ELSCI  Universe with many of the characteristics of

NEWTON’S STATIC, INFINITE UNIVERSE.

UNIVERSE ORIGIN THEORIES LESSON 1
 Involved a system of a HUGE SWIRLING
Cyclical or Oscillating Universe WHIRPOOLS of a fine matter producing
GRAVITATIONAL EFFECTS.
 “Rigveda”- describing the universe as a “cosmic
egg” or brahmanda Static or Newtonian Universe
 Means the whole universe expands out od a
 Isaac Newton
single consentrated point called “Bindu” before
 “PRINCIPAL”
subsequently collapsing again
 Matter on the large scale in uniformly
Primordial Universe distributed and the universe is
GRAVITATIONALLY BALANCED BUT
 Anaxagoras (Greek philosopher) ESSENTIALLY UNSTABLE
 Original state of cosmos was a primordial
mixture of all of its ingredients Einsteinian Universe
 Infinitesimally small fragments of themselves
 Albert Einstein
Atomic Universe  Theory of gravity was not dissimilar to Newton’s
in that it was static, dynamically stable universe,
 Leucippus, Democritus (Greek philosophers) which was expanding or contracting.
 Founded the school of atonism  It was later ABANDONED as HUBBLE 1929
 Universe was composed of very small, invisib;e showed that the universe was NOT STATIC.
ad indestructible building blocks known as
ATOMS. Big Bang Theory
 (mostly it is focused on atoms)
 George Lemaitre
Aristotelian Universe  1927
 “Hypothesis of the Primeval Atom”
 Aristotle  13.7 BILLION YEARS AGO
 4th Century B.C  In the middle of nowhere
 Geocentric Universe which is fixed.  An extremely dense and hot state that blew
 Earth is at the center and it is sorounded by up and continues to expand today
celestial spheres of planets and stars 
Heliocentric Universe

 Aristarchus of Samos (Greek astronomer)- the

first person to present an explicit argument for a
heliocentric model of the solar system
 The sun is at the center of the universe instead
of the earth.

Ptolemaic Universe

 Cladius Ptolemaus (Roman-egyptian

mathematician and astronomer)
 Based on aristotles theory  STRENGTH- in 1929 Edwin Hubble
 Planets and the rest of the universe orbit a discovered that the distances to far away
stationary earth in CIRCULAR EPICYCLES. galaxies were generally proportional to their
Cartesian Vortex Universe redshifts

 Rene Descartes (French philosopher)  WEAKNESS- without any evidence

associated with the earliest instant of the
 expansion, the Big Bang theory cannot and universe would expand for a period of time
does not provide any explanation for such before the gravitational attraction of matter
an initial condition; rather, it describes and causes it to collapse back in and undergo a
explains the general evolution of the bounce
universe since that instant.  Most recent measurements on CMB radiation
show the Universe will continue on expanding
and will most likely result in the “Big Freeze”
Steady State Theory
(heat death) of the universe.
 Fred Hoyle
 1948  STRENGTH-accepts that the universe is
 “Infinite Universe” expanding (Big Bang theory)
 Everywhere  WEAKNESS-discovery of the cosmic microwave
 New matter is CONTINUOUSLY CREATED as the background radiation in 1965, which was
universe EXPANDS. predicted by the Big Bang theory.
 Stephen Hawking- that the fact that microwave 
radiation had been found, and that it was
thought to be left over from the Big Bang, was
"the final nail in the coffin of the steady-state
theory."

 STRENGTH- since the universe is unchanging,

there is no need for a convoluted explanation
for its beginning. What is, always was, and will
continue to be.

 WEAKNESS- discovery of the cosmic microwave

background radiation in 1965, which was
predicted by the Big Bang theory.
Creation Theory

 The creator
 Faith
 Before time was created
 God was
 In the beginning “God” created the heavens and
the earth.
 STRENGTH-The law of cause-and-effect shows
that the First Cause of all things must be an
infinite, eternal, omnipotent, omnipresent,
omniscient, spiritual, volitional, truthful, loving,
living Being!
Oscillating Theory  WEAKNESS-Any effort to determine the cause of
the universe is purely hypothetical.
 Albert Einstein
-No human was there to observe the
 1930
processes, so any attempt to
 13.7 BILLION YEARS AGO
understand events of pre-history
 Here and there
(especially original events) must,
 universe following an eternal series of
therefore, be based on "belief systems,"
oscillations, each beginning with a big bang and
or presuppositions.
ending with a BIG CRUNCH; in the interim, the
 -While the theories and ideas may be OR…… 1 LIGHT YEAR
many, the presuppositions can only be
of two sorts:
1) There is an infinite series of causes,
going back into infinite time, with no
ultimate Cause; or
2) There exists an uncaused First Cause
that was "outside" or transcendent to Big Bang Theory
the universe.


 the universe began from an initial point (or
 singularity) which has expanded over billions of
years to form the universe as we now know it
Steady State theory
today.
 Fred Hoyle, Herman Bondi and Tommy Gold  Does NOT explain what initiated creation of
 1948 universe. Only describes expansion of universe
 Assumed that the universe has been and always
Hubble’s Law
be the same.
 Inspired by the movie “Dead of The Night”  Edwin Hubble
 Disapproved by the observation of Edward  1929
Hubble in 1920, as he discovered that the  proposed that the Universe is expanding
universe is fast and changing  supported by a phenomenon called the
Doppler shift
String Theory or Multiverse Theory

 Stephen Hawking  Doppler Effect: – Change in frequency of

 1960 waves moving relative to its source
 The universe cannot extend back indefinitely
 Fundamental building blocks of the universe is o Wavelength increases = Frequency
tiny, one- dimentional strings rather than 4 decreases
point- like particles, whose distinct vibrational 
modes represent different particles.

FORMATION OF THE UNIVERSE AND GALAXIES

Light Year

 A way of measuring distance

 Light travels at 186,000 miles per second
(300,000 kilometers per second).
 a light second is 186,000 miles (300,000 o Stars moving AWAY = RED shift
kilometers). Stars moving TOWARD = BLUE shift
 the distance that light can travel in a year, or: Greater the shift = faster the speed
186,000 miles/second * 60 seconds/minute * 60
minutes/hour * 24 hours/day * 365 days/year =
5,865,696,000,000 miles/year
 

 EVIDENCES-Cosmic Background Radiation – Low

 Irregular Galaxies
temp waves discovered in 1965 indicating explosion
occurred

-Gravity – Responsible for movement of

dust clouds to form planets and stars

OTHER THEORIES o
 STEADY –STATE THEORY (HOYLE)-INFINITE
UNIVERSE, no beginning no end.
 OSCILLATING THEORY(EINSTEIN)- PULSATING/CYCLIC
UNIVERSE, big bang and big crunch
Nebula
 THEORY OF CREATION- a CREATOR is the source of
all matter and energy in the universe  A cloud in space
 Made out of gas and dust ( can also have stars
Galaxy
inside)
 Large Group of stars outside our milky way
Theories on the origin of the solar system
 Made of gus and dust
 Spiral galaxies often appear bluish because they Collision theory (buffon)
contain many young stars
 Sun was hit by a giant comet releasing debris
a. Young stars give off blue light when they burn
that formed planets.

o
 Elliptical galaxies often appear reddish because
they contain many old stars
a. Old stars give off red light when they burn 

Vortex Theory (Descartes)

 whirlpool- like motion of the pre solar materials

created the early solar system.

o
 Supercluster- large cluster of galaxies
 Milky Way- classified as a spiral galaxy, contains
interstellar matter that may form new stars


Tidal Theory

 Jeans and jeffrey

 planets were formed from the substance being
torn out from the sun when a massive heavenly
body passed near it.


 Planets form at the same time from the same
cloud as the star.
 Planet formation sites observed today as dust
disks of T Tauri stars.
Solar Nebular Theory
 Sun and our solar system formed ~ 5 billion
 SOLAR SYSTEM formed from huge, rotating years ago.
cloud disk of dust and gases
 most widely accepted model of the formation of  a),
the solar system  (b) The solar nebula contracts and flattens into
 the solar system condensed out of a nebula – a a spinning disk. The large blob in the center will
huge cloud of interstellar gas and dust become the Sun. Smaller blobs in the outer
 Planets may have formed out of material regions may become jovian planets.
orbiting the early sun through the process of (c) Dust grains act as condensation nuclei,
accretion where small particles collide and stick forming clumps of matter that collide, stick
together to form larger masses. together, and grow into moon-sized
 Gaseous clouds—nebulae, which slowly rotate, planetesimals.
gradually collapse and flatten due to gravity and  (d) Strong winds from the still-forming Sun expel
eventually form stars and planets. the nebular gas.
 4.6 BILLION YEARS OLD  (e) Planetesimals continue to collide and grow.
 (f) Over the course of a hundred million years
or so, planetesimals form a few large planets
that travel in roughly circular orbits.


 Planet Formation

 Accretion- [Link] grains from nebula

collide and stick to form planetesimals
[Link] grow by further collisions
3. gravity holds them together when big
enough some planetesimals eventually
become very small planets.

2nd law

 Planet moves fastest when closest to Sun and


slowest when farthest from Sun
Solar System  Equal areas are swept out in equal amount of
time
Galaxy

 Our sun is 1 of trillions of stars in the universe.

Stars are found in groups held together by
gravity.

 A huge group of stars held together by gravity.

Universe

 The entire universe is made of thousands of
galaxies

Solar System

 A system of planets & stars that are found

3rd Law
throughout galaxies
 Compares distance of each planet from Sun
and its orbital period around Sun

Kepler’s 3 Laws of Planetary Motion

1st Law

 Orbit of every planet is an ellipse with Sun at

one foci (focus)

Inner Planets

 Period of Rotation: amount of time that an

object takes to rotate once. (1 Day)
  Period of Revolution: time it takes an object to
revolve around the sun once. (1 year)

Mercury

 
 On Mercury you weigh only 38% of what you  Air Pressure on Mars is the same as 30 km
weigh on Earth. above the Earth’s surface
 Fastest orbiting planet  Mars is in the form of ice.
 Planet nearest to the sun  Evidence that water was there at one time
 One side of the planet can be 800 degrees  Volcanic history like Earth.
Fahrenheit when the other can be -280 degree  It has the tallest mount of the planets (Olympus
Fahrenheit at the same time. Mons) 3x’s size of Mt. Everest.
Venus Outer planets ( Gas Giants )

Jupiter


 On Venus you weigh only 91% of what you
weigh on Earth. 
 Venus has 90 times the pressure of Earth  Largest planet in the Solar System
 Venus has volcanoes like Earth  Has a Great Red Spot from a storm system that
 Rotates in the opposite direction of Earth. is more than 400 years old (It is larger than
 One time there were oceans before they boiled Earth!)
away.  9 hours and 54 min=1 Jupiter day (shortest day)
 Pressure is so great it would crush a spaceship.

Saturn
Earth



 2nd Largest planet in the Solar System
 23 hours and 56 min=1 Earth day (rotation)
 95 times more massive than earth.
 365 days =1 Earth year (revolution)
 Saturn has the largest rings of any planet, the
 Earth is warm enough to keep most of its water
rings are made of icy particles.
from freezing and cold enough to keep it’s water
 Most moons of any planet.
from boiling
 Temperature is between –13 degrees Celsius Uranus
and 37 degrees Celsius

Mars
 
 Discovered in 1781
 Uranus appears blue-green in color
 It’s axis of rotation is tilted 90 degrees
 Moons are named after Shakespearean plays
and formed from other broken moons.

Neptune 


 If inertia was stronger than gravity then objects
 Discovered in 1846
would stay on their straight path & fly off into
 Neptune has visual belts of clouds
space.
 Interior releases thermal energy to its outer
layers.
 If gravity was stronger than inertia then objects
 Use to be the 8th planet after Pluto until 1999.
would crash
 Inertia & gravity work together to keep the
moon orbiting the Earth. And they work
together to keep planets orbiting the sun

Other Space Objects

Comets

 A comet is a small body made out of dust, rock,

gas & ice.
 They are kind of like a dirty snowball
 Comets come from faraway regions of our solar
system beyond the planets
 Parts: Nucleus, Coma, Ion tail, Dust tail
Gravity and Inertia
Asteroids
 Gravity – A force that pulls all objects toward
each other.  Asteroids are large pieces of space rock with
 Inertia – The tendency of an object to stay irregular shapes.
either at rest or in motion along a straight path  They are also known as planetoids or minor
planets that revolves around our sun
 Most asteroids orbit the Sun in the asteroid belt
located between Mars and Jupiter.
 A few asteroids approach the Sun more closely.
Asteroids can collide with object such as Earth’s
moon, creating huge craters on the surface.
 Earth as a System

 System- A set of connected items or devices

that operate together
 The study of the interactions between and

among events and Earth’s spheres
Meteors  A relatively new science (1988)
 All of the matter, energy, and processes within
Earth’s boundary.

Earths Sphere

Atmosphere

 Meteoroids are pieces of rock or dust that are
smaller than asteroids.
 Meteoroids are tiny particles left by an asteroid
or a comet & most meteoroids are smaller than
the size of a pebble.


 A gaseous sphere and it envelopes the Earth
 The atmosphere is about 78 percent
nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen, and 1 percent
many other gases.

Hydrosphere


 All of the water on Earth
 71% of the earth is covered by water and only
29% is terra firma
 Oceans, lakes, rivers, marshes, groundwater,
rain, and the water droplets in clouds are part of
the hydrosphere.

Cryosphere ( also classified as hydrosphere)

 Snow, ice, sea ice, glaciers, ice shelves, icebergs,

 and permafrost are all part of the cryosphere.
When small meteoroids enters Earth’s
atmosphere, they usually burn up & make a
fiery trail as it falls, it is then called a meteor or
a “shooting stars
Lithosphere/ Geosphere Interconnected Spheres

 Spheres are closely connected

 Changes are often chain reactions
 A change in one sphere results in changes in
others - called an event
Forest fire destroys plants in an area
 Interactions between spheres
 No plants => erosion
Soil in water => increased turbidity (muddy
water)
 Turbidity => impacts water plants/animals
 The Earth's solid surface, often called the crust
of the earth. It includes continental and oceanic
Source of Earths Energy
crust as well as the various layers of the Earth's
interior.  Almost all of Earth’s energy comes from the sun.
 The thin, outermost layer of the geosphere is  A tiny fraction of Earth’s energy comes from
called the crust. It is made mostly of silicate ocean tides and geothermal sources such as
minerals. lava and magma.
 Oceanic crust is 5 to 10 km thick. Continental  The movement of energy through Earth’s
crust is 35 to 70 km thick. system forms an energy budget.
 The mantle is the layer that lies below the crust. 
It is about 2,900 km thick.
 The mantle is made of very slow-flowing, solid
rock, consisting of silicate minerals that are
denser than the silicates in the crust.
 Earth’s central part, called the core, has a radius
of about 3,500 km. It is made of iron and nickel
and is very dense.

Biosphere

 An increase in greenhouse gases traps more

energy in the atmosphere and decreases the
amount of energy radiated out to space.
  Polar ice and glaciers reflect sunlight. When the
 All life on earth, including man, and all ice melts, the exposed water and land absorb
organisms. and then radiate more energy than the ice did.
 The life zone on our planet distinguishes our  In each case, Earth’s atmosphere becomes
planet from the others in the solar system. warmer, which may lead to climate changes.
Rock Cycle
o
Minerals

 naturally occurring, inorganic elements or

compounds with specific physical and chemical  Sulfides- These are based on the sulfide ion,
properties. S2–. Examples include pyrite FeS 2, galena PbS,
 There are 3,000 named minerals but there are and sphalerite ZnS in its pure zinc form. Some
only 150 minerals considered to be important in sulfides are mined as sources of such metals as
terms of abundance and aesthetic values. zinc, lead, copper, and tin.
 Characteristics of a Mineral :
o Inorganic
o Has chemical composition/properties
o Naturally-occurring o
o Has crystalline structure  Carbonates- These are based on the carbonate
o Solid ion, (CO3)2–. Calcite, CaCO3, and dolomite,
 CaMg(CO3)2, are carbonate minerals. Carbonate
minerals tend to dissolve relatively easily in
water, especially acid water, and natural rain
water is slightly acid.

o
 Oxides - These are based on the oxygen anion,
O2–. Examples include iron oxides such as
hematite, Fe2O3 and magnetite, Fe3O4, and
pyrolusite, MgO.
 Mineral Properties:
o Streak – color of powdered mineral
(scratched on porcelain).
o Luster – ability to reflect light (metallic,
glassy, dull).
o Hardness – Mohs scale (talc = softest, o
diamond = hardest).  Halides - These have a halogen element as the
o QReaction to acid – calcite fizzles with anion, whether it be fluoride, F–, chloride, Cl–,
HCl. bromide, Br–, iodide, I–, or astatide, At–. Halite,
o QFracture – irregular break. NaCl, is a halide mineral.
o Cleavage – splits along planes.
o Color – least reliable (can vary).

Major Classes of Minerals

 Silicates - Minerals that contain a combination

of silicon and oxygen.
o
 Sulfates - These have the polyatomic sulfate ion,  Clastics - these rocks are formed from the
(SO4)2–, as the anion. Anhydrite, CaSO4, is a breakdown of materials of other rocks that
sulfate. are eroded.

o


 Phosphates - These have the polyatomic

phosphate ion, (PO4)3–, as the anion.
Fluorapatite, Ca5(PO4)3F, which makes your Non- Clastics
teeth hard, is a phosphate mineral.
 Organics (bioclastics)
o these are formed from fossils-remain of
dead organisms such as bones and
shells, which are cemented together
and form into a rock.
o o Examples: Coal, limestone
 Native elements - These are made of nothing  Chemical (crystaline)
but a single element. Gold (Au), native copper o these rocks are commonly found in the
(Cu), and diamond and graphite, which are ocean. Heat from the sun causes the
made of carbon, are all native element minerals. mineral rich water to evaporate and
Recall that a mineral is defined as naturally leaves material behind.
occurring. Therefore, elements purified and o Examples: Halite, gypsum, borates
crystallized in a laboratory do not qualify as  Igneous rock - Form when liquid rock cools and
minerals, unless they have also been found in solidifies
nature. o Intrusive – Cools Below the earths
surface slowly

- Pegamatite, Grnite, Gabbro

o Extrusive – Cools at the earths surface

quickly

- Obsidian, Scoria, Pumice, Basalt
Rocks
 Vescular – Gas Pockets
 are aggregate of minerals. It can be  Metamorphic Rocks- Rocks that are changed
composed of single mineral (e.g. Quartzite, due to extreme heat and/or pressure.
a metamorphic rock composed o They don’t melt but recrystallize
predominantly of Quartz) or more o Slate,
commonly, as an aggregate of two or more schist,gneiss,coal,marble,quartzite
minerals. A mineral name can be used as a  Regional Metamorphism
rock name (e.g. Gypsum rock that is o Occurs when large areas of rock are
composed predominantly of the mineral changed.
Gypsum (CaSO4). o Usually deep below the surface where
crustal plates collide.
Kinds of Rocks
 Contact Metamorphism
 o Occurs when liquid rock comes into The magmas will solidify into igneous rocks, and
o contact with other rocks. the cycle starts anew. Likewise, when igneous
rocks are subjected to heat and pressure, just
like sedimentary rocks, they will be changed into
metamorphic rocks.

Rock Cycle Endogenic Process

 Process that us formed or occurring beneath the

surface of the earth


Layers of the earth


 Suppose you start with metamorphic rocks that
underwent melting due to heat and pressure
underground. The magma cools and solidifies
through the process of crystallization which may
occur either behind the surface of Earth or at
surface through volcanic eruption. The resulting
rock is called the igneous rocks. The igneous
rocks undergo weathering. By erosion, eroded
materials are deposited as sediments. The
sediments undergo lithification (conversion into
rocks) to become sedimentary rocks when
compacted and cemented. If the sedimentary  Crust
rocks are buried deep within the Earth, they will o Thinnest layer of the earth
be subjected to heat and pressure changing o Made up of large amounts of silicon and
them into metamorphic rocks. If the aluminum
metamorphic rocks are subjected to higher o Part of the lithiosphere
temperature, they will melt, forming magmas.
 o Have two parts: oceanic and continental o Convection current- very hot material
o rising being less dense, then cooling
becoming more dense and then sinking
again.
 Outer core
o Molten (liquid) 4,700 C’ or 8,500 F
o It is 2,266km thick
o It is composed of the melted metals,
nickel and iron in liquid form
o It is located 1,800 miles beneath the
crust
 Inner core
o Solid sphere made mostly of Iron and
 Lithosphere has Nickel
o Crust and the upper mantle o Hot as 6,650 C
o Divided into separate plates which o Heat in the core genrted by the
move slowly in response to the radioactive decay of uranium and other
convecting part of the mantle elements
o o It is solid because of the pressure from
the outer core
o It is 1271km thick

Magnetic field

 Created by the rotation of the outer fluid core

around the solid inner core, this creates an
electrical current which generates an
electromagnetic field.
 Magnetic field interacts with the solar particles
forcing them to the north or south pole creating
 Mantle the aurora borealis.
o The largest layer of the earth at 2900km
thick Internal heat
o The middle mantle is composed of very  Primordial heat – accretional energy which
hot dense rock that flows under a heavy is deposited during early formation of a
weight. planet
o Asthenosphere which is the middle o Kinetic energy of colliding prtcles
mantle is the reason why the crustal was transformed into thermal
plates move. energy
 The semi rigid part of the  Radiogenic Heat- Spontaneous nuclear
middle mantle disintegration
o Disintegration od natural
radioactive elements inside the
earth.
o Radioactive decay

Heat transfer

 Conduction- heat is transferred from one

o particle to another object
 o Hint- contact, conduc
 Convection- movement that transfers heat
within fluids/ gas
 Radiation- transfer of energy by waves
o Not require matter to transfer thermal
energy

Magma

 Mixture of molten rocks

 Asthenosphere 

Magma Chamber

 Developed within the upper mantle and crust

where the temperature and pressure conditions
favor the molten state.
 Magma collects in areas which are called
magma chambers.

Ways to generate Magma

 Decompression
o Upward movement of the earth
 Magmas are formed below 30-65 km the earths mostly solid mantle
surface o Hot material rises
 30 degree for every KILOMETER

Gases In magma

 Bottled pressure forms a separate vapor and

that decreases the pressure.

Viscosity of magmas

 Is the resistance to floe o

 Higher silica= higher viscosity  Transfer heat
 Low temperature= higher viscosity o Liquid rock solidifies and it loses this
heat and transfers it to the
Magma escape Routes surrounding crust.
 Intrusion- intrude a low density area then when o
it cools down and hardens, it develops into a
pluton known as igneous intrusive rock.
 Extrusive- rises towards the earths surface
where less dense surrounding rocks and
structural zone allows movements

 Flux melting
 o Water or carbon dioxide added on  Stress- the force that could create deformation
rocks and this effects the melting on rock in their shape or and volume
point of the rocks o
o

Types of magma o Lithostatic stress

 Equal pressure exerted on it
from all directions
o Differential stress
 Unequal stress due to tectonic
forces
 Tensional or stretching-
Stretched or pulled
apart
 Compressional or
squeezing- pushed
together or pressed
 Shear stress- slippage
or translation

 Felsic Magma- Has low in iron but high in

potassium and sodium’
o Makes granite
 Intermediate Magma- Normally found in
volcano that erupts, has high siliva and very
viscous
o Commonly produce Andesite rock
 Mafic magma- Has low silica but high in iron
and magnesium, it also has low gas content
and low viscosity.
o Most fluid in all magma types
o Basalt  Strain- ability of a rock to handle stress
 Ultramafic Magma- hottest and fastest o Elasticity of a rock
flowing magma o Elastic deformation- reversable or
Rock Deformation return to its original shape
o Brittle or fracture- irreversible or rock
 Deformation- Buried deep within the Earth’s breaks
crust behave differently when subjected to
differential stress.
 o

o
o Reverse or thrust fault- it occurs when
rocks are pushed

 Joints- fractures in rocks that shows little or no

movement at all
o
o
o

 Faults- extremely long and deep break or large

crack in a rock
o Result of continuous pulling and
pushing
o Dip-slip(normal)- occurs when brittle
rocks are stretched- techtonic tentional
forces are involved and the movement
of blocks mainly in vertical direction
(sink or rise)

o
o Strike- slip Fault- Occurs when brittle
rocks are sheared
 Stratigraphy- Branch of geology

Stratification- Known as the bedding

Nicholas Steno- Danish scientist studied the relative

position of sedimentary rocks.

Marikina Valley- strike slip fault , the BIG ONE

 Folds- when rock deform into a ductile manner,

they bend or fold
o Monocline- simpliest type of fold
 Occur when horix=zontal layers
are bent upward REMEMBER- BOTTOM TO TOP IF MERONG
CROSSCUTING YUNG HATI BAGO YUNG YOUNGEST


o Syncline- original rock layers have been
folded downward and the two oimbs of
the fold dip inward toward the hinge of
the fold making a U shape

LAYER

o Anticline Opposite of syncline making a
sad mouth shape


 Halides – salt minerals (e.g., NaCl).
Sulfates group – SO₄²⁻.
Sedimentary rocks – form in riverbanks.
ITO PALA ANG PRE-TEST Extrusive igneous rocks – from volcanic material at
Light-second – distance light travels in 1 second. surface.
Big Bang Theory – universe began from a single point. Metamorphic rocks – altered by heat/pressure (NOT
Age of Universe – 13.7 billion years. original rock).
First 2 elements after Big Bang – Hydrogen & Helium Chemical sedimentary rocks – from precipitated
Creation Theory – universe created by a Supreme Being. minerals, e.g., crystal white rock.
Steady State Theory (Fred Hoyle) – universe has no Scoria – igneous rock from solidified lava at surface.
beginning or end. Glassy igneous rock – fast crystallization at Earth’s
Nebula – rotating cloud of gas & dust; birthplace of surface.
stars. Organic rocks – contain plants/animals remains.
Milky Way Galaxy – spiral type. Gabbro, Granite, Pegmatite – igneous (shale is
Elliptical galaxies – appear reddish, contain red giant different).
stars. Weathering – breakdown of rocks.
Age of Solar System – 4.6 billion years. Oxidation – iron + oxygen chemical weathering.
Collision Theory (Buffon) – planets formed after a comet
hit the sun. Limestone – vulnerable to chemical weathering.
Kepler’s First Law – planets move in elliptical orbits Deposition – accumulation of sediments.
around the sun. Agents of erosion – water, wind, glaciers (not acid rain).
Laplace & Kant – proposed Nebular Hypothesis (Solar Traction – rolling/sliding of particles in rivers.
Nebular Theory).
Solar Nebular Theory sequence – nebula → rotation → Rock cycle –
flattening → accretion → planetesimals → planets.
Mars – has a volcano taller than Mt. Everest (Olympus Sedimentary → Metamorphic = Metamorphism
Mons).
Saturn – 2nd largest planet. Igneous → Sediments = Weathering & Erosion
Kepler’s Three Laws of Planetary Motion – by Johannes
Kepler (heliocentric system). Spheres Interaction –
Tidal Theory – planets formed from matter torn from Rice plant draws water = Biosphere + Hydrosphere +
the sun. Geosphere
Kepler’s Third Law – orbital period is related to distance Cryosphere = frozen water (part of hydrosphere).
from the sun. Hydrosphere ↔ Biosphere = water for animal growth.
Jovian planets – large, gaseous, no solid surface. Geosphere ↔ Atmosphere = wind erosion.
Great Red Spot (Jupiter) – stormy atmospheric
condition. Asthenosphere – semi-rigid layer.
Radiogenic Heat – heat from radioactive decay.
Cosmic Background Radiation – evidence against steady Radiation – heat transfer from sun to earth.
state theory. Conduction – direct heat transfer through matter.
Uranus – blue-green planet, tilted 90°. Flux melting – adding H₂O/CO₂ lowers melting point.
Venus – hottest planet, due to greenhouse effect (CO₂). Decompression melting – mantle rocks rise, pressure
Earth’s Movements – decreases.
Revolution = 365 days Felsic magma – highest silica, light-colored.
Rotation = 24 hours Silica & Color – ↑ silica = lighter rocks.

Streak – color of mineral’s powder (scratching Temperature & Viscosity – inverse relationship (hotter =
porcelain). less viscous).
Luster – shine/reflection of light (diamond). Stratification – layering of rocks.
Hardness – resistance to scratching (talc = soft). Transform boundary – plates slide past each other.
Reaction to acid – fizzing with HCl. Divergent boundary – plates move apart (mid-ocean
Color – least useful in mineral identification. ridge).
Fracture – irregular break. Continental crust – older than 180 million years.
Convection currents – cause plate movement.
Earth’s core composition – nickel & iron.
Heat sources – primordial + radiogenic.
Geothermal gradient – ~30°C/km.
Intermediate magma – andesite, high silica, viscous.
Mafic magma – low silica, dark, rich in Fe & Mg.

Fault types –
Compressional = reverse fault
Hanging wall down = normal fault
Brittle = fracture
Elastic = rocks return to shape after stress
Strain = deformation
West Valley Fault – active fault in PH.

Folds –
Syncline = downward fold
Monocline = single bend upward