“

Thenat
iont
hatdest
roy
sit
ssoi
l
,dest
roy
sit
sel
f.
”Franklin D. Roosevelt

What is soil?
There are several definitions of soil, depending on the discipline that supplies the
definition. The traditional definition is –material which nourishes and supports
growing plants. The component definition is –a mixture of mineral matter, organic
matter, water and air. Soil is actually an ecosystem. It has physical, chemical and
biological properties that continually change. It supports a variety of life from
microscopic bacteria to higher forms of life including invertebrates, such as spiders,
mites, ants, nematodes and earthworms, and vertebrates, such as moles, voles, and
shrews.

Considering all these factors, soil is a naturally occurring mixture of mineral and
organic matter with a definite form, structure, and composition. Soil is composed
primarily of minerals that are produced from rock (the parent material) that is
weathered - broken down into small pieces. The organic matter of the soil includes
both living organisms and dead organisms. Soils have four major components:
mineral matter, organic matter, air, and water. Generally speaking, the average soil
sample is 45% minerals, 25% water, 25% air, and 5% organic matter. The amount
of air and water filling the pore space in the soil varies depending on the amount of
precipitation, location, and water holding capability of the soil. The air and water
content of the soil is essential for most living organisms.

It is often stated
that 50% of the soil
is pore space since
this portion of the
soil is filled with
air and water in
varying amounts.

Sand, silt, and clay

make up from 40 –
60% of most soils.
Composition of Average Soil The percentage of
Minerals each will determine
The mineral portion of the soil is formed from bedrock that has been weathered the soil texture.
into smaller particles –sand, silt, clay, gravel, or stones. Soils range in depth from
only a few inches to tens of meters. They have often been transported far from the
site where they were initially formed and lie atop materials that are very different
from their original parent material.

Pore Space
Between the mineral particles of soil there are voids called pores. These small
spaces are filled with air and water. These pore spaces are essential to the soil
organisms and plants that receive oxygen, water, and nutrients from the soil.

There are two types of pore spaces that generally occur in soils. Macropores are
larger and allow air and water to move through the soil more rapidly. Sandy soils
are an example. In sandy soils, macropores dominate and air and water movement

1
 “
Thenat
iont
hatdest
roy
sit
ssoi
l
,dest
roy
sit
sel
f.
”Franklin D. Roosevelt

is very rapid. Micropores are smaller. The movement of air and water in these
soils is slowed greatly.

Although fine textured, clay soils have large amounts of pore space and the
movement of air and water is relatively slow. Clay is the smallest of the three main
mineral particles, and these soils have unusually large amounts of total pore space.
However, the pore spaces between the particles are very small, restricting the
movement of air and water. Aeration, especially in the subsoil, is not adequate for
good root development and desirable microbial activity. These soils demonstrate
that the size of the individual pore space is more important than a large number of
smaller sized pores. Activities, such as continuous cropping and plowing of soils
with very high organic matter, can result in a reduction of the larger macropore
spaces and, over time, cause these soils to become more infertile.

The organic
component of the
soil is composed of
living organisms,
humus, residue,
and decomposing
organic matter, in
the percentages
shown in this chart.

Humus –dark
colored, sticky
Organic Matter residue from the
bodies of dead
The final ingredient of soil is organic matter comprised of dead plant and animal organisms, that can
material and the billions of living organisms that inhabit the soil. be broken down no
further; gives soil its
structure, coating
The Importance of Soil mineral particles and
holding them
Soili sof tenr efer re
dt oa s“thewe al
thbe neathourf e e
t.
” Thes oilperforms many together; serves as a
major source of plant
functions which make this a true statement. Soil provides the home on which man nutrients.
builds structures and lives. It provides the medium for much of the plant growth
that supplies the base of the food chain for most other organisms, including man’ s
crops. The soil also provides us a snapshot of our geologic history. A summary
ofs oil’
sphy sica l
,c he mi cal
,a ndbi olog ic
a lfunc t
ionsf oll
ows :
▪Cont rolli
ngt hedi s
tribut i
onofr ainfal
lori rrigati
onwa te rtor unof f,
infiltration, storage, or deep drainage which affects the movement of
soluble materials, such as nitrates, nitrites, phosphorus, or pesticides.
▪Re gul atingt hebi olog i
c alactivit
ya ndc ha ng esamongs olid,liqui dand
gaseous phases of the nutrient cycle, which affect plant growth and the
decomposition of organic matter.
▪Fi lteringa ndbuf f
eringi mpur itiesfroma i
ra ndwa t
er.

2
 “
Thenat
iont
hatdest
roy
sit
ssoi
l
,dest
roy
sit
sel
f.
”Franklin D. Roosevelt

▪Pr ovi di
ngt heme c hanicals uppor tforplantsa nda nimals(gr owthme di
um
for vegetation that provides food and habitat).
▪St oringva stamount sofg roundwa ter.
▪Pr ovidingapl acewhe replantsc anc onduc tphot osy nt
hesis,c onve rt
ing
the sun’sra di
a nte ne r
gyi ntof oode nergyf ort hepl antandf ora ni mals.
▪Pr ovidingas i
tef orwa stede compos it
ion.
▪Pr ovidinguswi t
hf ood,fibe r
,bui ldingma teria l
s,andot herra wma t
eria
ls.
▪Pr ovidingar ecordofge ol
og ical,clima t
ic,ande cologic
a lhistory.
▪Pr ovidingt hef ounda t
iono nwhi chwebui ld.

The Soil Ecosystem

The soil is a part of all ecosystems and, in most, more life and a greater diversity of
life lives underground than on top. The soil is also an ecosystem with biotic
(living) and abiotic (non-living) factors. As with any ecosystem, there is dynamic
interplay between the living and non-living components, which are often limiting
factors to the biological community. In the soil, limiting factors can include:
temperature, moisture, pore size, pH level, aeration, and food supply available.
These factors will determine the diversity, number of each, and activity of species
present. Weather determines daily and seasonal variations in biological activity.
Fungi, bacteria, protozoa, nematodes, earthworms, and arthropods are typically
found in soil and many other organisms are full or part-time residents. The site of
most of the biological activity is the rhizosphere, the interface between the soil
and plant roots. Here, as in any ecosystem, the interactions among the organisms
include symbiotic relationships, parasitism, infectious disease, predator-prey, and
competition. For example, fungi can cause diseases of plants and animals, but they
also form symbiotic relationships, called mycorrhizae, with the roots of many
plants, allowing the plants to more readily take in water and nutrients.
Organisms within the soil provide many services:
- Decompose organic matter –saprophytic fungi are fungi that decompose
dead organic matter
- Break-down or degrade pollutants before they reach surface
water or groundwater
- Storage and release of nutrients
- The cycling of mineral nutrients
- Nitrogen cycle ( nitrogen fixation, nitrification, and denitrification)
- Carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, potassium cycling -
breakdown organic matter, releasing nutrients for use)
- Creation of macropores by burrowing invertebrates and vertebrates
allowing flow of air and water through the soil
- Addition of organic matter to the soil –feces and decomposing plant and
animal matter
- Production of substances by fungi and bacteria that help bind soil
particles together and stabilize soil aggregates
- Some soil organisms compete with or prey upon plant pest or disease-
causing organisms.
- Some bacteria release plant growth factors that increase plant growth
- Mycorrhizal fungi form symbiotic relationships with plant roots helping Rhisosphere – the
interface between the
plants acquire nutrients from the soil, and help stabilize soil soil and plant roots.
aggregates.

3
 “
Thenat
iont
hatdest
roy
sit
ssoi
l
,dest
roy
sit
sel
f.
”Franklin D. Roosevelt

- The biological community (mix of organisms in the soil) partially

determines a soi l’sresi
lienc e,orabi litytor ec
overitsfunc tions
after a disturbance, such as tillage, compaction, or fire.
- Organisms release CO2, which is converted to carbonic acid and dissolves
rocks.

A Soil Ecosystem
The management of soil can impact the soil community. Some organisms are
sensitive to trampling. Soil compaction, lack of vegetation, or lack of plant litter
covering the soil surface tends to reduce the number of soil arthropods. Reducing
tillage, or plowing of the soil, tends to result in increased growth of fungi, including
the beneficial mycorrhizal fungi. The soil community also impacts the soil content.
It takes about 4,000 to 6,000 pounds of crop residue per year to maintain the
content of organic matter in a soil. The management of croplands, rangelands,
forestlands, and gardens benefits from and affects the soil food web.

Energy flows from the sun, through the plants, and through the other living
components of the soil in a complex food web that has different compositions in
different ecosystems. Plants are producers which create organic compounds by
using the energy of sunlight, in the presence of chlorophyll, to combine carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere and water from the soil to produce sugar by the
process of photosynthesis. By-products of photosynthesis are oxygen, essential for
most other organisms, and water.
Respiration:
C6H12O6 + 6O2
=6CO2 +12H2O

6CO2 + 12H2O + energy = C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O

Photosynthesis provides the food supply for plants and most all other living
organisms, the consumers. As the plants, animals, and other organisms excrete
waste or die, the material is broken down by decomposers, and organic material is
added to the soil. Mineral nutrients are also returned to the soil where they will
again be available for plant growth. Plants and animals break down the sugars
4
 “
Thenat
iont
hatdest
roy
sit
ssoi
l
,dest
roy
sit
sel
f.
”Franklin D. Roosevelt

produced during photosynthesis to obtain the energy necessary for life processes
through the process of respiration, which produces carbon dioxide and water as
by-products. These processes, photosynthesis and respiration, are important to the
cycling of carbon and oxygen.

Oxygen produced during photosynthesis can permeate through pore spaces in the
soil where it is used by organisms for aerobic respiration. A second type of energy
release, anaerobic respiration, occurs in the absence of oxygen. This form of
respiration is used by some bacteria. The excess energy and oxygen produced
during photosynthesis maintain the soil community.

Soil microorganisms, such as bacteria, also use soil organic matter for energy to
support life. They incorporate some of the energy, but much is released through
respiration as carbon dioxide, water, and some gaseous nitrogen. However, some
nitrogen along with most phosphorus and sulfur are retained. These decomposers
play an important role in the cycling of these and other essential mineral nutrients.

Energy Transfer
The only significant source of energy for life on Earth is sunlight. The organisms
thatc a
n us et hes un’se nergy to pr oduc ef ood by phot osynthesi
sa rec all
ed
autotrophs. They are the producers, and the most well known producers are
plants. Autotrophs use the energy from the sugars produced for growth,
maintenance, and reproduction, but more energy is produced than is needed.

Most other organisms cannot produce their own food and must obtain the energy
they need by feeding on plants or on other organisms. These organisms are called
heterotrophs. They are the consumers. Almost all soil organisms are

5
 “
Thenat
iont
hatdest
roy
sit
ssoi
l
,dest
roy
sit
sel
f.
”Franklin D. Roosevelt

heterotrophs. A simple sequence of what eats what is called a food chain. In

nature, this rarely occurs. Organisms consume many different types of food or
organisms. A more realistic representation of feeding regimes is a food web,
which depicts the interactions among multiple food chains.

As energy moves from one organism to another, or one trophic level to the next,
much is lost as heat. The decreasing amount of energy passed from one trophic
level to the next is known as the energy pyramid.

Energy Flow in the Soil

Energy flows to and from the soil ecosystem and is distributed at various feeding or
trophic levels. Some organisms, like parasitic nematodes, fed directly on living
autotrophs (plants), eating their roots. Other organisms feed on heterotrophs that
ate the plants. The energy received is used by the heterotrophs for life processes,
such as growth, maintenance, movement, and reproduction. What is not used in
these processes is excreted or stored. Excreted material is used as an energy source
by other microorganisms, such as bacteria, protozoa, and fungi.

Since most organisms in the soil are heterotrophs, the soil ecosystem cannot be
completely self-sufficient. Energy produced and stored by autotrophs outside the
ecosystem must be brought into the soil. One of the largest sources of energy in the
soil comes from fallen dead leaves, twigs, and other dead plant and animal material,
called detritus, that make up the litter on the soil surface. This material can be
taken into the soil ecosystem by various methods. Litter feeders, detritivores, can
drag or incorporate surface material into the soil or it may enter through input from
plant roots through die back or consumption by root eaters.

Niches, Roles Within the Ecosystem

Producers, consumers, or decomposers are the main roles played by organisms in
an ecosystem. Plants and other photosynthetic organisms are producers. The
heterotrophs that consume plants or other organisms are the consumers and
decomposers. Consumers usually eat living or recently live tissues, digesting food
internally, and can be divided into several groups. Herbivores eat plants.
Carnivores eat meat, or organisms other than plants. Omnivores eat both plant and
animal matter. Detritivores eat dead and decaying plant or animal matter including
excrement. Decomposers break down and feed on dead organic material. They
decompose litter and create available nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, carbon, and
other nutrients for plant growth. They release enzymes that decay and transform
plant and animal material into smaller organic compounds that they can absorb.
Bacteria and fungi are the two main types of decomposers, and they occur in huge
quantities in the soil ecosystem. Transformers are a special group of decomposers
capable of breaking down large organic molecules into molecules small enough to
be absorbed by plant roots. This final step in the breakdown of detritus is critical to
the survival of terrestrial (land) ecosystems because it is essential to the cycling of
nutrients. It releases macro and micro nutrient elements required by plants and is
necessary to the recovery and recycling of essential nutrients that maintain natural
ecosystems.

6
 “
Thenat
iont
hatdest
roy
sit
ssoi
l
,dest
roy
sit
sel
f.
”Franklin D. Roosevelt

Nutrient Cycles
Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are called macronutrients because plants are
composed mainly of these elements. Minor quantities of a dozen other elements
(micronutrients) are also required for certain plant processes and plant health.
Magnesium is an example of a necessary micronutrient. Magnesium is a
component of chlorophyll, the green pigment in plants required for photosynthesis.
The cycling of macronutrients and micronutrients is critical to the maintenance of
all aspects of ecosystems. The nutrient that is often the most limiting factor for
crop and other plant growth is potassium.

The Water or Hydrologic Cycle

Water is essential for life. It cycles through the atmosphere, soil, and biota (living
organisms). Water falls as precipitation –r a i
n,s now,s l
ee t
,orha ilontoEa rth’
s
surface where it can do several things. It may infiltrate the soil, flow over the land
as surface runoff, or evaporate back to the atmosphere.

Water that infiltrates the soil moves downward through the soil into holes and pore
spaces becoming groundwater. Here, within the root zone, it can be absorbed by
plant roots, moved through the stems and leaves, and transpired back to the
atmosphere as water vapor. In the atmosphere, water vapor can cool and condense
to form clouds and water droplets that fall back to the surface as precipitation.
Water in the soil, not utilized by plants, continues to move through the soil. Some
of the water flows laterally, eventually surfacing as a spring or seep or enters
another body of water. Some water continues downward, eventually recharging the
groundwater and being stored in aquifers.

The water that falls on land but does not infiltrate the soil, the surface runoff, flows
overland and eventually enters a stream or river. Much water is evaporated before
ever reaching the land, returning to the atmosphere as water vapor.

The Carbon Cycle

The soil is only partially involved in the carbon cycle, as with the water cycle.
Plants use carbon dioxide from the atmosphere for the production of carbohydrates
(sugars) by photosynthesis. Plants and animals release carbon dioxide to the
7
 “
Thenat
iont
hatdest
roy
sit
ssoi
l
,dest
roy
sit
sel
f.
”Franklin D. Roosevelt

atmosphere as a by-product of respiration. When the sugars in organic matter are

consumed by soil organisms, the carbon is incorporated into their tissues, respired,
or excreted as waste. Decomposers consume organic waste and dead organisms,
releasing carbon dioxide and using oxygen. Oxygen is a by-product of
photosynthesis, and is used by plants and animals for respiration. Some carbon
dioxide combines with atmospheric moisture to form a weak carbonic acid solution Carbon dioxide –
Oxygen Cycle
that falls to the soil as precipitation and can play a role in the leaching of soils. Actinomycete –
filamentous
The Nitrogen Cycle bacteria, which
form associations
Ni tr
og en,l i
kewa tera ndc arbon,c y clest hroughag aseouspha se. TheEa r t
h’s with
atmosphere is 78% nitrogen gas (N2) and is the primary reservoir of nitrogen. nonleguminous
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria, volcanic action and lightning can convert nitrogen gas, plants and fix
atmospheric
fixing it into usable forms for plants as nitrate (NO3) and ammonium (NH4). The nitrogen.
high temperature and pressures of internal combustion engines, as those in cars, can
also create usable forms of nitrogen that enter the atmosphere.

Nitrogen fixation occurs in legumes, plants that have a symbiotic relationship with
the nitrogen-fixing bacteria (Rhizobium), such as clover, alfalfa, and soybean.
Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) and other bacteria, free living or actinomycetes in
association with non-leguminous plants, can fix atmospheric nitrogen, as can some
algae-fungus and plant-algae associations. Plants are the only source of nitrogen
for animals and other organisms that cannot fix nitrogen.

Biological nitrogen fixation by bacteria is the major source of nitrogen input to

soils. Other sources of nitrogen include atmospheric deposition of nitrates and
ammonium in precipitation or dry particulate matter, the addition of nitrogen-based
fertilizers, and decomposition of organic matter, which contains nitrogen.

Nitrogen losses from soil are great in agricultural areas, where nitrogen is lost when
crop plants are harvested. Nitrogen can also be lost due to leaching and soil
erosion, which can transport the nitrogen into the groundwater or aquatic
environments, such as streams, rivers, lakes, or ponds. Excess nitrogen in aquatic
environments can cause eutrophication and the associated increased plant growth. d. coulter
Mining phosphate
The plants later die, and their decomposition by bacteria can decrease the dissolved for use in fertilizers
oxygen content of the water resulting in fish kills.

N.C. Coop. Ext. Service

A soil particle
(colloid) is
surrounded by
nutrients.

8
 “
Thenat
iont
hatdest
roy
sit
ssoi
l
,dest
roy
sit
sel
f.
”Franklin D. Roosevelt

Soil genesis –the

Soil Formation study of the factors
The study of soil formation is called soil genesis, which means explaining the and processes of soil
origin of soils. Soil is a natural body, and forms as a result of physical, chemical, formation.
and biological processes of nature involved in complex interaction with the parent
material, topography, climate, and living organisms. Natural geologic processes of
For graphic on
the rock dictate which soil originates. soil formation,
see appendix A.
Climate and biological factors break down the rock by the process of weathering,
impacted by topography and a function of time and exposure of the rock to these
☻ A way to
age nt
[Link] g anicma t
erialscanpr oduc es oi
ls,s ucha spe
[Link]
oil’
spr opertiesa re remember the five
a result of these agents, which work together to create a unique soil profile, thus factors of soil
producing the great variety of soils that exist today. formation is to
memorize this:
The soil forming factors are: the type of soil
♦Pa rentma terial developed depends
♦Cl ima t
e on the amount of
time the parent
♦Re lieforTopog r aphy material on a specific
♦Bi ota(biolog icalf actors–organisms) topography is
♦Ti me /
Expos ur e exposed to the effects
of climate and
biology.
There are four basic processes that act on parent material, alter its properties, and
differentiate one soil from another. These processes are:
~ Translocations
~ Transformations
~ Additions
~ Losses

The interaction of these soil forming factors, in various combinations, give us the
great variety of soils we see today. The effects of these soil-forming factors results
in layers within the soil from the surface down to varying depths, depending on the
intensity of the weathering. These layers are called horizons. The combination of
these layers in a sequence, from the surface of the soil down, represents a soil
profile. The horizons recognized in a soil profile are identified by letters A, E, B,
C, O and R. Horizons and soil profiles will be covered in detail later in this section
but are referred to in the following description of soil forming factors.

9
 “
Thenat
iont
hatdest
roy
sit
ssoi
l
,dest
roy
sit
sel
f.
”Franklin D. Roosevelt

Parent Material
The parent material is the material underlying the soil from which, in most cases,
the soil develops. It influences both the physical and chemical properties of the
soil. Parent material can come from many different materials. Most of the mineral
matter that makes up soil comes form weathered bedrock or from other inorganic
Mineral groups of
materials transported and deposited by wind, water, or glaciers, but soil can also prime importance in
form from sedimentation of organic material, such as peat, in bogs and marshes. soil development:
These sources result in the two broad groups of soils –mineral soils and organic Feldspars
Amphiboles and
soils. pyroxenes
Micas
Moderately developed and well developed soils are formed when a parent material Silicates
Iron Oxide
is changed chemically and physically over time. When the parent material contains Carbonates
high proportions of less resistant minerals, this process proceeds more rapidly. The
availability of nutrients in the soil depends on the amount of decomposed material
that remains in the soil or that is removed in drainage water.

Minerals and Rocks

Minerals and the rocks they compose are important to soil because they are most d. coulter
often the materials that weather or break down to form soil. A mineral is a Flows of basalt
naturally occurring, inorganic crystalline material with definite physical properties (extrusive igneous
rock) in Idaho.
and a unique chemical composition. Rocks are complex mineral aggregates. Most
rocks are made up of mineral crystals, or broken pieces of crystals or broken pieces
of rocks. Some are composed of shells from animals or compressed pieces of
plants. Most soils are formed from rocks, not from pure mineral deposits.
Rocks are classified into three groups based upon their formation. The three
classifications of rocks are igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.

Igneous rocks a rer ockss a i

dtob e“ bor
noff ire.” The ser oc ksa reof volcanic [Link]
origin and form as molten material pushed up from the mantle cools either beneath Domes of granite
the surface or on the surface. The molten material is called lava if it flows onto the (intrusive igneous rock)
Yosemite National
surface or magma if it remains beneath the surface. Rocks formed from lava are Park, California
called extrusive igneous rocks. The lava cools quickly, forming the fine-grained
extrusive rocks that weather to produce fine-textured soils. Rocks formed from
magma, the more dominant of the two rock materials, are called intrusive igneous
rocks. Magma which remains beneath the surface cools very slowly producing
larger-grained rocks that weather to produce coarser textured soils.

Sedimentary rocks are formed from deposition of sediments or small rocks (the
weathered products of preexisting rock) or remains of organisms, such as shells,
that are compacted and cemented into solid rock. Sedimentary rocks comprise only
fivepe rcentofther ockvolumeoft heout ert enmi lesofthee a r
th’sc r
ust
,butt hey d. coulter
Layers of Sedimentary
cover 75% of the surface. Rock resulting from
deposition of different
materials
The deposition of sediments is called sedimentation. This deposition is the result
of the process of erosion, which is the process of moving the products of
weathering from one place to another. The agents of erosion are wind, running
water, gravity, glaciers, and waves. Strong winds blowing over bare soil may pick
up sand and soil particles, transporting them until the winds dissipate or their
10
 “
Thenat
iont
hatdest
roy
sit
ssoi
l
,dest
roy
sit
sel
f.
”Franklin D. Roosevelt

velocity decreases. As the winds slow, larger particles settle out first, and
gradually smaller and smaller particles settle out until the winds stop. These
deposits can accumulate to become quite thick and eventually be cemented into
sedimentary rocks.

Running water is a powerful agent of erosion, capable of transporting larger

volumes of sediment and larger particles than wind. As the water slows, the
sediment carried will settle out much the same as when carried by the wind –larger
particles first. As deposits become thicker, these materials will gradually be
compacted or cemented into sedimentary rocks.

The type of sedimentary rock formed is based on its composition, which depends
on the type of material transported and/or deposited. Sandstone forms from
deposits of sand. Limestone forms from deposits of the shells of marine organisms
or precipitates from seawater. Though a wide variety of minerals and rock
fragments are found in sedimentary rocks formed from weathered rock, clay Leaching –the
dissolving and
minerals and quartz dominate. transport of minerals
as water percolates,
A few sedimentary deposits can result from leaching. Leaching occurs as water or moves downward,
through the soil.
moves downward, or percolates through the soil, dissolving minerals, such as
calcite, and gypsum. The minerals continue to dissolve as long as water is moving
downward from the surface. If the water stops moving, the minerals can become
concentrated and be redeposited or may precipitate out as the water evaporates
forming sedimentary deposits. Chemical precipitation forms the stalactites and
stalagmites seen in caves.

Metamorphic rocks are rocks that have been changed. They are igneous or
sedimentary rock that have gone through the process of metamorphism.
Metamorphism can be caused by exposure to high heat; high pressure; hot, mineral-
rich fluids; or some combination of these factors. It results in rock with radically For figure of
different characteristic than the original rock from which it formed. The conditions rock cycle, see
that cause metamorphism are found deep within the Earth where tectonic plates appendix A.
meet, or are associated with volcanic activity or with the compression of mountain
building. The soils formed from metamorphic rock are very similar to those
formed from the original igneous or sedimentary parent rock.

The Seven General Categories of Parent Material are:

● Residua lma ter
ial
● Glacialde posit
s
● Eoliande pos i
ts
● Alluvialandma ri
nede posit
s
● Colluv i
alde posi
ts Residuum -
weathered, broken
● Volca nicde pos
its down bedrock.
● Org anicde posi
ts
Residual soils –soils
Residual Material formed from
The weathering of bedrock, such as granite, gneiss, limestone, sandstone, schist, residuum that form
and slate among others, results in residuum. The residuum becomes the parent on the underlying
parent bedrock.
material of the soil which will have some of the characteristics of the parent

11
 “
Thenat
iont
hatdest
roy
sit
ssoi
l
,dest
roy
sit
sel
f.
”Franklin D. Roosevelt

material. Soils that form in this manner, over underlying bedrock, are called
residual soils. These soils are common in the Piedmont and Mountain regions of
North Carolina.
d. coulter
Glacial Deposits U-shaped valley
There have been four major glacial periods in the last million years during which and moraine
massive ice sheets covered the northern parts of North America. The ice moved deposits
characteristic of
soils, rocks, gravel, and boulders. As the ice sheets melted, these materials were glaciers. (Glacier
depos i
teda ndbe ca mepa rtoft hepa rentma teri
a lf orsomeoft oda y ’ssoil
s .Th i
s National Park,
type of transport of material is called glacial drift. The material may be deposited Montana)
as lateral, terminal, or medial moraine. There are no glacial deposits in N.C.

Eolian Deposits
Wind also transports weathered parent materials. The deposits due to the action of
wind are eolian deposits. The two major types of eolian deposits are dune sands
and loess. A third type of eolian deposit is volcanic ash.
Typical landscape in
Dune sands are formed as strong winds transport sand and pile it into hills called the Sandhills –with
Eolian sand dunes
dunes. Dunes are very unstable, constantly shifting in size and shape, unless well
cove redwi thve getation. Sa nddune sof Nor thCa r
olina’sbe a
ches,inc luding
Jocke y’sRidg e,thet all
ests a ndd unes y stemi nt heea st
ernU. S.,ar
ee xampl e
sof
eolian deposits. The soils of the Sandhills area of North Carolina may have formed
from ancient coastal sand dunes.

Loess deposits are windblown silt deposited in valleys that originated from broad
floodplains associated with rivers, such as the Mississippi. Loess is extremely
fertile, productive agricultural soils. They present problems for engineers because
they shift and slide under stress and flow when wet.

Volcanic ash usually forms fine-textured, very fertile soils. These soils usually [Link]
take less time to develop than soils that develop primarily from rock, but they are Sand dune with
easily eroded. native vegetation

Alluvial and Marine Deposits

Water also plays an important role in the transport of parent material. Material
eroded from the surrounding watershed is carried into streams. The stream scours
the streambed during storm events and erodes the banks. These sediments are
carried until the water loses velocity. When the stream reaches a flat valley, the
sediments settle out at the foot of the slope, the larger particles settling out first.
d. coulter
These deposits are called alluvial fans. These formations are common at the foot of Alluvial Fan
mountains in the Appalachian and Rocky Mountains. The soils of alluvial fans are
generally well-drained, and their composition depends on the rock and mineral
material of the mountain slopes above.

Floodplains
Streams and rivers on gentle slopes or low lying areas typically flow in a series of Cape Fear River
floodplain with
s-shaped curves called meanders. Over a long period of time, these meanders and meanders in the
flooding will cause broad, flat bottomlands on both sides of the stream. These river
bottomlands are called floodplains.

12
 “
Thenat
iont
hatdest
roy
sit
ssoi
l
,dest
roy
sit
sel
f.
”Franklin D. Roosevelt

The most common type of alluvial deposit is in floodplains. As streams and rivers
overflow their banks, they deposit new material on the floodplain. These deposits
comprise the parent material for soils developed in these areas. Since new material
is added almost annually, these soils never have time to form well-developed
horizons, and these young soils have poorly developed profiles. This type of parent
material is referred to as recent alluvium. d. coulter
Floodplain with
meandering river
The composition of floodplain sediments depends on the materials that were
eroded. They may contain high amounts of organic matter deposited from
woodland or vegetated areas as floodwaters receded. Floodplain sediments may
also contain high levels of nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) due to erosion from
highly fertilized cropland or urban areas. They may also contain pesticides or other
contaminants carried by runoff from farms, or the streets, parking lots, and yards of
urban areas. Floodplains may contain poorly drained soils and are often the
locations of wetlands. These areas provide good habitat for wildlife, help recharge
groundwater, and help filter out pollutants.

River or Stream Terraces

Over time, rivers and streams cut down into the underlying material, and formerly
low lying areas that once flooded frequently will be left in higher positions that
may flood only rarely or not at all. These areas are called river or stream terraces.
The soils on terrace positions have parent materials called old alluvium. These
soils, originally deposited by water, have had time to form well-developed d. coulter
hor [Link] thCa rol
ina ’slarges tri
verte rr
a cesa rea djacentt oma j
orr i
ve rs,such
as the Roanoke, Tar, Neuse, Cape Fear, and Pee Dee (Yadkin) rivers.

Deltas Delta –an

When a river enters a large body of relatively still waters (oceans or lakes), its accumulation of
sediment formed
velocity drops rapidly and is not sufficient to keep sediments suspended. The where a stream
sediments drop out and the deposits form a delta. Deltas usually contain large enters a lake or
amounts of clays, silt, and other fine sediments. They are typically swampy and ocean.
dissected by many small stream channels.
The Mississippi
Lacustrine Deposits delta is the most
As a river or stream enters a still body of water, such as a lake, sediment settles out well known example
and is deposited on the lake bottom, forming lacustrine deposits. These deposits of this type of
alluvial deposit in
build up over time, filling in the lake, or the lake water level may fluctuate. When the U.S.
the water level drops, these deposits can be above the level of the lake allowing
soils to form. Some of the largest lacustrine deposits in the U.S. are located along
the shores of the Great Lakes.

Marine Deposits
Sediments not deposited on floodplains or deltas eventually make their way into the
oceans. Upon entering the ocean, they settle out by particle size –largest particle Marine Deposits on
being deposited closest to shore and finer materials, such as clay, farther out. If Coastal Plain
continental uplift occurs or sea level falls, these sediments are exposed. Along the
Atlantic Coast and the Gulf of Mexico, a strip of marine sediments as much as 50 –
150 miles wide have formed a broad coastal plain. In North Carolina, this area is
known as the Coastal Plain region of the state. These marine deposits are very old

13
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Thenat
iont
hatdest
roy
sit
ssoi
l
,dest
roy
sit
sel
f.
”Franklin D. Roosevelt

in comparison to the alluvial deposits of fans, floodplains, and deltas. Fresh water
streams often dissect them leaving new alluvial deposits on top of the old marine
sediments.

Colluvial Deposits
In areas with long steep slopes, such as mountains, soil material and rock fragments
may move downhill under the influence of gravity and water. The disorganized
mass of material that accumulates on the lower portion of the slope or in
depressions is called colluvium. The rock fragments in colluvium are generally
angular rather that the rounded shape of the water worn fragments of alluvium.
d. coulter
Colluvial soils are found in North Carolina mountain coves. Colluvial deposits
at base of mountain
Volcanic Deposits
Large amounts of volcanic ash or lava can be ejected during eruptions of volcanoes.
The material ejected depends on the type of volcano. Lava flows down the sides of
the volcano onto nearby land forming new extrusive igneous rock, such as the
volcanic islands of Hawaii. Explosive volcanic eruptions eject material of many
sizes including bombs, cinders, ash, and dust. The coarser material of bombs and
cinders fall on or near the volcano, while the fine ash and dust may be carried
hundreds of miles by the wind. Depending on the type of volcanic material, the d. coulter
soils formed from these deposits may be fertile, as with basalt, or very infertile, Mount Saint Helens
such as the pumice desert near Crater Lake. and volcanic ash
deposits

Organic Deposits
Organic deposits form in swamps, bogs, and marshy areas. As plants die or shed
leaves, the organic materials are submerged in water and cannot decompose
(oxidize). Over long periods of time, these deposits fill in the wetland area.
Organic deposits are divided into two categories, peat and muck. Peat contains
identifiable portions of organic matter. Muck is organic matter that is decomposed
to the point it cannot be identified. Organic soils can be found in poorly drained
areasofNor thCa r
olina ’sCoa stalPlain.

Climate
Climate, the temperature, and rainfall affect the rate of weathering. Weathering is
the breakdown ordi sintegrati
onofr oc ka torne are art
h’ss urfac
e,byna tural
processes. Temperature and water are major climatic forces that influence
weathering. Weathering may be by physical forces (mechanical) or by chemical
processes.

Mechanical weathering consists of natural forces that physically break rocks into
smaller pieces –temperature, wind, ice, water, and plant roots. Rapid temperature
d. coulter
change can cause expansion and contraction resulting in cracking of rocks, and the Mechanical weathering
freezing and expansion of ice in cracks further breaks rock. Unloading of overlying by expansion and
contraction of
layers also causes expansion, breaking off layers of rock. Glaciers grind and rock and freezing and
abrade rock as they move over it. Running water carrying sediment abrades the expansion of ice in the
cracks formed.
rock it flows over. Wind carrying sand particles abrades rock surfaces, literally
sandblasting rock away. As plant roots extending into cracks in rock grow, they
may cause further cracking or breaking of the rock. Mechanical weathering occurs
slowly but has a significant impact over long periods of time.
14
 “
Thenat
iont
hatdest
roy
sit
ssoi
l
,dest
roy
sit
sel
f.
”Franklin D. Roosevelt

Mechanical weathering will occur most rapidly in cool, dry regions.

Chemical weathering is the process by which rocks and minerals decompose due to
chemical reactions. Examples of these reactions include carbonation, dissolution,
hydration, hydrolysis, and oxidation-reduction reactions. The rate of chemical
weathering is influenced by water, oxygen, and the presence of organic or inorganic
acids. Chemical weathering occurs more rapidly in hot, moist climates. Climatic
conditions in North Carolina are favorable to a high amount of chemical
weathering.

Relief or Topography
Topography, or relief, relates to the shape and slope of the land, as well as the
elevation and landscape position. Topography can slow or hasten weathering by
climatic forces. Soils vary with topography because of its influence on soil
moisture, rate of weathering and erosion, and soil temperature.

Soils on steep slopes tend to be well-drained and drier that those in flatter areas due
to increased runoff. Soils in low-lying areas tend to be wetter due to less runoff
and the influx of water from surrounding higher areas.

On steep slopes, erosion tends to prevent much topsoil from accumulating, thus
these areas may have only a thin layer of topsoil. On gentle slopes there is
typically less erosion, resulting in a thicker layer of topsoil. Farther down slope in
footslope and toeslope positions, topsoil tends to be thicker due to accumulations of
material from higher areas.

On steep slopes, the direction of the slope can also influence soil temperature and
content. Steep north-facing slopes have soils that are cooler, moister, and have
higher amounts of organic matter in the topsoil than slopes that face south or west.
Cross section of a
pocosin illustrating
the relations among
soils, topography,
and vegetation
([Link], Jr. l996
Soil Systems in North
Carolina
Biota (Biological Factors)

Plants, animals and other organisms help create and enrich soil. The excrement
(waste) from animals adds nutrients and matter to the soil. Burrowing
invertebrates, such as earthworms, beetles, ants, and termites, create macropores
that allow easier entry and flow of water and air through the soil. They also mix
organic matter throughout the soil. Fungi and bacteria produce substances that bind
soil particles together and stabilize soil aggregates. Lichens and mosses play a role
in first colonizing rock and produce acids that help break down rock into soil
particles. When animals or plants die or plants shed leaves, they are broken down
by the decomposers, fungi and bacteria, and add organic matter and nutrients to the
weathered parent material. The recycling of nutrients is essential to plant growth,

15
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Thenat
iont
hatdest
roy
sit
ssoi
l
,dest
roy
sit
sel
f.
”Franklin D. Roosevelt

which is essential to supplying food and nutrients to other organisms. Plant roots
alter the soil - adding nutrients and sometimes accelerating weathering of rock.

With regard to soil formation, there are two categories of vegetation –forests and
grasses. Forest areas result in a thick organic layer (O horizon) as a result of the
build-up of forest litter, the leaves and limbs of trees. The thicker horizons do not
recycle nutrients as quickly but the nutrients go deeper into the soil. Grasslands
produce a rich, dark topsoil (A horizon) due to the thick surface root system, which
is constantly dying and growing resulting in the continuous recycling of plant
nutrients. The native vegetation depends on climate, topography, biological
factors, and soil factors, such as soil depth, density, chemistry, temperature, and
moisture.

Temperatures impact the decomposition rates of organic materials. Decomposition

rates are low below 380 F (40 C) but rise steadily with increasing temperature to at
least 1020 F (400 C). Available nitrogen also promotes organic matter
decomposition.

Organic Matter
The organic matter enriches the soil. The organic matter of the soil is largely
derived from decomposed plant and animal material (dead bodies, litter, and Organic soils of a
wastes). Well-decomposed organic matter forms humus, a dark brown, porous, pocosin
spongy material that has an earthy smell. Organic matter also includes the billions
of organisms that inhabit the soil. While organic matter accounts for only five
percent or less of the total volume of soil, it is an important component and
important for good soil management. The soil organic matter is also used as a food
source by soil organisms from which they receive the energy needed for life.

Humus is important because it:

~ Improves soil structure
~ Increases pore space making it easier for air and water to penetrate the
soil
~ Re duc esthes oil
’ssus c
ept
ibi l
it
yt oe r
osi
on
~ Increases the workability of the soil
~ Minimizes the leaching of nutrients
~ Provides suitable medium for valuable soil organisms, like bacteria,
fungi, and earthworms

Organic matter can be lost through erosion. When soils are tilled, organic matter
decomposes more rapidly because of the changes in water, aeration, and
temperature conditions. The amount of organic matter lost after clearing a wooded
area or tilling native grassland varies based on the kind of soil, but most organic
matter is lost within the first 10 years. Losses are higher in areas with the faster
aerobic decomposition than in areas with the slower aerobic decomposition, as in
wetland soils.

The amount of organic matter is determined by a balance between additions of

plant and animal materials and losses by decomposition and erosion. Both
additions and losses are strongly controlled by management of agricultural lands.

16
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Thenat
iont
hatdest
roy
sit
ssoi
l
,dest
roy
sit
sel
f.
”Franklin D. Roosevelt

Thepor ti
onoft hepl antbi omasst hatr eac hesthes oil’sorganicma t
terde
pends
largely on the amount consumed by organisms, such as mammals and insects;
destroyed by fire; washed away by water; or harvested for human use.

Organic matter is an essential component of soil because it:

● Provi de sfood,c arbon,a nde nergys ourcef ormi crobe sa ndva l
uabl
e
soil organisms that contribute to aggregate stability and help maintain a
healthy soil
● Stabi li
z esa ndhol dss oi
lpa rticl
estoge ther,reduc ingt hec hancesof
erosion
●I mpr ove st hes oil’sabilit
yt os t
or ea ndt r
ans mi taira ndwa t
erwhichaids
the growth of crops (improves aeration and water-holding capacity)
● Stor es,r etains,a nds upplie snut r
ients,sucha sni trog en,phosphorus,and
sulfur, needed for plant and animal growth
● He lpst hes oilresistcompa ction
● Re tainsa nds toresc arbon from the atmosphere and other sources.
● Re duc est hene gativee nvironme nta leffectsofpe sticides,heavyme t
als
,
and other pollutants by storing them
● Re duc e scr usti
ng
● Fa cil
ita t
ese asierpe netr
a t
ionofpl antroots
● Re duc e srunof fa ndincreases the rate of water infiltration

Time
Thel eng thoft imet hatas oil
’spa rentmaterialise xpos edt ome cha nic aland
chemical weathering and the other soil forming factors is also a factor and greatly
influences the kinds of soils present today. At ypicalsoil’sa gemus tbeme asur
e d
in thousands of years. It may actually take hundreds of years for these factor to
form one inch of soil from parent material. It is estimated that it takes over a
thousand years to produce one inch of topsoil from parent material that is primarily
granite. Soils, whose parent material is volcanic ash, may develop and be able to
support life after only 40 –50 years.

The soil formation processes are continuous, and over time, soils exhibit features
that reflect the other soil forming factors. Recently deposited material, such as the
deposition from a flood, exhibits no features from soil development activities. The
previous soil surface and underlying horizons become buried. The time clock
resets for these soils. Terraces above the active floodplain, while genetically
similar to the floodplain, are older land surfaces and exhibit more development
features. Older soils usually have deeper well-developed soil profiles with thick A
and B horizons (topsoil and subsoil), while young soils still retain many
characteristics of their parent material. Older soils are often less fertile than young
soils, due to a loss of nutrients by leaching.

Thes oilf ormi ngf actorsc ontinuet oa ff

ec ts oilse ve
non“ st
a ble”l andsca
pes.
Materials are deposited on their surface and materials are blown or washed away
from the surface. Additions, removals, and alterations are slow or rapid, depending
on climate, landscape position, and biological activity.

17
 “
Thenat
iont
hatdest
roy
sit
ssoi
l
,dest
roy
sit
sel
f.
”Franklin D. Roosevelt

Soil Forming Processes

There are four major processes that act on parent material to alter its properties and
differentiate one soil from another. These processes are:
- Additions
- Losses
- Translocations
- Transformations

Additions are anything that is added to the soil profile from outside sources.
Additions may include organic matter, atmospheric deposits, and soluble nutrients
in rainfall and groundwater.

Plants and other organisms add organic matter to surface layers, giving them a
black or dark brown colored organic layer. Most organic matter additions increase
the cation-exchange capacity (CEC) and nutrient levels which increase plant
nutrient availability.

Rainfall brings other additions. On average, rainfall adds about five pounds of
nitrogen per acre per year. Rainfall is indirectly responsible for the additions of
new sediments to the soils of floodplains, deposited during flooding. Nutrients
may also be added to the soil from flooding or lateral flow of groundwater. Winds
carry and add new material, such as the wind blown or eolian material.

Losses occur from leaching and erosion by wind and water. In moist climates,
leaching causes the greatest losses. Some minerals, especially sodium salts,
gypsum, and calcium carbonate are relatively soluble and are removed from upper
lay ersoft hes oile arl
yi nt hes oil’sf orma ti
on. Thus ,soilsi nhumi dr egions
generally do not have carbonates in the upper horizons. Nitrogen, a common
ingredient in fertilizers, is readily lost by leaching due to natural rainfall or
irrigation. Long-term use of fertilizers based on ammonium may cause increased
acidity of the soil and contribute to a loss of carbonates. Quartz, aluminum, iron
oxide, and kaolinitic clay weather slowly and remain in the soil, becoming the main
component of highly weathered soil.

Oxygen is released to the atmosphere by plants, which have taken in some oxygen
from the soil via their roots. Carbon dioxide is consumed by plants but added to
the soil as fresh organic matter decays. In wet soil, nitrogen can be changed to a
gas and be lost to the atmosphere, but it is also deposited by the atmosphere and
fixed by lightning and nitrogen-fixing bacteria.

Soil particle losses can result due to all agents of erosion, especially wind and
water. Such losses can be serious since most material lost is usually topsoil, the
most productive part of the soil profile.

Translocations are the movement of organic and inorganic matter within a soil
profile. Water moving through the soil can transport material. Organic matter
moves downward through cracks and root channels. Clay particles migrate
downward through the soil. The topsoil (A horizon) and zone of leaching (E
18
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Thenat
iont
hatdest
roy
sit
ssoi
l
,dest
roy
sit
sel
f.
”Franklin D. Roosevelt

horizon) in a soil are zones of clay losses while the subsoil (B horizon) is a zone of
clay accumulation.

In areas of low rainfall, leaching is often incomplete. Water moving down through
the soil dissolves soluble minerals, but when there is not enough water to move
throughout the soil profile, the water stops, evaporates, and leaves mineral salts
behind. Soil layers with calcium carbonate or other salt accumulations form in this
manner. If this cycle occurs frequently enough, a calcareous hardpan can form.

Upward and lateral translocation is also possible. In arid climates, evaporation at

the surface causes water to move upward. Salts dissolved into solution will move
upward with the water and be deposited on the surface as the water evaporates.

Transformations are changes that take place in the soil, such as mineral weathering
and organic matter decomposition. Decomposers breakdown organic matter into
humus and transform organic matter into smaller organic compounds and
molecules small enough to be absorbed by plant roots. Chemical weathering alters
parent material by destroying or changing existing minerals. Many of the clay-
sized particles in soil are actually new minerals that form during soil development.

Studying the Soil

Soil science is an interdisciplinary field that incorporates physical, chemical,
geological, and biological sciences. Soil Scientists gather data about soil properties
and interpret the information to solve land use and land management problems.
Agronomy is the application of scientific principles to the raising of field crops. In
addition to farming and agricultural issues, soil scientists look at urban growth
issues and engineering issues, including building placement, placement of septic
tanks, and land appraisal.

The Soil Profile

Soil is a three-dimensional natural body, in the same sense that a hill, valley, or
mountain has three dimensions. To study a soil as a natural body you must go to
the field. Soils occur on landscapes and are delineated on aerial photographs by
trained soil scientists. These delineations are called polygons or polypedons and
have many pedons (soil profiles) within their boundaries.

Relationship of
Landscapes to
Soil Polygons
and a Soil
Profile

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Thenat
iont
hatdest
roy
sit
ssoi
l
,dest
roy
sit
sel
f.
”Franklin D. Roosevelt

A Soil Profile and Soil Horizons

The soil forming factors result in the formation of layers within the soil from the
surface down to varying depths. These layers are called horizons. The
combination of these layers in a sequence from the surface down represent a soil
profile, or a vertical cross section of all the soil horizons at a particular location.
The soil horizons, or natural layers of the soil, vary in thickness, depending upon
location, and have somewhat irregular boundaries. However, all the boundaries
gene rallypa ra l
lelt
hee a r
th’ss [Link] rmos tlayersha vebe enc ha nge dt he
most, while the deepest layers are more similar to the original parent material.
Exceptions to this vertical aging process occur when soil material is transported
and deposited on the surface of previously formed soil profiles. Soil horizons can
sometimes be easily identified and at other times be very gradual and faint. In
older, well-developed soils, as many as five or six master horizons may be found in
the soil profile. Younger, less-developed soils may have only two master horizons.
Master horizons that may be found in soils include O, A, E, B, C, and R.
Not all horizons will
be present in young
soils or under
disturbed conditions,
such as urban areas,
intensive agriculture,
or where erosion is
severe.

The soil series

description, in a
soil survey, shows
which horizons
are typically
found in a
particular soil.

20
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Thenat
iont
hatdest
roy
sit
ssoi
l
,dest
roy
sit
sel
f.
”Franklin D. Roosevelt

O horizon –When found, it is generally the uppermost layer of the soil and is
predominantly made up of organic material. It consists of leaves, needles, twigs,
mosses, lichens, and other accumulations of organic matter in various stages of
decay. This horizon is typically found in wetlands and forested area, but is not
present in cultivated fields due to soil mixing during cultivation.

A horizon –Commonly called topsoil, this horizon is darker colored than lower
horizons because it contains more organic matter, and it is often the most fertile
layer of the soil. This is the layer that is plowed in cultivated fields and is where
most root activity occurs. As rainwater percolates downward through the A
horizon it dissolves minerals, and they are leached from the topsoil.

E horizon –This horizon is characterized by its light color or bleached appearance.

This is a zone which has been strongly leached. The main feature of this horizon is
the loss of clay, iron, aluminum, humus, or some combination of these, which
migrated downward as water passed through and a concentration of sand and silt
particles. This horizon is commonly found in older, well-developed soils of
woodlands. It is rarely found in cultivated areas, since plowing usually mixes this
horizon with the A horizon.

B horizon –Commonly called subsoil, this layer is usually lighter in color than the
A horizon due to its lower content of organic matter. It is the zone of accumulation
for materials leached from the A and E horizons. In older, well-developed soils,
this horizon commonly has the highest clay content.

C horizon –This horizon is the transition layer between soil and parent material. It
is less weathered than the upper horizons and contains partially disintegrated or
weathered parent material from the underlying bedrock or transported to the area by
glaciers, wind, or water.

R horizon –This horizon is the bedrock. As the bedrock weathers, it contributes

parent material to the C horizon above. Bedrock can be within a few inches of the
surface or many feet below the surface. In areas of eolian and alluvial soils, where
the bedrock is very deep and below normal depth of observation, an R horizon is
not described.

Looking at Soil Properties

Soi l
sha v ephy si
ca la ndc he mi c
alpr ope rti
[Link] na nal
y zi
ngas oil’ss uit
abili
ty for
a specific use, soil scientists must first look at the chemical properties and physical
makeup of a given soil sample. There are over 20,000 different soil types. In truth,
no two soils are expected to be just alike, but soils which are similar are grouped
together for purposes of classification for cultural practices and uses. There are
many characteristics that differentiate one soil from another. For example, amount
of available nutrients, erosion potential, and permeability are all used to describe
different types of soil.

21
 “
Thenat
iont
hatdest
roy
sit
ssoi
l
,dest
roy
sit
sel
f.
”Franklin D. Roosevelt

Physical Properties of Soils

The important physical properties of soil include: texture, structure, internal
drainage, compaction, consistency, color, and shrink-swell among others.

Color
Soil color is an important feature in recognizing different soil types as color is an
indicator of certain physical and chemical characteristics. Color in soils is due
primarily to two factors:
■ Humusc ont ent–organic matter
■ Thea bunda nc ea ndche mi calnatureoft hei ronc ompoundsa ndc ertain
elements and minerals
The depth and duration of water tables can also be inferred by soil color.
Organic matter and humus are dark colored and can give soil a dark brown or
blackish color when present in sufficient quantities. It is the higher levels of
organic matter and humus content that give most topsoils a darker color than the
underlying subsoil. Soils with a black or dark brown coloring usually contain
high amounts of organic matter. Lighter colored topsoil contains less organic
matter.

The element iron is a powerful coloring agent. When iron is unweathered, it has
little or no influence on color. As iron is exposed to oxygen in the soil, it oxidizes,
forming iron oxides. The presence of significant amounts of iron oxides (ferric
form) usually gives soils a yellowish, brownish, or reddish color –depending on
the type of iron minerals that are present. Bright red soils are usually high in iron,
Soil with oxidized
well aerated, and usually do not have any significant drainage problems. Yellow iron and humus on
color is produced in the presence of oxygen and moist conditions, or hydration. top

In soils with drainage problems, some horizons may be saturated with water for
significant periods during the year. When too much water is present and there is an
absence of oxygen, anaerobic microorganisms reduce the ferric iron to the ferrous
form, and a gray color will result. The iron is referred to as being reduced. This
form of iron is mobile and can be removed from the soil by leaching. After the iron
is gone, the leached area generally has the grayish color.
Poorly drained soil
with reduced iron

Other elements, such as manganese, can also alter soil color. When found in
sufficient amounts, manganese can give soil a brown or black color. Often
manganese can be seen as a coating in cracks or in discrete masses, such as
nodules.

Repeated cycles of saturation with water and drying create a mottled (several
different colors intermixed) look to the soil. Part of the soil is gray due to the loss
of iron (iron depletion) and other parts appear more red, yellow, or brown –where

22
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Thenat
iont
hatdest
roy
sit
ssoi
l
,dest
roy
sit
sel
f.
”Franklin D. Roosevelt

iron oxide has accumulated (iron concentration). When the mottled pattern exhibits
gray along with red, yellow, or brown colors in a soil, it is referred to as
redoximorphic features.

Soil scientists use the depth of redoximorphic features to determine the depth and
duration of soil water tables. Soils saturated for short periods may only have a few
iron depletions. Most of the iron will have leached from soils that are saturated for
very long periods, and they may have a gray color throughout. This is common in
wetland soils. Gray lined root channels can also develop during long periods of Redoximorphic
Features
saturation. This color may indicate a loss of iron or an addition of humus from
decayed roots.

When judging the color of a soil, most soil scientists use the Munsell Soil Color
Chart to identify the soil color. This is a standardized chart that allows soil
scientists to uniformly describe soil color. On the chart, color chips are categorized
by hue, value, and chroma. Names are also assigned to each color. In the field,
soil scientists compare the colors found in the soil with the color chips of the chart.
When using the chart, it is best to do so in natural lighting. Artificial lighting,
especially florescent lights, makes colors appear different.

The photo below shows one page of the Munsell Soil Color Chart (5YR), and the
hue, value, and chroma of one color chip. The hue is the color page. The value of
the soil color is read along the right side of the page, and the chroma is read along
the bottom of the page. The Munsell Chart books have between seven and nine
pages ranging from red (10R) to yellow (5Y). Soils in very wet areas like wetlands
need additional pages of gley soils to color correctly.

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Thenat
iont
hatdest
roy
sit
ssoi
l
,dest
roy
sit
sel
f.
”Franklin D. Roosevelt

Sample Munsell
Chart page of Gley
Soil Texture Soils (found in
Soil texture is determined by the relative proportions, the size, and the shape of the wetland area)
individual soil particles –sand, silt, and clay –in the soil. Despite the dynamic
nature of soils and the continuous physical, chemical, and biological activity,
gravel will not turn into sand or silt into clay within our lifetime.

Particle size
Soil is composed of three primary particles –sand, silt, and clay. Sand is the
largest and can easily be seen. Sand feels gritty when rubbed between the fingers.
Silt is a medium sized particle, and is so small that individual particles are barely
visible. Silt feels silky like dry flour. Clay is the smallest particle and cannot be
seen with the unaided eye. It is microscopic. Clay feels sticky when wet and gives
a soil its plasticity.

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Thenat
iont
hatdest
roy
sit
ssoi
l
,dest
roy
sit
sel
f.
”Franklin D. Roosevelt

Sand –Soils containing large amounts of sand exhibit little plasticity, are very
porous, and cannot retain large amounts of water or nutrients. They have large
voids between the particles and can readily transport water and air. These soils are
not considered good for agriculture and can be prone to erosion.

Silt –The properties of silt are intermediate between sand and clay. Soils primarily
made of silt have moderate ability to retain water and nutrients. Mineralogically,
silt particles are more like sand because they are composed largely of primary
minerals. Soils high in silt content are generally considered favorable for
agriculture, due to their water-holding capacity. They can cause engineering
problems because they will shift under stress and slide and flow when wet.

Clay –By far the smallest, clay particles are flat, many-sided, wafer-shaped
particles. Soils with a high clay content retain water very well, and do not allow
water to move through the soil quickly. The plasticity and cohesiveness (sticky
nature) allow it to be molded into many shapes, such as pottery bowls and
sculpture. The clay particles control most of the important properties of a soil.
When wet, soils high in clay are worked only with difficulty because of their
stickiness.

The total amount of pore space is greater in clays due to the higher number of
spaces than in sand with its large pore spaces. The pore spaces in clays are
extremely small resulting in a many times slower rate of water and air movement
through clay than through sand.

A portion of the water held by clay is bound so tightly that most root systems
cannot absorb it, and young plant rootlets cannot readily penetrate poorly
oxygenated clay soils. Therefore, soils composed of very high clay content are not
well suited for growing crops.

Clay is an important reservoir of plant food. This function depends largely on two
important characteristics of clay particles: their large surface area and their
negative electrical charge. Clay particles do not retain the negatively charged
nitrate (NO3) or nitrite (NO2) ions very well. As a result, nitrates are easily leached
from the soil by rainfall or washed away by runoff. Clay attracts positively charged
ions of nutrients like calcium, potassium, magnesium, phosphorus, zinc, and iron.

Nitrates washed off the land can cause problems for aquatic ecosystems. The
nitrates fertilize the waters promoting excessive plant growth. This can change a
lake or pond into a weed-choked body with undesirable, trash fish. This process is
called eutrophication and if caused by the actions of man, such as fertilizers, it is
referred to as cultural eutrophication. It can also result in fish kills. As the plants
die when nutrients are depleted and are decomposed, the higher rate of respiration
robs the water of dissolved oxygen essential for fish, invertebrates, and other
organisms within the ecosystem. The reduction in application of commercial
fertilizers containing nitrogen should help solve this problem.

Loamy soils –Very few soils are dominated exclusively by one texture class.
Usually there is a mixture of all three particles –sand, silt, and clay –in all soils.

25
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Thenat
iont
hatdest
roy
sit
ssoi
l
,dest
roy
sit
sel
f.
”Franklin D. Roosevelt

The most productive soil textures for agriculture are sandy loam, loam, and silt
loam, which are mixtures of the three particles. These three textures are the most
common topsoil textures in areas of productive farmland.

The texture triangle

shows the
percentages of sand,
silt, and clay in the
textural classes. The
intersection of the
dotted lines shows
that a soil with 55%
clay, 32% silt, and
13% sand has a clay
texture.

USDA Textural Triangle

The proportions of sand, silt, and clay in a soil are placed into various soil classes.
Each class name has maximum and minimum percentages of each fraction
(particle). A soil textural triangle shows the range and limits for each fraction and
the various class names. The triangle can be used to determine the class, or type, of To use the textural
triangle, the
soil if percentages of particles are known. percentages of each
particle must be
The following procedure is recommended in using the textural triangle: determined. This can
be done by soil
(Soil sample example –assume the soil sample contains 15% clay, 70% silt, fractionation:
and 15% sand) - Put 25-30 ml of soil
1. First, consider the clay. The baseline at the bottom of the triangle is 0% in a graduated,
cylinder or beaker,
clay. Read up the left side of the triangle to 15% clay. Draw a pencil record the amount
line parallel to the baseline for clay and through the 15% point for clay. - Add water to 100ml
2. Next, consider the silt. The zero line for silt is along the left edge of the - Cover top and shake
well
triangle. Read down the right side of the triangle to just past 70% silt. - After 24 hours the
Draw another line parallel to the zero line for silt. The lines should cross particles will have
in the area designated Silt loam. This is the class name of the soil. settled by size:
top –clay
3. To check your accuracy, it is a good idea to draw a line for the sand. The middle –silt
zero line for sand is along the right side of the triangle. Read to the left bottom –sand
along the bottom of the triangle to 15%. Draw a line parallel to the zero - measure the amount
of each and
line for sand. You should see that all three lines cross at the same point. calculate
percentages

26
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Thenat
iont
hatdest
roy
sit
ssoi
l
,dest
roy
sit
sel
f.
”Franklin D. Roosevelt

How to Texture Soils

Texturing soils by
hand.

27
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Thenat
iont
hatdest
roy
sit
ssoi
l
,dest
roy
sit
sel
f.
”Franklin D. Roosevelt

Soil Structure
Soil structure refers to the arrangement of soil particles. It is defined as the
naturallyoc cur ringa rrangeme ntorg roupi ngofas oil’spr
ima
rypa rticl
es( sand,sil
t,
and clay) into aggregates. These aggregates may have a variety of shapes including
granular, blocky, prismatic, and platy. Soil scientists describe structure by type,
grade, and size.
Structure is of importance in:
- absorption of water (water infiltration)
- aeration (circulation of air)
- moisture content and drainage
- fertility
- erosion resistance
- seedbed preparation
- overall soil health

Factors affecting soil structure are:

~ The kind of clay and chemical elements associated with clay
~ The nature of the organic matter
~ The microbial population and mycelial growth of fungi
~ Freezing and thawing
~ Wetting and drying
~ Action of burrowing animals
~ Growth of root systems of plants
~ Slimy secretions by animals
~ Compaction, such as by farm equipment and vehicles

Good structure enhances crop production and growth, permits a greater rate of
water absorption, and increases resistance to erosion. Soil with good structure has
an abundance of pores, allowing water and air to move readily to plant root
systems. Pores also allow infiltration of water after rainfall, helping to prevent
runoff carrying away sediments. Soil structure can be improved by plowing under
cover crops and crop residue, using no-till planting practices, cultivating, liming,
or manuring.

Poor structure has a minimum of pore spaces for air and water due to closely
packed soil aggregates. Individual soil aggregates tend to fall apart, which can
result in crusting of soils. In areas of abundant rainfall, the lack of pore spaces can
cause drainage problems on low-lying sites, and result in severe runoff and erosion
of upland sites. Because of the limited water infiltration of these soils, water may
not penetrate deep enough to sustain crops in arid regions.

Types of Soil Structure

There are seven structural types commonly recognized in soil profiles: granular,
single grain, blocky, prismatic, columnar, platy, and massive.

Granular –small, rounded aggregates usually less than ¼ inch in diameter. These
aggregates lie loosely on the surface and are readily shaken apart and easily moved
by forces of nature. The aggregates are called granules, and the pattern is called
granular. This is the most common type of structure found in topsoil.
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Thenat
iont
hatdest
roy
sit
ssoi
l
,dest
roy
sit
sel
f.
”Franklin D. Roosevelt

Single grain –a lack of any particle aggregation. Each soil particle is separate, and
there is essentially no structure. This structure is only found in very sandy soils
and is commonly seen in sand dunes at beaches.

Blocky –cube-shaped aggregates. The original aggregates have been reduced to

blocks, irregularly faced, and basically equal in height, width, and depth. If the
edges of the cubes are sharp and the rectangular faces distinct, it is called angular
blocky. If edges and corners are rounded, the aggregate is called subangular
blocky. This is the most common type of structure in the subsoil (B horizon) in
North Carolina.

Prismatic –vertical oriented aggregates or pillars with flat tops. These elongated
columns vary in length in different soils. This structure is commonly seen in soils
with high clay content and in horizons dominated by high shrink-swell clays.

Columnar –vertical oriented aggregates or pillars with rounded tops. These

aggregates vary in length in different soils. This structure is commonly seen in
soils with high salt content.

Platy –arranged in thin, horizontal layers of plates or sheets. This structure is

commonly found in soil layers that have been compacted. These soils have a slow
or very slow permeability.

Massive –complete absence of structure. This condition is the opposite of single

grain because all the soil particles cling together. This type of structure is common
for the parent material.

Grade of Soil Structure

Grade describes the distinctness of the soil structure. It is rated strong, moderate,
weak, or structureless depending on how strongly it is expressed (seen in the soil).
Strong structure is easy to see and separates cleanly when the soil is disturbed.
Strong structure promotes the movement of water and air. Moderate structure is
not as well formed and is not as apparent in the undisturbed soil. Weak structure is
difficult to see. Structureless horizons have no recognizable structure.

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Thenat
iont
hatdest
roy
sit
ssoi
l
,dest
roy
sit
sel
f.
”Franklin D. Roosevelt

Soil Consistence
Soil consistence is the degree and kind of cohesion and adhesion that soil exhibits
and /or the resistance of soil to deformation or rupture under stress. Field
evaluations of consistence usually include rupture, resistance, stickiness, and
plasticity.

Rupture resistance i same asureoft hes oil

’sa bi li
tytowi ths t
andappl ieds tre [Link]
test rupture resistance, a naturally occurring soil aggregate from moist soil is placed
between the thumb and index finger. Pressure is slowly applied to estimate the
amount of force required to rupture the soil aggregate.

A soil that will not hold together at all is called loose. This is typically associated
with soil that has single grain structure. If only very slight force is required, the
soil is classified as very friable. Soils requiring a slight amount of force are
friable. The aggregates requiring moderate force are considered firm, and those
requiring very strong force are classified as very firm. Extremely firm is used if the
amount of force required is beyond the strength of your fingers and requires the use
of both hands.

Stickiness is the capacity of a soil to adhere to other objects. It is estimated at the

moisture content that displays the greatest adherence when pressed between the
thumb and forefinger, which is normally when the soil is quite wet.

Non-sticky –little or no soil adheres to fingers after release of pressure.

Slightly sticky –soil adheres to both fingers after release but stretches little on
the separation of fingers.
Moderately sticky –soil adheres to both fingers after release and stretches some on
the separation of fingers.
Very sticky –soil adheres firmly to both fingers after release and stretches greatly
on the separation of fingers

Plasticity is the degree to which a reworked soil can be permanently deformed

without rupturing. It is evaluated by forming a roll (wire) of soil 4 cm long. This
is done by placing a small amount of soil in your hands and adding sufficient
moisture. This will probably require some testing with varying moisture content.
The soil usually needs to be quite wet. If a roll can be made, it is then tested to see
if it will support its weight when held at one end.
Non-plastic –cannot form a 6 mm wide role (4 cm long) or cannot support
itself if held by one end
Slightly plastic –a 6 mm wide roll supports itself, but a 4 mm wide roll
does not
Moderately plastic –a 4 mm wide roll supports itself, but a 2 mm wide roll
does not
Very plastic –a 2 mm wide roll supports itself

Shrink-swell Potential
Shrink-swell potential is a measurement of the amount of volume change that can
occur when a soil wets and dries. Most of this volume change is due to the clay
content of the soil. Clay swells when wet and shrinks when dry.
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Thenat
iont
hatdest
roy
sit
ssoi
l
,dest
roy
sit
sel
f.
”Franklin D. Roosevelt

The amount of shrink-swell is dependant on the amount and type of clay present.
Soils low in clay content usually have a low shrink-swell potential. The shrink-
swell potential increases as clay content increases.

The type of clay minerals in the soil greatly influences shrink-swell potential.
Clays, such as kaolinite, normally shrink and swell a small amount, and soils with
kaolinite usually have low shrink-swell potential. Other clay minerals, such as
montmorillonite, are expansive and shrink and swell large amounts. Soils
containing this type of clay have moderate, high, or very high shrink-swell
potentials.

Shrink-swell is an important soil property because of potential building and

engineering problems unless proper precautions are taken. A very high shrink-
swell can cause severe problems when used for urban development unless
engineering precautions are taken. It can buckle roads, crack dams and building
foundations, and damage plant roots. Soil surveys provide information on shrink-
swe l
lpot entialofsoilsinthe“ Physi
ca landChe micalPrope rtie
s”oft hes oi
ls.

Soil Compaction
Soil compaction occurs when soil particles are pressed together, reducing the pore
space between them. This increases the weight of soils per unit volume (bulk
density). Compaction is caused by field machinery used for tillage or harvesting or
by grazing animals when the soils are wet. The soil water content influences
compaction. Dry soil is much more resistant to compaction. The length of time the
soil will remain compacted is determined by how deep the compaction goes, the
shrink-swell potential of the soil, and the climate.

Compa ct
ionr estr
ictsr ootde pth,whi chr educ e st
heplant’suptakeofwa tera nd
nutrients. It also decreases pore space and soil temperature, which affect the
activity of soil organisms, thus decreasing the rate of decomposition of organic
matter and subsequent release of nutrients. Compaction also decreases infiltration
of water, increasing runoff and possible erosion.

Methods to reduce compaction include:

- addition of organic matter
- reduce travelling across the same area
- till or harvest when soils are dry
- use of the lightest weight equipment that can perform the job effectively
- harvest timber on frozen soil or snow or use a harvest system that does not
cause soil compaction

Soil Depth
The usable depth of the soil is an important consideration when evaluating soils for
particular uses. For agriculture, the soil must be deep enough to provide a suitable
rooting zone.

Root restrictive layers are any permanent zones in the soil that restrict plant root
growth. Bedrock is the most common root restrictive layer. A less common root

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Thenat
iont
hatdest
roy
sit
ssoi
l
,dest
roy
sit
sel
f.
”Franklin D. Roosevelt

restrictive layer is fragipan, a dense, brittle horizon usually found in soils formed in
transported parent material. Fragipans are not as hard as bedrock, but they will
limit the movement of water and growth of plant roots.

Shallow soils do not have sufficient water holding capacity to enable crops to
survive droughts. In agricultural areas, soils that are root limited are generally used
for pasture, wildlife habitat, or forestland instead of cropland. Plants with deep
roots, such as trees, alfalfa, and corn require deep soils for best growth.

Soil depth is also an important consideration for suitability of a soil for urban uses.
Houses with basements or septic systems should be built on deep, well-drained
soils. Shallow soils necessitate building houses with a slab or shallow foundation,
and septic systems may not be permitted. Shallow soils also increase the time and
cost of installing sewer and water lines. Blasting can be used to overcome the
problem of shallow soils, but it is expensive and time c ons umi ng .The“ Soiland
Wa terFe atures”t ableofas oilsur veypr ovide si nforma tiona boutt hede pt
ha nd
hardness of bedrock.

Movement of Water in Soils

Understanding the movement of water through soils is important for determining
the suitability of a soil for all types of uses. Soil properties, such as texture,
structure, and the type and amount of pores, have a great influence on water
movement.

Gravitational water –Gravitational water is free water, which means it simply

flows through or off the soil. Gravitational water is responsible for nutrient
leaching and soil erosion. It is essential to apply nutrients at the right time, when
plants need them, to avoid problems with leaching. Otherwise, they could be
leached below the plant root zone. This is particularly important with sandy soils.
The rate of flow of irrigation water should be regulated to prevent leaching and
erosion.

Capillary water –Unlike gravitational water, capillary water does not flow
through the soil. It is water flow around individual soil particles, and it moves to
the highest point of tension. Plant roots remove capillary water until the attraction
between the water molecule and soil particles becomes stronger than the attractive
forces of the roots/root hairs. At thi
spoint,waterisnota va i
labl efort hepl ant’sus e
and the permanent wilting point is reached. Temporary wilting can occur when the
water film gets thin and the capillary movement of water slows.

Capillary rise of water –Capillary rise occurs when water from a water table
moves upward through the soil against the force of gravity. This is due to the
attraction between the water molecule and soil particles being stronger than the
force of gravity.

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Thenat
iont
hatdest
roy
sit
ssoi
l
,dest
roy
sit
sel
f.
”Franklin D. Roosevelt

Permeability
Hydraulic
Permeability refers to the movement of air and water within the soil. Permeability Conductivity –is a
rate is the rate at which a saturated soil transmits water, usually expressed in inches measurement of the
per hour. Texture, structure, bulk density, and the type of connectivity of amount of water that
can move downward
macropores influence permeability. through a unit area
of unsaturated soil
In sandy soils, the macropores are large and continuous, allowing water to move in a unit of time.
rapidly downward through the soil. In soils with high clay content, the macropores
are often small and discontinuous, resulting in slower permeability. As clay gets Saturated hydraulic
wet and begins to swell, the size of macropores decreases which also decreases conductivity –is a
measurement of the
permeability. Soils high in expansive clays may swell enough to close these pores amount of water that
completely. can move downward
through a unit area
of saturated soil in a
Structure affects permeability by influencing the path by which water can flow unit of time.
through the soil. Granular structure has a large number of interconnected
macropores and permits downward movement of water readily. Blocky structure
allows moderate permeability. Platy structure requires water to flow over a longer
and slower path, usually resulting in slow to very slow permeability in soils with
this structure. Prismatic structure tend to have high amounts of clay which swells
whe nwe t,c los i
ngmos tma cr opores. The“ Phy si
c a
la ndChe mi ca lPr
ope
rti
es”
table of a soil survey provides information about permeability of soils.

Infiltration
Infiltration is the downward entry of water into the immediate surface of the soil.
Infiltration rate is the rate at which water penetrates the surface of the soil at any
given instant, usually expressed in inches per hour. Like permeability, infiltration
is influenced by texture, structure, bulk density, and the type and connectivity of
macropores.

Drainage
Drainage is the removal of excess water from soil. The term refers to the
frequency and duration of periods of saturation or partial saturation. Soil drainage
is important because it effects land use and management decisions. The internal
drainage of soils is related to the depth of any water tables.

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Thenat
iont
hatdest
roy
sit
ssoi
l
,dest
roy
sit
sel
f.
”Franklin D. Roosevelt

A water table is the ground water level –a zone in the soil that is saturated with
water for significant periods during the year. There are two types of water tables,
apparent and perched. An apparent water table is one in which all horizons
between the upper boundary of saturation and a depth of six feet is saturated. A
perched water table is a water table in which saturated layers are underlain by one
or more unsaturated layers within six feet of the surface. The depth and duration of
these water tables is influenced by many factors including landscape position,
permeability, and rainfall. The presence of redoximorphic features is an indicator
of a high water table.

Apparent water tables are frequently encountered in low-lying or flat areas where
the slope of the land is insufficient to provide good drainage. Apparent water
tables are commonly found in floodplains, depressions, and flat areas of the Coastal
Plain of North Carolina.
N.C. Cooperative
Perched water tables are often found in soil horizons that have slow or very slow Extension Service
permeability. Water moves downward until it encounters the slowly permeable Sandy soils drain
layer. When water enters the soil faster than it can move through this restrictive more rapidly than
clayey soils
layer, the zone immediately above the layer becomes saturated, while the zone
below the restrictive layer remains unsaturated. These water tables are common in
soils with clayey subsoils and poor structure.

The depth of soil water tables tends to fluctuate throughout the year due largely to
changes in the amount of rainfall and the rate of transpiration. In North Carolina,
the highest water tables are normally encountered in the winter and early spring.
The“ SoilandWa terFe atures”tabl eofas oilsurve yprovide s information about the
kind, depth, and duration of water tables.

Drainage Classes
There are seven classes of natural soil drainage: excessively drained, somewhat
excessively drained, well drained, moderately well drained, somewhat poorly
drained, poorly drained, and very poorly drained. Exact definitions of what
Somewhat excessively
constitutes each drainage class differ for each state. A general definition of each drained soil
follows.

Excessively drained –Water is removed very rapidly, and the occurrence of

internal free water is very rare or very deep. The soils are commonly coarse-
textured and have very high hydraulic conductivity or are extremely shallow.

Somewhat excessively drained –Water is removed from the soil rapidly, and
internal free water is very rare or very deep. The soils are commonly coarse-
textured with high-saturated hydraulic conductivity or are very shallow.

Well drained - Water is removed readily but not rapidly. Internal free water is
deep or very deep. Water is available to plants throughout most of the growing
season in humid regions, and wetness does not inhibit the growth of roots for
significant periods during most growing seasons. Well drained soil

34
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Thenat
iont
hatdest
roy
sit
ssoi
l
,dest
roy
sit
sel
f.
”Franklin D. Roosevelt

Moderately well drained –Water is removed from the soil somewhat slowly during
some periods of the year. Internal free water commonly is moderately deep and
may persist from a short time to long periods. Although soils are wet for only a
short time within the rooting depth during the growing season, it is long enough
that most plants intolerant of wetness are affected. The soils commonly have
moderately low or lower saturated hydraulic conductivity in a layer within the
upper six feet.

Somewhat poorly drained –Water is removed slowly causing the soil to be wet at a
shallow depth for significant periods during the growing season. The occurrence of
free water commonly is shallow to moderately deep and may persist for short to
long periods. Wetness restricts growth of plants intolerant of wetness, unless
artificial drainage is provided. The soils commonly have one or more of the Moderately well drained
soil
following characteristics: low or very low saturated conductivity, a high water
table, or additional water from seepage.

Poorly drained –Water is removed so slowly that the soil is wet at shallow depths
periodically during the growing season or remains wet for long periods. Free water
is shallow or very shallow and usually present - persisting for moderate to long
periods. Free water is at or near the surface long enough during the growing season
to prevent the growth of most plants intolerant of wetness unless the soil is
artificially drained. However, the soil is not continuously wet directly below plow-
depth. The water table is commonly the result of low or very low saturated
hydraulic conductivity.

Very Poorly drained - Water is removed so slowly that free water remains at or Somewhat poorly
very near the ground surface for much of the growing season. Internal free water is drained soil

very shallow and may persist for long periods or permanently. Unless the soil is
artificially drained, most plants intolerant of wetness cannot be grown. These soils
are commonly level or depressed and frequently ponded (or wetland soils).

Drainage class information for soils can be found in the map unit descriptions and
series descriptions of a soil survey.

Flooding
Poorly drained soil
Flooding is the temporary covering of the soil surface by flowing water. It can be
caused by overflow from streams or rivers or by runoff from adjacent slopes.
Shallow water standing or flowing for short periods after rainfall or snowmelt is not
considered flooding. Neither is the standing water of marshes, swamps, or closed
depressions, which is considered ponding.

Flood Frequency Classes

● None: Flooding is not probable
● Rare: Flooding is unlikely but possible under unusual weather
conditions (chance of flooding nearly 0% to 5% in any year)
● Occasional: Flooding occurs infrequently under normal weather
conditions (chance of flooding 5% –50% in any year)
Surface of very poorly
● Frequent: Flooding occurs often under normal weather conditions drained soil
(chance of flooding is 50% in any year)
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Thenat
iont
hatdest
roy
sit
ssoi
l
,dest
roy
sit
sel
f.
”Franklin D. Roosevelt

Flood Duration Classes

◊Very brief: less than 2 days
◊Brief: 2 - 7 days
◊Long: 7 - 30 days
◊Very Long: more than 30 days
The time of year that flooding is most likely to occur is expressed in months, and
two-thirds to three-fourths of all flooding occurs during the stated period.
Inundation by overflowing streams or runoff from nearby slopes may damage crops
or delay their planting or harvesting. Scouring of the land by floodwaters can
remove favorable soil material. Deposition of soil material can be beneficial or
detrimental. Long periods of flooding reduce crop yields.

Information on flooding is based on evidence in the soil profile:

- thin strata of gravel, sand, silt, or clay deposited by floodwater
- irregular decrease in organic matter content with increasing depth
- little or no horizon development
- soil stratification is an indication of deposition by flooding

Local information about the extent and level of flooding and the relation of each
soil on the landscape to historic floods are also considered. Information on the
extent of flooding that is based on soil data is less specific than that provided by
detailed engineering surveys that delineate flood-prone areas at specific flood
freque ncyl [Link]“ SoilandWa t
e rFe atur es”t ableofas oils urveypr ovides
information about the frequency, duration, and typical months of flooding.

Available Water Capacity

The available water capacity is an estimate of how much water a soil can hold and
release for use by plants. It is measured in inches of water per inch of soil, and is
estimated by calculating the difference between the amount of soil water at field
capacity and the amount at wilting point. Field capacity is the amount of water
that soil can hold after the gravitational water has drained away. Wilting point is
the amount of water held by a soil that is beyond the ability of most plants to
extract.

Available water capacity is influenced by soil texture, content of rock fragments,

depth to a root-restrictive layer, organic matter content, and compaction. The size
and strength of soil structure can influence the availability and rate of water
released to plant roots. Sandy soils tend to have low available water capacities.
Silty soils tend to have high available water capacities. Rocks do not contain any
available water, therefore the greater the volume of rock fragments in the soil, the
lowe rt hea vai
lablewa t
erc apac [Link]“ Phy sicala ndChe mi c
alPr opert
ies
”t a ble
of a soil survey provides information about available water capacity.

Reaction
Reaction (soil pH) is a measure of acidity and alkalinity of a soil. Acidity or
alkalinity is determined by the amount of hydrogen or hydroxyl ions in the soil.
When the numbers of hydrogen ions outnumber the hydroxyl ions, the soil is
acidic. In the reverse condition, the soil is alkaline (basic). A pH scale is used to

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,dest
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”Franklin D. Roosevelt

measure the level of acidity or alkalinity. The pH scale ranges from 0 –14m with 7
being neutral. From 0 –7 is acidic, and the lower the number the more acidic the
soil. From 7 –14 is basic, and the higher the number the more alkaline, or basic,
the soil.

In North Carolina, the natural soil pH ranges from 4.0 to 8.0 with most soils
tending to be acidic –having pH values of 4.5 to 6.0. In the western United States,
where the climate is much drier, pH values tend to be much higher.

Most agricultural and ornamental plants prefer a pH of 5.5 to 7.0. Some plants,
such as azaleas, blueberries, camellias, ferns, pines, rhododendron, spruce, and firs,
prefer a soil with a pH of 4.0 to 5.0. Others, such as asparagus and sagebrush,
tolerate soils with a pH of 7.0 to 8.0. Above 8.5, the soil is too alkaline for most
plants, and soil with a pH less than 3.5 is too acidic. The presence of certain plants,
such as broom sedge in pastures, is indicative of acidic soil. The pH in a soil will
vary by layer. To optimize plant growth, farmers and homeowners commonly
apply products to adjust the pH. Lime, made from ground limestone, is the most
common ingredient used to raise the pH of the soil. The amount of lime needed
shoul dbede ter
mi nedbyas oilt est
.The“ Phy sicala ndChe micalPr ope rties”table
of a soil survey provides information on soil reaction.

Soil samples can be

tested through the
local Cooperative
Extension Office for
Acid Deposition (acid precipitation or acid rain) pH and nutrient
Acid deposition is a serious environmental problem. Although usually thought of levels.
as acid precipitation and referred to as acid rain, the term actually means any kind
of precipitation or cloud vapor with a low pH and the deposit of dry acidic
particles. Natural precipitation is slightly acidic, with a pH of 5.0 –5.6. The
addition of nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide to the atmosphere from the burning
of fossil fuels, such as coal by power plants and industry and gasoline by motor
vehicles, has increased the acidity. These chemicals are dissolved into a solution
producing sulfuric and nitric acids, when exposed to atmospheric moisture. Flooding along a
river

The severity of the problem often depends on the soil pH. If the soil is alkaline,
acid“ rain”isne utral
ized.I fsoilisa c i
d,t he na
cid“ ra
in”c ans everelyincreases oil
acidity. The lowering of soil pH can damage plants and other living organisms and
lower crop yields. In the United States, acid rain is mainly a problem in the East,
where many of the soils are naturally acidic.

pH Scale
0 → 7 → 14
Acidic ▲ Ba
sic
Neutral
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,dest
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”Franklin D. Roosevelt

Cation-Exchange Capacity (CEC)

Cation-exchange capacity is a measure of the ability of a soil to hold and exchange
cations (positively charged ions). It is one of the most important chemical
properties in soil and is usually closely related to soil fertility. A few plant nutrient
cations that are a part of CEC include calcium, magnesium, potassium, iron, and
ammonium.

Generally, as CEC levels decrease, more frequent and smaller applications of

fertilizers are desirable. Smaller applications of fertilizer applied to soils that have
low CEC levels may reduce fertilizer loss to surface and ground waters, lessening
the impact on water quality.

Soil Classification
The National Cooperative Soil Survey identifies and maps over 20,000 different
kinds of soil in the United States. Most soils are given a name, which generally
comes from the locale where the soil was first mapped. Named soils are referred to
as soil series.

Soils are named and classified on the basis of physical and chemical properties in
their horizon. The official book used for classifying soils, Soil Taxonomy, uses
color, texture, structure, and other properties of the soil from the surface to a depth
of two meters to key the soil into a classification system. This system provides a
common language for scientists.

Ultisols are the dominant soil order in North Carolina. These soils are
characterized by a low amount of plant nutrients and a clay increase in the B
horizon. They are often developed under a mixed forest (conifers and deciduous
trees) and are usually highly weathered due to high average rainfall. These soils

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hatdest
roy
sit
ssoi
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,dest
roy
sit
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f.
”Franklin D. Roosevelt

require the addition of lime and fertilizer to be productive farmland and produce a
wide variety of crops.

Soil Surveys
A soil survey is a systematic examination, description, classification, and mapping
of soils in an area. Most counties in North Carolina have a published soil survey or
have one in progress. A soil survey can be obtained from the Soil and Water
Conservation office. A soil survey includes: general information on the county
(relief, drainage, and climate), detailed and general soil maps, general and detailed
soil descriptions, definitions, information on physical and chemical properties of
soils, tables for soil interpretations, and information on the use and management of
soils –appropriate uses of the specific soils –recreational, commercial, and
residential, and limitations –shrink-swell, poor drainage, and erodibility.

General soil maps are good for broad planning purposes and can be used to
compare the suitability of large areas for general land uses. These maps are found
at the beginning of the map section near the back of the soil survey. General soil
General Soil Map
map unit descriptions providing information about the dominant soils, their
properties and limitations are located near the front of the survey.

Detailed soil maps should be consulted for specific areas and their suitability for
planning the management of a farm, field, or selection of a building or other
structure. These maps are located near the back or are loose in the survey, with an
index map for use in locating specific map sheets and a legend of map symbols
located at the beginning of the section. Map unit descriptions of the detailed soil
maps provide information on the general nature of the map units, brief non-
technical soil descriptions, and the properties and limitations. Detailed Soil Map

The Classification of the Soils section provides information about specific soil
series including a detailed description and characteristics of the soil and the
material from which it formed.

The Use and Management of the Soils section provides information on prime
farmland, cropland and yields per acre, pasture and hayland, orchards, woodland
management and productivity, recreation, and wildlife habitat. It also includes an
engineering section covering building site development, sanitary facilities,
construction materials, and water management.

The Soil Properties section provides information on engineering index properties,

physical and chemical properties, and soil and water features.

Interpretive tables may include: temperature and precipitation, freeze dates for
spring and fall, growing season, acreage and proportionate extent of the soils, land
capability and yields per acre of crops and pasture, soil and water features, and
classification of the soils, in addition to the types of information already listed
under the use and management section above.

Envirothon participants should be familiar with all parts of a soil survey and be
able to answer questions using maps, tables, and written sections of the survey.
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iont
hatdest
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,dest
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”Franklin D. Roosevelt

Soil Applications Land Capability

Classification:
Soil scientists evaluate sites in terms of particular projects to determine land use
capabilities and guidelines. The projects may include: building sites, agricultural Class I –few
uses, septic systems, landfill locations, road placement, and recreational limitations that
development. Acceptable activities depend on soil quality and landscape. restrict use
Economic and environmental objectives must also be examined as well as how Class II –some
limitation that
laws and regulations affect these decisions and how the decisions affect laws and reduce choices of
regulations. plants or require
moderate
Land Capability Classification conservation
practices
Land capability classes, and in most cases subclasses, are assigned to each soil. Class III –severe
The class suggests the suitability of the soil for field crops or pasture and provide a limitations
general indication of the need for conservation treatment and management. affecting plant
choices or
There are eight capability classes, which are designated by Arabic or Roman requiring special
conservation
numerals (I through VIII) representing progressively greater limitations and practices or both
narrower choices for practical land use. Capability subclasses are noted as an e, w, ClassIV –very
s, or c following the capability class numeral (i.e. І Іs). Ca pa bil
itys ubclass severe limitations
indications are as defined in the right margin. restricting plant
choices or
requiring very
careful
management or
both
Class V –not
suited for
cultivation
Class VI –unsuited
to cultivation,
limited to pasture,
woodland, or
wildlife habitat
Class VII - use
restricted largely to
grazing, woodland,
or wildlife
Class VIII - use
restricted to
Of the eight capability classes, only the first four are considered usable for recreation, water
cropland. Class I land is the best agricultural land. Classes II, III, and IV need supply, wildlife, or
progressively more care and protection when cultivated crops are grown. Soils in aesthetics
classes V, VI, and VII are suited for native plants, such as forests, although some
Subclasses:
soils in classes V and VI can produce specialized crops, such as fruit trees or “e ”–indicates the
ornamentals. Soils in class VIII include the very steep and rocky areas of the soil is erosive
mountain region and the very wet tidal marshes. They do not respond to “w”–indicates a
management without major reclamation. wetland limitation
“s ”–indicates
shallow, droughty,
Hydric soils are wet soils defined as a group for the purpose of implementation of or stony soil
legislation for preserving wetlands and for assessing the potential habitat for “c ”–indicates a
wildlife. The soils were designated on the basis of flooding, water table, and climatic limitation
drainage class criteria. These soils develop under wet conditions, meaning they are
anaerobic (without oxygen) within 12 inches, and can support the growth and
regeneration of hydrophytic vegetation.
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hatdest
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,dest
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”Franklin D. Roosevelt

Prime Farmland
Prime farmland, as defined by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, is land that has
the best combination of physical and chemical characteristics for producing food,
feed, forage, fiber, and oilseed crops. It can be cultivated land, pastureland,
forestland, or other land available for these uses, but it is not urban or built-up land
or water areas. Unique farmland is land, other than prime farmland, that is used for
production of specific high value crops, such as citrus, tree nuts, olives, cranberries,
fruit, and vegetables. Public land in National Parks, National Forests, military
reservations, and State Parks is not available for farming.

The acreage of prime farmland is limited, and is of major importance in meeting

thena t
ion’ ss hor
t- and long-range needs for food and fiber. Government at all
levels - local, State, and Federal, as well as individuals must encourage and
facilitate the management and wise use of this valuable resource. A recent trend in
land use has been the loss of some prime farmland to industrial and urban uses.
The loss of this land puts pressure on marginal lands, which generally are more
erodible, droughty, less productive, and cannot be easily cultivated.

Soil Recycling
The weathering of bedrock releases nutrients, such as phosphorus and sulfur,
needed for plant growth. Nitrogen fixing bacteria (nitrifying bacteria) that live in
the soil change atmospheric nitrogen to a form plants can use. Lightning can also
fix atmospheric nitrogen. Plants absorb these nutrients, storing them in their
tissues. As plants or the organisms that consumed them emit waste or die, the plant
Lithosphere –The
residue and tissue of organisms is decomposed by fungi and bacteria, thus rigid outer layer of
releasing the nutrients to enrich the soil and once again be used by plants. the earth.
Nutrients can be leached from the upper layers of soil and no longer available for
plant uptake. The fungi and bacteria, along with some soil invertebrates, secrete
substances and help stabilize soil aggregates. Nutrients, such as nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium, are added by the application of fertilizers. Nutrients
can be lost to runoff of surface water. Soil is lost to various forms of erosion, and
new soil is added by weathering of bedrock and addition of organic material.
When crops are harvested, much of the organic material and nutrients within are
lost and unavailable to replenish the soil. The cycle is a never-ending interplay
between the atmosphere, biosphere, lithosphere, and the actions of man.

Soil formation
and the gain
and loss of
nutrients is a
continuous
interplay
between
atmospheric,
biological, and
lithospheric
factors.

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iont
hatdest
roy
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ssoi
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,dest
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”Franklin D. Roosevelt

Thebi otic,or“ org anism,”f actorofs oi

lf or ma ti
oni ncl
ude ,t hepl a
nt sthatgrow i n
the soil, the array of organisms that live and die in the soil, and the organisms that
impact soil through their burrowing and mixing of soil. Organisms, through their
litter and death, contribute organic matter to the soil. Organic matter helps keep the
soil from compacting, helps retain moisture, adds mineral nutrients, provides the
food for microorganisms, and promotes the formation of soil structure through
aggregation of the soil particles. Well structured soils are porous and permeable,
allowing the movement of water and gases needed by plants and other organisms.
The application of lime reduces soil acidity and increases the availability of
calcium. This improves conditions for microbiotic activity, increasing the numbers
and diversity of soil organisms, which in turn increases organic matter
decomposition and the release of plant nutrients. Lime, in combination with
organic matter, is necessary for well-developed soil structure.

The recycling of nutrients, from the subsoil to the vegetation and back again to the Burrowing animals,
such as beetles, ants,
soil surface as litter, counters the nutrient loss from leaching. The litter is also spiders, earthworms,
important in providing soil cover that reduces evaporation, moderating soil pseudoscorpions,
temperature fluctuations, and protecting soils from the erosive forces of wind, wireworms, and
mites, help aerate the
water runoff, and rainfall. soil, allow for
improved infiltration
of water, and mix
organic matter into
the soil.

Fungi, bacteria,
protozoa, and many
invertebrates excrete
a material that helps
stabilize the soil
aggregates.

Nodule bacteria,
Rhizobium ,and
actinomycetes fix
nitrogen to the soil.

Fungi and bacteria

are decomposers that
break down organic
matter and return
essential nutrients to
the soil.

The figure above displays a soil food web and organisms beneficial to the soil and The wastes of all the
organisms, litter from
to its recycling. plants, and the
decomposed tissue of
Organic Matter From Tree Litter dead plants and
organisms provide
Coniferous trees produce needle litter that contains fewer nutrients and is more organic matter and
resistant to decomposition than the broadleaf litter of deciduous trees. Freezing, nutrients to the soil.
drought, low summer temperatures, acidity, and the resistant nature of conifer litter
slow the decomposition of organic matter. The by-products of the decomposition
acidify the soil, creating an adverse environment for earthworms and other soil
organisms, which prefer less acidic conditions. This results in little of the humus
being mixed with the mineral soil. Infiltrating water is also made more acidic and
intensifies chemical weathering and leaching of plant nutrients and other minerals.
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,dest
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”Franklin D. Roosevelt

The litter from hardwood, deciduous trees is more adaptable to soil organisms and
higher in nutrients. As a result, decomposition occurs more rapidly and humus is
incorporated into the soil surface layer. The mixing of organic matter into the soil
surface produces a finely structured, well-humidified, highly fertile soil.

Erosion
Erosion is the process by which soil is transported from one place to another by
wind, running water, gravity, glaciers, and waves. It is a natural process that is
oftena cc
e leratedbyma n’sa cti
[Link] os ionha sma nyha rmfule f
fects:poor er
soils, smaller crop harvests, higher food prices, silt buildup in waterways, increases
flooding, contributes to costly dredging and navigation problems, degrades aquatic
plant and animal habitat, and is detrimental to aquatic life - decreasing the biotic
potential (survival and reproduction) of fish, oysters, clams, and other aquatic
species.

Running water, which includes rivers, streams, and runoff, is the major cause of
erosion. The three types of erosion by surface water runoff are sheet, rill, and
gully.

Sheet erosion is the most difficult to see. It is the gradual eroding away of a very
thin, uniform layer (sheet) of soil. Sheet erosion occurs where there is enough
vegetative cover to prevent rill erosion but not enough to stop erosion completely.
It is seen as muddy runoff.

Rill erosion occurs when runoff water flows in threads of current, typically
developing into tiny channels called rills. Many channels can be seen and may
range from extremely small to a few inches in depth. This erosion occurs on gentle
slopes with little protective vegetation.

Gully erosion occurs as rills become larger, forming deeper and wider channels. It
Rill Erosion
is the most dramatic form of soil erosion. Gullies may become too large or deep
for farm equipment to cross. Gully erosion develops on steeper slopes with little or
no vegetation. Although gully erosion is the most visible, sheet and rill erosion are
a greater national concern. Sheet and rill erosion remove an average of five tons of
soil from every acre of cultivated cropland each year. This is about the same as the
amount of soil that can build up, or accumulate, in one year.

Stream bank erosion is loss of soil along the banks of streams or rivers, usually
caused by an increased volume of water after a heavy rainfall. Most of the time the
increased stream flow is due to changes in the watershed, which cause increased
amounts of runoff. Human activities, such as logging of forests and urbanization
with increased impervious surfaces, as well as natural events, such as forest fires,
can result in the increased runoff.

Most wind erosion occurs in areas of high prevailing winds and low annual rainfall
or very sandy soils. The soils have smooth surfaces and are composed of particles
that move easily. The planting of windbreaks or maintaining a cover crop are good
methods to control wind erosion.

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iont
hatdest
roy
sit
ssoi
l
,dest
roy
sit
sel
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”Franklin D. Roosevelt

Land slippage refers to blocks of water-saturated soils moving down slopes in

response to gravity. Examples would be the cave-in of a cliff or bluff that
overhangs a river or a steeply cut road embankment.

Sediment, soil particles that enter the water as a result of erosion, is the number
onepol l
uta nt( by vol ume )ofNor th Ca rol
ina’swa t
e r
wa ys. Se dime ntat
ionis
detrimental to aquatic life, but it can either improve or degrade the soil where it is
deposited. The impact of deposited sediment depends on the characteristics of the
original soil that was eroded, the rate of deposition, the type of material, and the
depth of deposition.

No one benefits from erosion. Nutrient losses from erosion and possible crop yield
reductions are only part of the costs involved. Erosion may also result in the loss of
organic matter and deterioration of soil physical characteristics. Coarser material
generally results in degraded soil structure and decreased fertility. Sediment
contributes to costly problems including: removal of sediment from drinking water
supplies; the filling in of harbors, waterways, and canals; and increased wear and
tear on equipment.

Soil, as a natural resource, is not renewable over the short term. Depending on how
soil is defined, it may take nature 50 –500 years or longer to form one inch of soil.
While a loss of five tons of soil per acre is acceptable because this is generally the
replacement rate, it also represents an average loss of 15 pounds of nitrogen per
acre.

Factors Affecting the Rate of Soil Erosion

Rainfall, runoff, slope of the land, soil erodibility, and vegetative cover affect the
rate of erosion.

Rainfall and Runoff

Annual precipitation in the United States ranges from almost nothing in parts of
Death Valley, California, to 140 inches per year in Washington State. The amount
of precipitation an area receives greatly affects the erosion rate. Even more
important, is the seasonal rainfall pattern, which may be large volumes of rain in a
short period of time rather than spread throughout the year.

Soil Erodibility
The soil erodibility factor is a relative index of the susceptibility of bare, cultivated
soil to particle detachment and removal and transport by rainfall. It is computed
from soil composition, saturated hydraulic conductivity, and structure. Soils with
more silt and very fine sand are generally more erosive because of weaker bonding.
Soil structure greatly influences soil erodibility. If the rate of water infiltration is
slow, as in platy or massive structure, there is more water runoff, thus more
potential for erosion. Soil structure can be improved and erosion decreased by the
addition of organic materials and a good cover crop.

Soils are also assigned a soil loss tolerance, which is defined as an estimated
maximum rate of annual soil erosion that will permit crop productivity to be

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iont
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sit
ssoi
l
,dest
roy
sit
sel
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”Franklin D. Roosevelt

sustained economically and indefinitely. Deeper soils can lose larger amounts of
soil per acre per year and sustain productivity. The five classes range from one ton
per acre per year for very shallow soils to five tons per acre per year for very deep
soils.

Vegetative Cover
The type and amount of vegetative cover affects the rate of erosion. If the cover is
a grass, the erosion will be considerably less than if the field is planted in
conventional row crops, such as corn or cotton. The amount of cover per surface
area plus the root system that helps bind soil aggregates are important factors.
Soils that are heavily vegetated seldom erode at a high rate.

Topography (Steepness and Length of Slope)

The slope of the land greatly affects the intensity of surface runoff and soil erosion.
The steepness of the slope is indicated in terms of percentages. A 10 percent slope
is one that drops 10 feet in elevation over a distance of 100 feet. The higher the
percentage, the steeper the slope, and therefore the amount and velocity of runoff
will be greater. The length of the slope also effects erosion. The longer the slope,
the greater the velocity of runoff water will be.

Problems Facing Farmers

Urbanization, soil erosion, flood and sediment damage, limited water supplies,
salinization, harmful effects of pesticides, atmospheric pollution, soil compaction,
high fuel costs, and high fertilizer costs are a few of the problems facing farmers.
In response to these problems, governmental agencies and farmers have borrowed a
term from the corporate world and adopted the use of a Best Management Practices
system.

Best Management Practices (BMPs) Best Management Practices (BMPs)

are conservation practices that farmers, as well as suburban and urban landowners,
can employ to help conserve soil and water resources. BMPs are very effective
when implemented according to design parameters and used and maintained
properly.

Crop rotation refers to planting different crops in the same field in different years,
or simply stated, rotating the crop planted in a field from year to year. Different
crops use different nutrients, and if the same crop is planted in a field year after
year, it depletes the soil and crop yield will be lower. This practice works best if
one of the crops is a legume that can add nitrogen to the soil. Using grass or a hay
crop, which reduces erosion, as one of the crops is also helpful.

Sod-based rotation is the planting of a grain or other close growing crop, which
establishes sod, in rotation with a different crop as a crop rotation. Very little
erosion occurs in fields with a thick cover crop forming a sod base. Planting a
sod-based crop every other year effectively cuts the erosion rate by one-half.

Grasses and legumes in rotation is the practice of using grasses and

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Thenat
iont
hatdest
roy
sit
ssoi
l
,dest
roy
sit
sel
f.
”Franklin D. Roosevelt

legumes in rotation. Grasses are sod-building crops that help hold the soil in place
and break the erosive force of raindrops and runoff. The legumes, with their
symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria in nodules on their roots, add nitrogen to the
soil.

Conservation tillage Conservation tillage refers to no-till, strip-till, minimum-till,

ridge till, and sod planting. For maximum benefits from conservation tillage, some
kind of crop residue must be left as surface mulch. This can be dead residue from
thepr iory ear’sc roporr esi
dueo fg rassesa nd/orl eg ume st ha ta reki l
ledwi th
herbicides. The amount of mulch should be sufficient to cover at least 30 percent of
the soil surface and should be evenly distributed. This mulch reduces soil water
evaporation and erosion, and adds organic matter. The next planting season, the
crop is planted through the mulch without plowing the soil.

Grass waterway is created by planting grass in a constructed channel that carries

runoff from a field. This allows surplus water to leave the field without causing
severe erosion problems. The grass slows the velocity of the water, allowing most
of the sediment (soil in solution) to be deposited before the water exits the field. [Link]

Field borders are created by planting a 10 –30 foot strip of grass around the edge
of a field. This allows for travel and turnaround of equipment while slowing
erosion. It is most effective when water leaves the field crossing the grassed
border. The field border slows the velocity of the water allowing soil particles and
the attached phosphorus to be deposited from suspension. Field borders can also
provide beneficial wildlife areas for quail, turkey, rabbits, deer, and predators.

Contour farming is the practice of plowing around the contour of the terrain
(across the changing slope) rather than in straight lines. It creates small dams that
divert and retard the flow of water downhill, sending it along the contour with the
row. This practice helps retain water and prevent soil erosion.

Strip cropping is the practice of growing at least two different crops in the same Contour farming
shown on the hill in
field in alternating strips. One crop is usually a row crop with a higher rate of the background
erosion, and the other crop is usually a grass or other low growing crop with a
lower rate of erosion. Sediment-filled water leaving the row crop strip deposits the Strip cropping
shown in
soil particles when slowed by the close growing crop strip. foreground and on
contours
Terraces involve constructing several embankment ridges of soil along the contour
to control runoff by breaking up the slope into smaller sections. Terraces collect
runoff, forcing it to flow along the contour where it can soak into the soil or along
channels into a grassed waterway or other means to leave the field, thus reducing
erosion. Sometimes, terraces are constructed parallel to one another (parallel [Link]
terraces).

Cover crop is the practice of planting a crop in the fall, after harvest, to have plant
cover on the bare field. The cover crop protects the soil during the winter. These
crops are usually a small grain that may be harvested the next year, turned under to
provide organic material, or used as a cover when planting a no-till crop. These
crops can be an important winter food source for some wildlife.

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iont
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roy
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ssoi
l
,dest
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”Franklin D. Roosevelt

Crop residue management is the practice of, during harvest, cutting up and
leaving unharvested remains on top of the soil to provide ground cover. The cut up
plant material is called residue. The residue helps reduce the impact of rain hitting
the soil and slows runoff, allowing more of the rainwater to soak into the soil.

Filter strips are the practice of planting strips of permanent vegetation to filter out
pollutants including: sediment, nutrients, pesticides, and debris from runoff. They
are usually planted around bodies of water, such as ponds, lakes, and streams, or
around sensitive areas. Sometimes, wildlife plantings are used in conjunction with
a grass in filter strips.
USDA
Conservation tillage
Windbreaks are the practice of planting trees in rows perpendicular to the flow of for crop residue
the wind for the purpose of breaking up the wind. They help protect the soil from management (top),
60% corn residue
erosion and are used in areas with sandy soils and high prevailing winds. Two (bottom)
trees often used in windbreaks in North Carolina are Eastern red cedar and loblolly
pine.

Diversion is the practice of placing an individually designed channel across a

hillside to divert runoff out of the field and into an area where the water can be
filtered before contaminating surface water.

Water control structure is the practice of placing wooden or metal doors in

drainage canals to manage water. Planks can be removed to allow more water flow
USDA
out during times of high rainfall or added to store more water during drier periods. Filter strip (top)
These structures are also effective in retaining nutrients and pesticides, allowing Riparian buffer
aquatic plants and algae to use the nutrients, and allowing the break down of (bottom)
pesticides into harmless components.

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is the practice of using various or multiple

methods to control pest populations. A knowledgeable professional scouts the
crops for insects, determines the level of pest infestation, and if and when a
chemical pesticide is necessary. When needed, the chemical pesticide is applied Windbreak
only to that particular area. If the infestation never reaches the level requiring
pesticide use, the chemicals are not applied, or other methods may be employed,
such as natural predators or mixing crops with others that are not as prone to
infestation. The practice reduces the amount of pesticides added to the
environment and reduces soil compaction due to equipment use.

Soil test is the practice of testing soils for nutrient content to determine the
nutrients needed for the crop and the application rate. This BMP is effective in
limiting the amount of unnecessary nutrients added to the soil and reduces the
amount of nutrients that could be carried by runoff into near-by waters, polluting
the water or causing eutrophication (excessive plant growth).

Best Management Practices are particularly effective when used together in a

conservation system, for example: contour farming with strip cropping, grassed
waterways, filter strips, diversion, field borders, no-till, sod-based rotation, and
IPM.

47
 “
Thenat
iont
hatdest
roy
sit
ssoi
l
,dest
roy
sit
sel
f.
”Franklin D. Roosevelt

Human Actions and Soil

Human actions can reduce the quality of soils. Soil degradation usually occurs
because people do not understand soils and how they act under different conditions.
Soil degradation occurs in both rural and urban areas.

Ther emova lofa gr i

culturalc rop sc anr e moves omeoft hes oil’snut rie
nt sa nd
degrade the soil. If the entire plant is removed, valuable organic matter is lost.
These actions also reduce the ability of the soil to hold water and air. In addition, a
plowed agricultural field, left without cover, erodes more easily and chemical
pesticides can accumulate in the soil. The tires of heavy equipment used in
agriculture may compact the soil reducing its ability to take in water and air.

Highly mechanized, intensive agriculture operations, without proper soil

conservation practices, tend to reduce soil quality. Ironically, farmers must then
spend more time and money to raise crops on the poorer soil.

Human actions in urban areas are also detrimental to the soil. On construction
sites, all trees and other vegetation are usually removed, exposing the soil to
erosion. Although they may cover much smaller areas, these sites generally have
tremendous erosion rates per acre. Sometimes as much as 150 tons per acre per
year, versus the 16 tons per acre per year for agricultural land.

[Link]/nstc/soil/Kids/images

48
 “
Thenat
iont
hatdest
roy
sit
ssoi
l
,dest
roy
sit
sel
f.
”Franklin D. Roosevelt

Appendix A

Soil Development

Landscape
position, climate,
time, organisms,
and parent material
influence soil
development.

U.S. Dept. of Agriculture

Rock Cycle

49
 “
Thenat
iont
hatdest
roy
sit
ssoi
l
,dest
roy
sit
sel
f.
”Franklin D. Roosevelt

Resources
North Carolina Division of Soil and Water Conservation
[Link]/EHNR/DSWC

USDA Natural Resource Conservation Service

[Link] or [Link]/education/resources/k_12.htm
- From the Surface Down –An Introduction to Soil Surveys for
Agronomic Use ([Link] –follow links to Education –
Resources –K-12 –From the Surface Down
- Helping People Understand Soils

Local Soil and Water Conservation Office

Publications available
- Water Quality Field Guide
- Soil Erosion by Water
- Soil Erosion by Wind
- What is a Watershed
- Conservation and the Water Cycle
- Soil Erosion –The Work of Uncontrolled Water
Other pamphlets on various topics from the USDA and NRCS
Very Important Resources:
- Any Modern Soil Survey
- FFA Land Judging Manual [Link] (handbook not
online)
- Soil Textural Triangle

North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service [Link]

- Soil Facts (
pamphl etsonva rioustopi c
s ,s
uc ha s“ Soil
sandWa ter
Qua lit
y”
- Landscaping to Protect Water Quality; Fertilizer Recommendations and
Techniques to Maintain Landscapes and Protect Water Quality

Investigating Your Environment, [Link]/consed/iye/[Link]

Soil Science Education, [Link]/globe/appsoil/[Link]

Conserving Soil - U.S. Department of Agriculture

Teaching Soil and Water Conservation; A Classroom Field Guide - U.S.

Department of Agriculture SCS #3

Soil and Water Conservation Society [Link]

50
“
Thenat
iont
hatdest
roy
sit
ssoi
l
,dest
roy
sit
sel
f.
”Franklin D. Roosevelt

51
“
Thenat
iont
hatdest
roy
sit
ssoi
l
,dest
roy
sit
sel
f.
”Franklin D. Roosevelt

52
“
Thenat
iont
hatdest
roy
sit
ssoi
l
,dest
roy
sit
sel
f.
”Franklin D. Roosevelt

53