𝑛

𝑛=1 𝑛=1

𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒, 𝑖𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑡:

(i) 𝑎𝑛+1 ≤ 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑛.
(ii) lim 𝑎𝑛 = 0.
𝑛→∞

Example 5
Determine the convergence or divergence of
∞
1
∑(−1)𝑛+1 .
𝑛
𝑛=1

Solution
Here, because
1 1
≤
𝑛+1 𝑛

126
 1
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 (𝑎𝑠 𝑛 → ∞) 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑠 0, 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡
𝑛
to conclude that the series converges.
This series is called the alternating harmonic series.
Example 6
Determine the convergence or divergence of
∞
𝑛
∑ .
(−2)𝑛−1
𝑛=1

Solution
Here, to apply the alternating series test, note that, for 𝑛 ≥ 1,
1 𝑛
≤
2 𝑛+1
2𝑛−1 𝑛
⇒ 𝑛 ≤
2 𝑛+1
⇒ (𝑛 + 1)𝑛−1 ≤ 𝑛2𝑛
𝑛+1 𝑛
⇒ ≤
2𝑛 2𝑛−1
Hence
(𝑛 + 1) 𝑛
𝑎𝑛+1 = 𝑛
≤ 𝑛−1 = 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑛.
2 2
Furthermore by 𝐿′ 𝐻𝑜̂𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 ′ 𝑠𝑟𝑢𝑙𝑒
𝑥 1 𝑛
lim = lim = 0 → lim = 0.
𝑥→∞ 2𝑥−1 𝑥→∞ 2𝑥−1 (𝑙𝑛2) 𝑛→∞ 2𝑛−1

Therefore, by the Alternating Series Test, the given series convergences.

7.4 Taylor Polynomials and Approximations
The goal of this section is to show how polynomial functions can be used as approximations for
other elementary functions. To find a polynomial function P that approximates another function f,
beginning by choosing c in the domain of f at which f and P have the same value. That is
𝑃(𝑐) = 𝑓(𝑐).
Example 7
For the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 , 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑎 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑃1 (𝑥) = 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0
whose value and slope agree with the value and slope of 𝑓 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0.

127
Solution
Here, because 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦:
𝑓(0) = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 ′ (0) = 1.
Now, because
𝑃1 (𝑥) = 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0
𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑃1 (0) = 𝑓(0)𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑎0 = 1.
Moreover, because
𝑃1′ (𝑥) = 𝑎1
𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑃1′ (0) = 𝑓 ′ (0)𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑎1 = 1.
Therefore
𝑃1 (𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1.
7.5 Taylor and Maclaurin Polynomials
The polynomial approximation of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑐 = 0. For expansions about
an arbitrary value of c, it is convenient to write the polynomial in the form:
𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 (𝑥 − 𝑐) + 𝑎2 (𝑥 − 𝑐)2 + 𝑎3 (𝑥 − 𝑐)3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑐)𝑛 .
7.5.1 Definition of nth Taylor Polynomial and Maclaurin Polynomial
If f has n derivatives at c, then the polynomial
𝑓 ′′ (𝑐) 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑐)
𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑐) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑐)(𝑥 − 𝑐) + (𝑥 − 𝑐)2 + ⋯ + (𝑥 − 𝑐)𝑛
2! 𝑛!
𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑇𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓 𝑎𝑡 𝑐. 𝐼𝑓 𝑐 = 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛

′ (𝑥)
𝑓′′(0) 2 𝑓′′′(0) 3 𝑓 𝑛 (0) 𝑛
𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑓 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯+ 𝑥
2! 3! 𝑛!
𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑀𝑎𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓.
Example 8
From the definition given above, the nth Maclaurin polynomial for 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 is given by
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥𝑛
𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) = 1 + 𝑥 + + + ⋯+ .
2 3! 𝑛!
Example 9
Find the Taylor polynomials 𝑃0 , 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , 𝑃3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃4 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓(𝑥) = ln 𝑥 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑐 = 1.

128
Solution
𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑐 = 1 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔:
𝑓(𝑥) = ln 𝑥, 𝑓(1) = 0
1 ′
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = , 𝑓 (1) = 1
𝑥
1 ′′
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = − , 𝑓 (1) = −1
𝑥2
2! ′′′
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = , 𝑓 (1) = 2
𝑥3
3! 4
𝑓 4 (𝑥) = − , 𝑓 (1) = −6.
𝑥4
Therefore, the Taylor polynomials are as follows:
𝑃0 (𝑥) = 𝑓(1) = 0
𝑃1 (𝑥) = 𝑓(1) + 𝑓 ′ (1)(𝑥 − 1) = (𝑥 − 1)
𝑓 ′′ (1) 1
𝑃2 (𝑥) = 𝑓(1) + 𝑓 ′ (1)(𝑥 − 1) + (𝑥 − 1)2 = (𝑥 − 1) − (𝑥 − 1)2
2! 2
𝑓 ′′ (1) 𝑓 ′′′ (1)
𝑃3 (𝑥) = 𝑓(1) + 𝑓 ′ (1)(𝑥 − 1) + 2
(𝑥 − 1) + (𝑥 − 1)3
2! 3!
1 2
1 3
= (𝑥 − 1) − (𝑥 −) + (𝑥 − 1)
2 3
𝑓 ′′ (1) 𝑓 ′′′ (1) 𝑓 4 (1)
𝑃4 (𝑥) = 𝑓(1) + 𝑓 ′ (1)(𝑥 − 1) + (𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑥 − 1)3 + (𝑥 − 1)4
2! 3! 4!
1 1 1
= (𝑥 − 1) − (𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑥 − 1)3 − (𝑥 − 1)4
2 3 4
Example 10
Find the Maclaurin polynomials 𝑃0 , 𝑃2 , 𝑃4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃6 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓(𝑥) = cos 𝑥. 𝑈𝑠𝑒 𝑃6 (𝑥) 𝑡𝑜 approximate
the value of cos(0,1).
Solution
Expanding about 𝑐 = 0 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔:
𝑓(𝑥) = cos 𝑥, 𝑓(0) = 1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = − sin 𝑥, 𝑓 ′ (0) = 0
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = − cos 𝑥, 𝑓 ′′ (0) − 1
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = sin 𝑥, 𝑓 ′′′ (0) = 0

129
Here, through repeated differentiation, you can see that the pattern 1, 0, -1, 0 continues and you
obtain the following Maclaurin polynomials.
𝑃0 (𝑥) = 1
𝑥2
𝑃2 (𝑥) = 1 −
2!
𝑥2 𝑥4
𝑃4 (𝑥) = 1 − +
2! 4!
𝑥2 𝑥4 𝑥6
𝑃6 (𝑥) = 1 − + −
2! 4! 6!
Using 𝑃6 (𝑥), 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 cos(0,1) ≈ 0.995004165, 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠
with a calculator value to nine decimal places.
Note that in example 10, the Maclaurin polynomials for cos 𝑥 have only even powers of x.
Similarly, the Maclaurin polynomials for sin 𝑥 have only odd powers of x.
This is not generally true of the Taylor polynomials for sin 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 cos 𝑥 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑐 ≠ 𝑐.
7.6 Power Series
7.6.1 Definition of Power Series
If 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
∞

∑ 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + ⋯
𝑛=0

𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠.

More especially, a series of the form
∞

∑ 𝑎𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑐)𝑐 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 (𝑥 − 𝑐) + 𝑎2 (𝑥 − 𝑐)2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑐)𝑛 + ⋯

𝑛=0

𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑐, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑐 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑡.

Example 11
(i) 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 0:
∞
𝑥𝑛 𝑥2 𝑥3
∑ = 1+𝑥+ + +⋯
𝑛! 2 3!
𝑛=0
(ii) 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 − 1:
∞

∑(−1)𝑛 (𝑥 + 1)𝑛 = 1 − (𝑥 + 1) + (𝑥 + 1)2 − (𝑥 + 1)3 + ⋯

𝑛=0

130
 (iii) 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 1:
∞
1 1 1
∑ (𝑥 − 1)𝑛 = (𝑥 − 1) + (𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑥 − 1)3 + ⋯
𝑛 2 3
𝑛=0

7.7 Representation of Functions by Power Series

In this section, you will study several techniques for finding a power series to represent a given
function.
Example 12
4
Find a power series for 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥+2 , 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 0.

Solution
𝑎
Here, writing 𝑓(𝑥) = (1−𝑟) , 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑠

4 2 𝑎
= =
2 + 𝑥 1 − (−𝑥) 1 − 𝑟
2
−𝑥
𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑎 = 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 = . 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦
2
∞
4
= ∑ 𝑎𝑟 𝑛
2+𝑥
𝑛=0
∞
𝑥
= ∑ 2(− )𝑛
2
𝑛=0

𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥3
= 2 (1 − + − + ⋯ )
2 4 8

This power series converges when

𝑥
|− | < 1
2
𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑠 (−2,2).
Example 13
1
Find a power series for 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 , 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 1.

Solution
𝑎
Here, writing 𝑓(𝑥)𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 , 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑠
(1−𝑟)

131
 1 1 𝑎
= =
𝑥 1 − (−𝑥 + 1) 1 − 𝑟
𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑎 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 = 1 − 𝑥 = −(𝑥 − 1). 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟
𝑓(𝑥)𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦
∞
1
= ∑ 𝑎𝑟 𝑛
𝑥
𝑛=1
∞

= ∑[−(𝑥 − 1)]𝑛
𝑛=0

= 1 − (𝑥 − 1) + (𝑥 − 1)2 − (𝑥 − 1)3 + ⋯
The power series converges when
|𝑥 − 1| < 1
𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠 (0,2).
7.8 Taylor and Maclaurin Series
In this section you will study a general procedure for deriving the power series for a function that
has derivatives of all orders.
The development of power series to represent functions is credited to the combined work of many
seventeenth and eighteenth century mathematicians. Gregory, Newton, John and James, Bernoulli,
Leibniz, Euler, Lagrange, Wallis and Fourier all contributed to this work. However, the two names
that are most commonly associated with power series are Brook Taylor (1685-1731) and Colin
Maclaurin (1698-1746).
The following theorem gives the form that every (convergent) power series must take.
7.8.1 Theorem
𝐼𝑓 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓(𝑥) = ∑ 𝑎𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑐)𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 interval I
containing c, then
𝑐
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑓 𝑛 ( )
𝑛!
𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑓 ′′ (𝑐) 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑐)
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑐) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑐)(𝑥 − 𝑐) + (𝑥 − 𝑐)2 + ⋯ + (𝑥 − 𝑐)𝑛 + ⋯
2! 𝑛!
7.8.2 Definition of Taylor and Maclaurin Series
If a function 𝑓 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑐, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠

132
 ∞
𝑓 𝑛 (𝑐) 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑐)
∑ (𝑥 − 𝑐)𝑛 = 𝑓(𝑐) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑐)(𝑥 − 𝑐) + ⋯ + (𝑥 − 𝑐)𝑛 + ⋯
𝑛! 𝑛!
𝑛=0

𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑇𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓(𝑥)𝑎𝑡 𝑐. 𝑀𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟, 𝑖𝑓 𝑐 = 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑠 the
Maclaurin series for f.
Example 14
Use the function 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑀𝑎𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠
∞
𝑓 𝑛 (0) 𝑛 ′ (0)
𝑓′′(0) 2 𝑓′′′(0) 3 𝑓 4 (0) 4 𝑓 𝑛 (0) 𝑛
∑ 𝑥 = 𝑓(0) + 𝑓 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯+ 𝑥 +⋯
𝑛! 2! 3! 4! 𝑛!
𝑛=0

𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒.

Solution
Here, successive differentiation of 𝑓(𝑥)𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠:
𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥, 𝑓(0) = 0
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥, 𝑓 ′ (0) = 1
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥, 𝑓 ′′ (0) = 0
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥, 𝑓 ′′′ (0) = −1
𝑓 4 (𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥, 𝑓 4 (0) = 0
𝑓 5 (𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥, 𝑓 5 (0) = 1
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑜 𝑜𝑛. 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑟𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑒. Hence the power series is as
follows:
∞
𝑓 𝑛 (0) 𝑛 𝑓′′(0) 2 𝑓′′′(0) 3 𝑓 4 (0) 4 𝑓 𝑛 (0) 𝑛
∑ 𝑥 = 𝑓(0) + 𝑓 ′ (0) + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯+ 𝑥 +⋯
𝑛! 2! 3! 4! 𝑛!
𝑛=0

Then
∞
(−1)𝑛 𝑥 2𝑛+1 𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7
∑ =𝑥− + − +⋯
(2𝑛 + 1) 3! 5! 7!
𝑛=0

By the ratio test, you can conclude that this series converges for all x.

133
Activity 7
1. Write an expression for the nth term of the sequence:
(i) 1,4,7,10 …
(ii) −1,2,7,14,23 …
1 2 3 4
(iii) , , , ,…
2.3 3.4 4.5 5.6
2. Determine the convergence or divergence of the sequence with the given nth term. If the
sequence converges, find its limit:
𝑛+1
(i) 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛
𝑛
(ii) 𝑎𝑛 = (−1)𝑛 (𝑛+1)
3𝑛2 −𝑛+4
(iii) 𝑎𝑛 = ( )
2𝑛2 +1
3. Find the Maclaurin polynomials of degree n for the function:
(i) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 −𝑥 , 𝑛 = 3.
(ii) 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥, 𝑛 = 5.
1
(iii) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥+1 , 𝑛 = 4.
(iv) 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 − 3𝑥 3 + 𝑥 4 , 𝑛 = 4.
(v) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 𝑒 −𝑥 , 𝑛 = 4.
4. Find the Taylor polynomial of degree n:
1
(i) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 , 𝑛 = 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 = 1.
(ii) 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥, 𝑛 = 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 = 4.
(iii) 𝑓(𝑥) = ln 𝑥, 𝑛 = 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 = 1.
(iv) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 cos 𝑥, 𝑛 = 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 = 𝜋.
5. Find a power series for the function, centered at c and determine the interval of
convergence:
1
(i) 𝑓(𝑥) = 2−𝑥 , 𝑐 = 5.
3
(ii) 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥−1 , 𝑐 = 0
3𝑥
(iii) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 +𝑥−2 , 𝑐 = 0
2
(iv) 𝑓(𝑥) = 1−𝑥 2 , 𝑐 = 0
6. Use the definition to find the Taylor series centered at c for the function:
(i) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 2𝑥 , 𝑐 = 0
𝜋
(ii) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥, 𝑐 = 4
(iii) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑛, 𝑐 = 1
(iv) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥, 𝑐 = 0.
7. Find the Maclaurin series for the function:
(i) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥
(ii) 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
(iii) 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥

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Recommended book
Backhouse J.K., Houldsworth S.P.T. and Cooper B.E.D. (1985). Pure mathematics 2. Longman,
England.
Larson, Hostetler and Edwards (1994). Calculus. Heath and company, U.S.A.
Prescribed books

John Bird. Higher engineering mathematics. Fourth edition, newnes, U.K.

Dass, H.K. Advanced Engineering Mathematics; (2008), Chand & Company limited, New
Delhi.

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