1.
Elements of an optical fiber transmission link
In this block diagram that are a different block can be used in optical fiber communication.
General block diagram of optical communication system consists of following important
blocks :
Transmitter
. Information channel
. Receiver
Block diagram of OFC systems
Message origin :
Generally, message origin is from a transducer that converts a nonelectrical message into an
electrical signal.
Common examples microphones for the room a transducer that converts a non-electrical
include microphones for converting sound waves into currents and video (TV) cameras for
convert images into the current.
In the data transfer between computers, the message already in electrical form.
Modulator :
The modulator has two main functions :
Modulator converts the electrical message into the proper format
Modulator impresses this signal onto the wave generated by the carrier source
Two distinct categories of modulation are used i.e. analog and digital modulation system
Carrier source :
Carrier source generates the wave on which the information is transmitted. This wave is
called the carrier.
In fiber optic system, a laser diode ( LD ) or a light emitting diode ( LED ) is used for the
carrier.
Channel coupler :
Coupler feeds the power into the information channel. In channel coupler the atmospheric
optical fiber system is a lens used for collimating the light emitted by the transmitter side and
also have directing this light towards the receiver.
This channel coupler must be efficiently transfer the modulated light beam from the source to
the optic fiber device.
One of the advantages of this design is that it possibility of high losses.
Information channel :
The information channel is the path between the transmitter and receiver. In fiber-optic
communications, a glass or plastic fiber is the channel.
Amplifiers are needed in very long links to provide sufficient power to the receiver.
Repeaters can be used only for digital systems.
Optical detector :
The information being transmitted is detected by a detector. In the fiber optic system, the
optic wave is converted into an electric current by a photodetector.
The current developed by the detector. this current is proportional to the power in the incident
optic wave. Detector output current contains the transmitted information.
This detector output is then filtered to remove the constant bias and then amplified.
Signal processing :
Signal processing includes filtering, amplification. Proper filtering maximizes the ratio of
signal to unwanted power.
For a digital system, decision circuit is an additional block. The bit error rate (BER) should
be very small for quality communications.
Message output :
The electrical form of the message emerging, from the signal processor, are transformed into
a sound wave or visual image.
Sometimes these signals are directly usable when computers or other types of machines are
connected through a fiber system.
2. Electromagnetic Theory of optical propagation
Electromagnetic Mode Theory for Optical Propagation 1. Electromagnetic Waves In
order to obtain an improved model for the propagation of light in an optical fiber,
electromagnetic wave theory must be considered. The basis for the study of
electromagnetic wave propagation is provided by Maxwell’s equations. For a medium
with zero conductivity these vector relationships may be written in terms of the
electric field E, magnetic field H, electric flux density D and magnetic flux density B
as the curl equations:
where ε is the dielectric permittivity and μ is the magnetic permeability of the
medium. Substituting for D and B and taking the curl of Eqs (1.18) and 1.19) gives:
where∇2 is the Laplacian operator. For rectangular Cartesian and cylindrical polar
coordinates the above wave equations hold for each component of the field vector,
every component satisfying the scalar wave equation
Where ψ may represent a component of the E or H field and up is the phase velocity
(velocity of propagation of a point of constant phase in the wave) in the dielectric
medium. It follows that:
Where μr and εr are the relative permeability and permittivity for the dielectric
medium and μ0 and ε0 are the permeability and permittivity of free space. The
velocity of light in free space c is therefore:
respectively. It is necessary to consider both these forms for a complete treatment of
optical propagation in the fiber, although many of the properties of interest may be
dealt with using Cartesian [Link] basic solution of the wave equation is a
sinusoidal wave, the most important form of which is a uniform plane wave given by
where ω is the angular frequency of the field, t is the time, k is the propagation vector
which gives the direction of propagation and the rate of change of phase with
distance, while the components of r specify the coordinate point at which the field is
observed. When λ is the optical wavelength in a vacuum, the magnitude of the
propagation vector or the vacuum phase propagation constant k (where k = |k|) is
given by:
It should be noted that in this case k is also referred to as the free space wave number.
3. FIBER TYPES
BOOK 32
4. Linear and Non Linear Scattering losses
BOOB 60 -61
5. FIBER Bending Loss
BOOK 62-66
RMC 2
1. Fiber Connectors
BOOK 90-95
2. Fiber Alignment and Joint Losses
A major consideration with all types of fiber–fiber connection is the optical loss
encountered at the interface. Even when the two jointed fiber ends are smooth and
perpendicular to the fiber axes, and the two fiber axes are perfectly aligned, a small
proportion of the light may be reflected back into the transmitting fiber causing
attenuation at the joint. This phenomenon, known as Fresnel reflection, is associated
with the step changes in refractive index at the jointed interface (i.e. glass–air–glass).
The magnitude of this partial reflection of the light transmitted through the interface
may be estimated using the classical Fresnel formula for light of normal incidence and is
given by where r is the fraction of the light reflected at a single interface, n1 is the
refractive index of the fiber core and n is the refractive index of the medium between
the two jointed fibers (i.e. for air n =1). However, in order to determine the amount of
light reflected at a fiber joint, Fresnel reflection at both fiber interfaces must be taken
into account. The loss in decibels due to Fresnel reflection at a single interface is given
by: Hence, using the relationships given in Eqs (2.59) and (2.60) it is possible to
determine the optical attenuation due to Fresnel reflection at a fiber–fiber joint.
It is apparent that Fresnel reflection may give a significant loss at a fiber joint even when
all other aspects of the connection are ideal. However, the effect of Fresnel reflection at
a fiber–fiber connection can be reduced to a very low level through the use of an index-
matching fluid in the gap between the jointed fibers. When the index-matching fluid has
the same refractive index as the fiber core, losses due to Fresnel reflection are in theory
eradicated. Unfortunately, Fresnel reflection is only one possible source of optical loss at
a fiber joint. A potentially greater source of loss at a fiber–fiber connection is caused by
misalignment of the two jointed fibers. In order to appreciate the development and
relative success of various connection techniques it is useful to discuss fiber alignment in
greater detail. Any deviations in the geometrical and optical parameters of the two
optical fibers which are jointed will affect the optical attenuation (insertion loss) through
the connection. It is not possible within any particular connection technique to allow for
all these variations. Hence, there are inherent connection problems when jointing fibers
with, for instance different core and/or cladding diameters; different numerical
apertures and/or relative refractive index differences; different refractive index
profiles; fiber faults (core ellipticity, core concentricity, etc.). The losses caused by the
above factors together with those of Fresnel reflection are usually referred to as intrinsic
joint losses. The best results are therefore achieved with compatible (same) fibers which
are manufactured to the lowest tolerance
In this case there is still the problem of the quality of the fiber alignment provided by the
jointing mechanism. Examples of possible misalignment between coupled compatible
optical fibers are illustrated in Figure 2.17. It is ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING &
TECHNOLOGY EC8751 OPTICAL COMMUNICATION apparent that misalignment may
occur in three dimensions: the separation between the fibers (longitudinal
misalignment), the offset perpendicular to the fiber core axes (lateral/radial/ axial
misalignment) and the angle between the core axes (angular misalignment). Optical
losses resulting from these three types of misalignment depend upon the fiber type,
core diameter and the distribution of the optical power between the propagating
modes. Examples of the measured optical losses due to the various types of
misalignment are shown in Figure 2.18. Figure 2.18(a) shows the attenuation
characteristic for both longitudinal and lateral misalignment of a graded index fiber of 50
µm core diameter. It may be observed that the lateral misalignment gives significantly
greater losses per unit displacement than the longitudinal misalignment. For instance, in
this case a lateral displacement of 10 µm gives about 1 dB insertion loss whereas a
similar longitudinal displacement gives an insertion loss of around 0.1 dB. Figure 2.18(b)
shows the attenuation characteristic for the angular misalignment of two multimode
step index fibers with numerical apertures of 0.22 and 0.3. An insertion loss of around 1
dB is obtained with angular misalignment of 4° and 5° for the NA =0.22 and NA=0.3
fibers respectively. It may also be observed in Figure 2.18(b) that the effect of an index-
matching fluid in the fiber gap causes increased losses with angular misalignment.
Therefore, it is clear that relatively small levels of lateral and/or angular misalignment
can cause significant attenuation at a fiber joint. This is especially the case for fibers of
small core diameter (less than 150 µm) which are currently employed for most
telecommunication purposes.
3. Material Dispersion
BOOK 71-73
4. LED Structures
BOOK 99-104
5. AvaLanche Photo diode
BOOK 129-131