1.

PLANNING

1.1 Defining the Problem

1. Identify:

- the independent variable in the experiment

- the dependent variable in the experiment

- the quantities to be controlled – kept constant

1. Independent Variable

The variable you change on purpose during the experiment to see its effect.

2. Dependent Variable

The variable you measure or observe — it depends on the independent variable.

3. Controlled Variables (Quantities to be kept constant)

These are the variables you keep the same throughout the experiment to ensure a fair test.

Example 1: Effect of Acid Concentration on Rate of Reaction with Magnesium

Element Description
Independent Variable Concentration of hydrochloric acid (e.g. 0.5 M to 2.5 M)

Dependent Variable Time taken for magnesium to fully react / volume of gas collected

Controlled Variables - Volume of acid used

- Length/mass of magnesium strip
- Temperature
- Same container used

Example 2: Effect of Temperature on Solubility of Potassium Nitrate

Element Description
Independent Variable Temperature of the solution (°C)

Dependent Variable Mass of potassium nitrate dissolved / solubility (g/100g water)

- Volume of water used

Controlled Variables
- Type of salt (always KNO₃)
- Time allowed for dissolving
 Element Description
- Method of filtration/crystallisation

Example 3: Effect of Wire Length on Resistance

Element Description
Independent Variable Length of the wire (cm)

Dependent Variable Resistance of the wire (Ω)

Controlled Variables - Material of wire

- Thickness (gauge) of wire
- Temperature
- Voltage used
- Connections in the circuit

2. Formulate the aim in terms of a prediction or a hypothesis, and express this in words or in the
form of a predicted graph

Example A: Rate of Reaction vs. Concentration of HCl

 Prediction/Hypothesis (in words):

"It is predicted that as the concentration of hydrochloric acid increases, the rate of reaction
with magnesium will increase. This is because a higher concentration means more acid
particles per unit volume, leading to more frequent collisions."
 Predicted graph (description):
A positive curve, starting at the origin (0, 0), increasing steeply at first, then gradually
flattening as concentration increases — showing diminishing returns.

Example B: Resistance vs. Length of a Wire

 Prediction/Hypothesis (in words):

"If the length of the wire increases, the resistance will increase proportionally, because
electrons have to travel a longer distance and face more collisions."
 Predicted graph (description):
A straight line through the origin showing a linear relationship — resistance ∝ length.

Example C: Temperature vs. Solubility of KNO₃

  Prediction:
"The solubility of potassium nitrate will increase as temperature increases, because higher
temperature gives particles more kinetic energy to dissolve."
 Predicted graph:
A curved upward slope, not linear, starting above the origin, showing increased solubility
with temperature.

3. The hypothesis is usually a short statement showing the relationship (e.g. proportional) between
two variables.

Structure of a Good Hypothesis:

“As [independent variable] increases/decreases, [dependent variable] increases/decreases.”

OR
“[Dependent variable] is proportional to [independent variable].”
OR
“If [independent variable] is changed, then [dependent variable] will change in [specific way].”

Examples of Hypotheses (Short Format):

1. Titration: Volume of NaOH added vs pH

The pH increases as more NaOH is added.

2. Concentration vs Rate of Reaction

The rate of reaction is directly proportional to the concentration of hydrochloric acid.

3. Temperature vs Solubility

The solubility of potassium nitrate increases with temperature.

4. Length of Wire vs Resistance

The resistance of a wire is directly proportional to its length.

5. Light Intensity vs Rate of Photosynthesis (if biological)

The rate of photosynthesis increases with light intensity up to a certain point.

4. Explain your hypothesis using scientific knowledge

- The rate of reaction = collision theory

- Enthalpy of solution = ionic radii

- Group 2 = radii

1. Rate of Reaction – Collision Theory

Hypothesis (short form):

The rate of reaction increases with increasing concentration of acid.

Scientific Explanation:

According to the collision theory, a reaction occurs when particles collide with sufficient energy
(activation energy) and correct orientation.

 When the concentration increases, there are more reactant particles per unit volume.
 This leads to a higher frequency of successful collisions per second.
 As a result, the rate of reaction increases.

2. Enthalpy of Solution – Ionic Radii

Hypothesis (short form):

The enthalpy of solution becomes less exothermic as the ionic radius of the cation increases.

Scientific Explanation:

 When an ionic solid dissolves, two main energy changes occur:

1. Lattice energy is needed to break the ionic lattice (endothermic).
2. Hydration energy is released when ions are surrounded by water molecules
(exothermic).
 Smaller ions (with smaller radii) have higher charge density, which means they attract
water molecules more strongly, releasing more hydration energy.
 As the ionic radius increases, the charge density decreases, so hydration energy decreases,
making the overall enthalpy of solution less negative (less exothermic or even
endothermic).

3. Group 2 – Reactivity and Atomic Radii

Hypothesis (short form):

Group 2 metals become more reactive as you go down the group.

Scientific Explanation:

 Down Group 2, atomic radius increases because additional electron shells are added.
 The outer electrons are further from the nucleus and more shielded by inner electrons.
  This means the attraction between the nucleus and the outer electrons weakens, so it's
easier to lose electrons to form 2⁺ ions.
 Since losing electrons is the first step in most reactions for Group 2 metals, this makes them
more reactive as you go down the group.

1.2 Methods

1.2.1 Describe the methods to be used to vary the independent variable, and the means that you
propose to ensure that you have measured its values accurately

Example 1: Investigating the effect of concentration on rate of reaction

To vary the independent variable, which is the concentration of hydrochloric acid, I will prepare
several dilutions from a 2.0 mol/dm³ stock solution using distilled water. For example, to prepare 1.0
mol/dm³, I will mix equal volumes of 2.0 mol/dm³ HCl and distilled water using a volumetric pipette
and volumetric flask, and similarly for other concentrations (e.g., 0.5 M, 1.5 M).

To ensure that the concentration is measured accurately, I will:

 Use volumetric pipettes and volumetric flasks which have low uncertainty (±0.03 mL and
±0.1 mL respectively),
 Rinse all glassware with the solution before use to avoid contamination,
 Mix each solution thoroughly to ensure uniform concentration.

Example Variables and Methods

A. Temperature (Independent Variable)

 Method to vary: Use a water bath or ice bath to adjust solution temperature (e.g. 20°C to
60°C in 10°C intervals).
 Ensure accuracy: Use a digital thermometer (±0.1°C), and check temperature before and
during the reaction to ensure it remains constant.

B. Length of Wire (Independent Variable)

 Method to vary: Cut wires to different lengths (e.g. 10 cm to 100 cm).

 Ensure accuracy: Use a metal ruler (±1 mm), ensure wire is straight and measured flat on
the ruler before cutting.

C. Mass of Solute (Independent Variable)

 Method to vary: Weigh different masses of a solute using a digital balance.

 Ensure accuracy: Use a 4-decimal place electronic balance (±0.0001 g) and zero the balance
before each use.
1.2.2. Describe how you will measure the dependent variable

Your response should clearly state:

1. What the dependent variable is,

2. What method and equipment you will use to measure it,
3. How you will ensure accuracy and reliability.

Examples

1. Dependent Variable: Rate of Reaction (gas produced)

The dependent variable is the rate of reaction, measured by the volume of gas produced over time.
I will use a gas syringe (±1 cm³) connected to a sealed conical flask. The volume of gas will be
recorded at regular intervals (e.g. every 10 seconds).
To ensure accuracy, I will:

 Ensure airtight connections to avoid gas leakage,

 Use the same timing method (e.g. stopwatch),
 Repeat the experiment and take the average.

2. Dependent Variable: Temperature Change

The dependent variable is the change in temperature during the reaction.

It will be measured using a digital thermometer (±0.1°C).
I will record the initial and final temperatures, and calculate the change.
To improve accuracy:

 I will stir the mixture gently to ensure uniform temperature,

 Allow the thermometer to stabilise before taking each reading,
 Use the same volume and type of container in each trial.

1.2.3. Describe how you will control each of the other variables

You need to identify the controlled variables (all variables except the independent and dependent
ones), and explain how you will keep each one constant throughout the experiment to ensure a fair
test.

Example: Investigating effect of acid concentration on rate of reaction with magnesium

Controlled Variables & How to Control Them:

  Volume of acid used
→ Measured using a 25.0 mL graduated pipette to ensure same volume in each trial.
 Mass or length of magnesium strip
→ Use a measuring balance (±0.001 g) or pre-cut strips of the same length for each trial.
 Temperature of acid solution
→ Perform all trials at room temperature, or use a thermostatically controlled water bath.
 Type and surface area of magnesium
→ Use the same form (e.g. ribbon or powder) from the same batch, avoid oxidation by
using fresh samples.
 Same container
→ Conduct all experiments in the same conical flask to avoid differences in surface area and
gas loss.
 Timing method
→ Use the same stopwatch and start timing at the exact same moment each time (e.g.
when Mg is dropped in).

1.2.4. Explain how you will use any control experiments to verify that it is the independent
variable that is affecting the dependent variable and now some other factor

you need to describe a control experiment — an additional trial where the independent variable is
not changed or is kept at a "zero" or baseline value — to prove that any observed effect is really
due to that variable.

Examples

Example 1: Investigating concentration of HCl on rate of reaction with magnesium

 Control experiment: Use distilled water instead of HCl (0 mol/dm³ acid).

 Purpose: To confirm that no reaction occurs without acid.
 Conclusion: If no gas is produced in the control, then the increase in gas volume in other
trials is clearly due to acid concentration — confirming it is the independent variable
affecting rate.

Example 2: Investigating temperature on solubility of KNO₃

 Control experiment: Keep the temperature constant at room temperature (e.g. 25°C) and
measure solubility.
 Purpose: To provide a baseline for comparison and ensure that solubility changes at higher
temperatures are due to heating, not other variables (like stirring or impurities).
 Conclusion: If solubility increases only when temperature is raised, then temperature is the
influencing factor.

Example 3: Investigating length of wire on resistance

  Control experiment: Use a short, known length of wire (e.g. 10 cm) and repeat
measurements without changing it.
 Purpose: To confirm that any variation in resistance is not due to equipment drift or
contact resistance.
 Conclusion: Stable readings in the control support the claim that changes in resistance in
other trials are due to wire length.

Summary

A control experiment:

 Eliminates alternative explanations,

 Increases confidence in the link between independent and dependent variables,
 Should match the main experiment in all ways except for the independent variable.

1.2.5. Describe the arrangement of apparatus and the steps in the procedure to be followed

You need to:

1. Describe how the apparatus will be set up (with clear arrangement),

2. List the step-by-step method used in the experiment,
3. Ensure the steps allow for consistent, safe, and repeatable measurements.

General Template:

The apparatus will be arranged as follows:

[Brief description of the physical setup, mentioning key equipment and connections.]

The procedure will follow these steps:

1. [Start with safety or preparation steps]

2. [Explain how the independent variable is changed]
3. [Describe how to start the experiment]
4. [Explain how the dependent variable will be measured]
5. [State how repeats and clean-ups will be handled]

Example: Rate of Reaction – Acid + Magnesium (Collecting gas)

Arrangement of Apparatus:

 A conical flask will be connected to a gas syringe via a tight-fitting rubber stopper and
delivery tube.
 The acid solution is placed inside the flask, and a strip of magnesium is dropped in to start
the reaction.
 The gas syringe is used to measure the volume of hydrogen gas produced.

Steps in the Procedure:

 1. Measure 25.0 mL of hydrochloric acid using a graduated pipette and pour it into the conical
flask.
2. Prepare a strip of magnesium ribbon of known length/mass.
3. Ensure the gas syringe is at zero and securely connected to the flask.
4. Add the magnesium strip to the acid, immediately seal the flask with the stopper, and start
the stopwatch.
5. Record the volume of gas collected every 10 seconds, until the reaction stops.
6. Repeat the experiment using different concentrations of acid (e.g. 0.5 M, 1.0 M, 1.5 M,
etc.).
7. Clean all glassware between trials and repeat each concentration 3 times for reliability.

1.2.6. Suggest appropriate volumes and conc. of reagents

To suggest appropriate volumes and concentrations of reagents, we must ensure:

 The reaction occurs safely and within a reasonable timeframe.

 The quantities are measurable using common lab equipment (e.g. pipettes, burettes,
measuring cylinders).
 The concentrations are high enough to observe changes, but not so high that they are
wasteful or dangerous.

General Guidelines

Suggested Concentration
Reagent Type Suggested Volume Range
Range
Strong Acids (HCl, H₂SO₄,
0.5 – 2.0 mol/dm³ 20 – 50 mL per trial
HNO₃)
Weak Acids (ethanoic acid) 0.5 – 1.0 mol/dm³ 25 – 50 mL
Alkalis (NaOH) 0.5 – 1.0 mol/dm³ 20 – 50 mL
Salts for solubility (e.g. KNO₃) 0.2 – 1.0 g per 20 mL water 10 – 50 mL solvent
25.0 mL aliquot + 50.0 mL
Titrations (acid-base) Acid: 0.1 – 0.2 mol/dm³;
burette
Displacement or Redox 0.1 – 0.5 mol/dm³ 10 – 50 mL

Examples for Specific Experiments

1. Rate of Reaction – HCl + Mg

 HCl concentrations: 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0 mol/dm³

 Volume used: 25.0 mL (measured with a pipette)
 Mg strip: ~0.05 g per trial or fixed length (e.g. 3 cm)

2. Enthalpy of Neutralisation (HCl + NaOH)

 HCl and NaOH concentrations: 1.0 mol/dm³

 Volumes: 25.0 mL of each (mixed in a polystyrene cup)
  Adjust volumes to keep total reaction volume manageable (e.g. 50 mL)

3. Titration – HCl vs NaOH

 HCl in burette: 0.1 mol/dm³

 NaOH in flask: 25.0 mL of 0.1 mol/dm³
 Use 3–5 drops of indicator (phenolphthalein or methyl orange)

4. Solubility of a Salt (e.g. KNO₃)

 Add increasing amounts of KNO₃ (e.g. 1.0 g, 1.5 g, 2.0 g) into 20 mL water
 Heat the solution and observe the temperature at which all the salt dissolves

1.2.7. Assess the risks of your proposed methods

You should:

1. Identify any hazards from chemicals, equipment, or procedures,

2. Evaluate the risk (likelihood + severity),
3. State what precautions you will take to minimise or eliminate those risk

Example: Reaction Between HCl and Magnesium

Hazard Risk (Level) Precaution / Control Measure

Moderate – skin/eye Wear safety goggles, lab coat, and
Hydrochloric acid (corrosive)
burns handle carefully.
Low – explosive in large Keep away from flames; do not seal
Hydrogen gas (flammable)
amounts container tightly.
Handle with care; use equipment in
Glassware (can break) Low – cuts/injury
good condition.
Reaction may be vigorous at high Use dilute acid (≤2.0 M) and
Low–Moderate
concentrations perform trial run first.

Another Example: Titration of HCl and NaOH

Hazard Risk (Level) Control Measure

HCl and NaOH Moderate – skin/eye
Wear gloves, goggles, use pipette filler.
(corrosive) burns
Use funnel, clean up spills immediately with
Spillage of chemicals Low
water.
Glass burette breakage Low Clamp properly, handle with care.

Tips for Risk Assessment in Chemistry Practicals:

  Always assume students may spill or splash reagents.
 Consider the volume and concentration: dilute acids/alkalis (≤1 M) are much lower risk.
 Use personal protective equipment (PPE): goggles, lab coat, gloves.
 Work in a well-ventilated area if gases are involved.

1.2.8. Describe precautions that should be taken to keep risks to a minimum

you should outline specific safety measures that reduce the chance of accidents or injuries during
your chemistry practical.

These precautions are based on:

 The hazards of the chemicals/equipment used,

 The procedures involved, and
 Standard lab safety protocols.

General Precautions List:

1. Wear personal protective equipment (PPE):

o Safety goggles to protect eyes from splashes
o Lab coat to protect skin and clothing
o Gloves when handling corrosive or irritating chemicals
2. Use chemicals in safe concentrations and volumes:
o Use dilute acids/alkalis (≤ 2.0 mol/dm³) to reduce corrosiveness
o Avoid using excess quantities of any reagent
3. Handle glassware and equipment carefully:
o Check for cracks or damage before use
o Always clamp burettes and secure gas syringes properly
4. Avoid inhaling or igniting gases:
o Perform experiments involving gas (e.g. H₂) in a well-ventilated area
o Keep all flames away from flammable gases (e.g. hydrogen)
5. Clean up spills immediately:
o Use plenty of water to dilute and wash away spills
o Inform the teacher/lab technician if a large spill occurs
6. Dispose of chemicals safely:
o Follow your lab’s waste disposal rules
o Do not pour heavy metals or concentrated acids down the sink
7. Wash hands after the experiment, especially before eating or touching your face.
8. Follow instructions and do not work alone in the lab.

Example for a Specific Practical (e.g. Acid + Metal Reaction):

To keep risks to a minimum:

 I will wear goggles, a lab coat, and gloves at all times.

 I will use dilute hydrochloric acid (≤ 1.5 mol/dm³) and small pieces of magnesium to prevent
vigorous reactions.
 I will set up the gas syringe carefully to avoid pressure buildup or leaks.
 I will ensure there are no open flames, since hydrogen is flammable.
  Any spills will be cleaned with plenty of water immediately.

1.2.9. Draw up tables for data that you might wish to record

1. Rate of Reaction – Measuring volume of gas over time (e.g. Mg + HCl)

Time (s) Volume of H₂ gas collected (cm³)

0 0
10
20
30
40

2. Titration – e.g. HCl vs NaOH

Trial Initial burette reading (mL) Final burette reading (mL) Volume of acid used (mL)
1
2
3

1.2.10 Describe how the data might be used in order to reach a conclusion

you need to explain how the recorded measurements will be analysed to determine whether they
support the hypothesis or objective of the experiment.

General Template:

The data collected will be used to identify a pattern or relationship between the independent and
dependent variables. This will be done by:

 Calculating averages (if repeats were done),

 Plotting a graph (dependent variable vs independent variable),
 Identifying trends (e.g. directly proportional, increasing, constant), and
 Comparing the observed results to the original hypothesis or scientific theory.

From this, we can conclude whether the hypothesis is supported, partially supported, or rejected.

Examples for Common Experiments

1. Rate of Reaction (e.g. Mg + HCl)

The volume of gas collected over time will be plotted to show how the rate of reaction changes with
acid concentration. A steeper slope indicates a faster reaction. If the data shows that increasing [HCl]
increases the reaction rate, it supports the hypothesis that rate ∝ concentration (based on collision
theory).

2. Titration (HCl vs NaOH)

The volume of acid needed to neutralise a known amount of base will be used to calculate the
concentration of the unknown solution. Concordant titres will be averaged. From this, we can
conclude the molarity using the neutralisation equation and the stoichiometry of the reaction.

3. Solubility vs Temperature

A graph of solubility (g/100g water) vs temperature will be plotted. If the solubility increases with
temperature, it supports the hypothesis that the solubility of KNO₃ is temperature-dependent. The
curve can also be compared to reference data.

4. Enthalpy of Neutralisation

The temperature change will be used to calculate enthalpy change using q=mcΔT. Comparing the
values for different acids or bases shows whether the neutralisation enthalpy is consistent. This
helps confirm or refute the expected energy change.

Summary:

 You analyse trends, plot graphs, calculate values,

 Then you compare them to predictions or theory,
 And use the evidence to form a clear scientific conclusion.