Topic 2: Organisation of the Organism
Definitions in bold are for supplement only
Cell - The basic building block of all living organisms.
Cell membrane - A partially permeable barrier that surrounds the cell.
Cell wall - An outer layer made of cellulose that strengthens plant cells.
Chloroplast - An organelle in which photosynthesis occurs.
Magnification - The number of times larger an image appears compared to the
original object, calculated using the formula:
image size = magnification × real size
Micrometre (µm) - A quantitative unit of length. One micrometre is
equal to ×10-6 metre.
Millimetre (mm) - A quantitative unit of length. One millimetre is equal to ×10-3
metre.
Mitochondria - An organelle that is the site of aerobic respiration. Cells with
high rates of metabolism require a large number of mitochondria.
Palisade mesophyll cells - Plant cells located below the upper epidermis.
They receive a large amount of light so contain a high concentration of
chloroplasts for photosynthesis.
Organ - A group of specialised tissues working together to carry out a specific
function.
Organelle - A specialised structure found inside a cell.
Organ system - A group of specialised organs working together to carry out
a specific function.
Tissue - A group of specialised cells working together to carry out a specific
function.
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Grade 9 Bilingual Notes handout DAKIPS
Cell Structure
Comparing the structure of animal cells and plant cells:
Similarities:
● They both contain a nucleus, cytoplasm, mitochondria,
ribosomes and a cell membrane.
Differences:
● Plant cells contain a cell wall, vacuole and chloroplasts.
● Plant cells have a more regular shape and are larger.
Animal cells
Plant cells
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Functions of cell structures in animal and plant cells:
● Cytoplasm - A jelly-like material within the cell in which reactions occur.
The cytoplasm contains structures such as ribosomes and vesicles.
● Cell membrane - a thin membrane that surrounds the cell, controls
entry and exit of substances.
● Nucleus - the nucleus contains genetic material in the form of DNA
which codes for proteins. DNA replication also occurs in the nucleus.
● Ribosomes - Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis.
● Mitochondria - site of respiration. Provides energy for the cell to function.
In plants only:
● Vacuole - is a fluid-filled sac containing mineral salts, sugars, amino
acids, waste substances and pigments which colour the cell and
attract pollinating insects.
● Chloroplasts - the site of photosynthesis, which allows plants to convert
light energy to glucose.
● Cell wall - gives the cell structure and prevents bursting. It is made of
cellulose.
New cells are produced by the division of existing cells.
Specialised cells:
Cells and tissues are specialised to carry out their particular function. Examples
of specialised cells are:
● Ciliated cells - ciliated cells are found lining the trachea. They have hair-
like projections called cilia which move together to transport mucus,
dust and bacteria upwards to the throat.
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Grade 9 Bilingual Notes handout DAKIPS
● Root hair cells - are adapted to have a large surface area. This
speeds up the rate of osmosis and mineral ion uptake in plants. Have a
large number of mitochondria to provide energy for active transport of
water and mineral ions.
Palisade mesophyll cells - this is where photosynthesis occurs. Mesophyll
cells are tall and closely packed to efficiently absorb light and contain
lots of chloroplasts for photosynthesis. They are also placed at the top of
the leaf where most of the light hits, enabling them to absorb as much light
energy as possible.
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Grade 9 Bilingual Notes handout DAKIPS
● Red blood cells - red blood cells contain haemoglobin which allows
them to carry oxygen around the body. They have a biconcave shape
which increases their surface area, allowing for rapid diffusion. They do
not contain a nucleus, thus have more space for oxygen.
● Sperm cells - sperm cells are gametes. Gametes are the reproductive
cells of organisms with half the chromosomes of normal cells. Sperm cells
are adapted by containing lots of mitochondria so that the cell has
enough energy to reach the egg cell. It has a tail to allow movement.
Egg cells - egg cells are also
gametes. Egg cells have
nutrients in their cytoplasm
which help the growth of the
embryo
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Levels of organisation:
Key terms:
● Cell - the basic building block of all living organisms
● Tissue - a group of similar cells working together to carry out a particular
process
● Organ - a group of tissues working together to carry out a specific function
● Organ system - a group of related organs working together to carry out
functions in the body.
Size of specimens
Cells can be viewed using a microscope to study their structure.
To calculate the size of a specimen under a microscope, we use the following
formula:
Where the image size is the size of the specimen which appears when viewed
through the microscope. The actual size is the specimen’s real size.
The image size should be measured in millimetres.
Example:
A student measures the image of a cell under a microscope and it is 32mm wide.
The image has been magnified by a factor of x 100. What is the actual width?
Using the formula above:
Actual size = Image size/Magnification
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Grade 9 Bilingual Notes handout DAKIPS
32/100 = 0.32 mm
You may be asked to give the answer in micrometres. To convert between
millimetres and micrometres, you need to multiply by 1000.
1mm = 1000 µm
µm is the symbol used to represent
micrometres. Example:
A student measures the image of a cell under a microscope and it is
54mm wide. The image has been magnified by a factor of x 500. What is
the actual width in µm?
Actual size = Image size / Magnification
54/500 = 0.108 mm
0.108 mm x 1000 = 108 µm
Actual width = 108 µm
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Grade 9 Bilingual Notes handout DAKIPS
Topic 3: Movement Into and Out of Cells
Concentration gradient - The difference in concentration between two
areas. The greater the concentration gradient, the faster the rate of
diffusion.
Diffusion - The net spreading out of particles from a high concentration to a lower
concentration (down their concentration gradient). Diffusion is as a result
of the kinetic energy of the random movement of particles (passive).
Osmosis - The diffusion of water molecules from a region of high water
concentration to a region of lower water concentration across a partially
permeable membrane.
Water potential - A measure of the tendency of water molecules to
move from one area to another
The cell membrane and cell wall control what substances enter and exit the
cell. Molecules such as glucose and proteins move into the cell for use in
metabolic reactions and storage. Whereas waste products such as carbon
dioxide and lactic acid are transported out into the blood to be excreted from
the body.
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Grade 9 Bilingual Notes handout DAKIPS
Diffusion
Diffusion is the net movement of particles from an area of high concentration
to an area of low concentration down the concentration gradient, as a result
of their random movement. The energy for diffusion comes from the kinetic
energy of the molecules and ions.
Solutes and gases, such as carbon dioxide and oxygen, are able to diffuse in
and out of cells across the cell membrane. This is important as these substances
are crucial to metabolic reactions which occur within the cell, for example
respiration and photosynthesis. Without them, the processes would not occur,
and the cell would die.
Factors affecting rate of diffusion:
● Surface area - As the surface area increases, the rate of diffusion
increases. This is because there is more space available for the
substances to diffuse through.
● Temperature - As temperature increases, the rate of diffusion increases.
This is because the molecules gain kinetic energy and thus move faster.
● Concentration gradient - As the concentration gradient increases,
rate of diffusion increases.
● Diffusion distance - A greater diffusion distance slows the rate of diffusion
as molecules must travel further.
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Grade 9 Bilingual Notes handout DAKIPS
Osmosis
Osmosis is the net movement of water molecules through a partially
permeable membrane.
Key terms:
● Turgid - cells are described as turgid when they are swollen
due to a high-water content.
● Turgor pressure - The pressure on the cell wall from the cell
membrane pushing upon it. This is a result of the cell becoming
turgid as water moves into the cell via osmosis.
● Flaccid - Occurs when water moves out of the cell via osmosis. The
cell shrinks but the cell membrane does not peel away from the cell
wall. If more water leaves the cell, it becomes plasmolyzed.
● Plasmolysis - Occurs when there is too little water in cells. In
plant cells, the cell membrane peels away from the cell wall.
Water moves in and out of cells through the cell membrane via osmosis. Water is
important to
provide support for the cell structure through maintaining the turgor pressure.
Plants are
supported by the pressure of water inside the cells pressing outwards on the cell
wall. Water also provides a medium in which metabolic reactions occur.
Water has a high specific heat capacity, thus acting as a temperature buffer. This
is important as it maintains the optimum
temperature for enzyme reactions. Water also acts as a solvent in organisms
which is important for digestion, excretion and transport.
Osmosis can also be described as the net movement of water molecules from a
region of higher water potential (dilute solution) to a region of lower water
potential (concentrated
solution), through a partially permeable membrane. When the cell is more
concentrated than the surrounding cells, water molecules diffuse into the cell via
osmosis, making it turgid. When it is less concentrated than the surrounding
cells, water molecules will leave the cell, making it flaccid and leading to
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Grade 9 Bilingual Notes handout DAKIPS
plasmolysis. This effect can be investigated by placing cells in solutions of
different concentrations.
Osmosis can be investigated via dialysis tubing. Dialysis tubing is an artificial
partially
permeable membrane made from cellulose. It has small pores which allow the
entry of small molecules and prevents the entry of larger molecules. To
demonstrate osmosis, dialysis tubing can be filled with concentrated sucrose
solution. The tubing should then be placed in a beaker filled with distilled water.
Water will move from the beaker(an area of higher water potential) to the
tubing (an area of lower water potential).
3.1 osmosis and water flow practical ; AK
Observation: level in capillary at start: 0 cm
level in capillary after 10 minutes : 20cm
difference in levels: 20 cm
conclusion:
The rise in the liquid level in the capillary tube indicates osmosis. Water has
moved across a semipermeable membrane from an area of lower solute
concentration (outside the capillary) to an area of higher solute concentration
(inside the capillary).
1. The red dye was likely added to the sugar solution to make it easier to
observe the movement of water due to osmosis.
2. Repeat the experiment multiple times and calculate the average rise in the
capillary tube.
Set up a control capillary tube without any sugar solution
Ensure the sugar solution concentration is the same in each trial.
Use a more accurate measuring tool to record the liquid level in the capillary
tube, such as a digital or finely calibrated ruler, to minimize reading errors.
3. a. The liquid would rise higher in the capillary tube.
b. The liquid would rise to a lower height compared to the original setup.
the smaller bore method is generally more accurate for observing osmosis,
especially when measuring small changes in liquid level.
4. Switching the concentration gradient would result in a drop in the liquid
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Grade 9 Bilingual Notes handout DAKIPS
level inside the capillary tube due to the outward movement of water
through osmosis.
3.2 observing osmosis in potato tissue : AK
1. in water, water will move into the potato cells by osmosis, causing the potato
pieces to gain mass and become firmer.
In a sugar solution, water will move out of the potato cells, causing the
potato pieces to lose mass and become softer.
2.
Length (cm) Mass (g)
Befor After Befor After
e e
In water 5 cm 5.5 10 g 12.5
cm g
3. In sugar 5 cm 4.5 10 g 8.5 g Potato
solution cm Cylinders in
Water: They
appear larger with a glossy surface due to water uptake and feel firm and
crisp, indicating turgidity.
Potato Cylinders in Sugar Solution: They appear smaller with a shriveled
or wrinkled surface due to water loss and feel soft and less firm, resulting in
a rubbery or mushy texture.
4. Potato Cylinders in Water:
Mass Change: +25.0%
Length Change: +10.0%
Potato Cylinders in Sugar Solution:
Mass Change: -20.0%
Length Change: -10.0%
5. The water causes the potato cells to swell, making the cylinders
larger and firmer. As a result, the mass of the potato cylinders
increases as they absorb water. The increase in length and mass
indicates that the cells have become turgid due to the water uptake.
The loss of water from the potato cells causes them to shrink and
become flaccid. This results in a decrease in both the length and
mass of the potato cylinders. The cells lose their turgidity, leading
to a softer and less firm texture.
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Grade 9 Bilingual Notes handout DAKIPS
Evaluation:
1. peeling the potato enhances the accuracy and reliability of the osmosis
experiment by allowing for better water movement and more consistent
results.
2. to enhances the control and reliability of the experimental conditions,
contributing to more accurate and consistent results in studies of osmosis
and other processes.
3. helps to ensure the validity and reliability of the experiment, allowing for
more accurate conclusions about the effects of osmosis in the potato
tissue.
4. To improve the accuracy of an osmosis experiment with potato cylinders,
ensure consistent sample sizes and environmental conditions, and use
precise measurement techniques. Conduct multiple trials and document
all procedures to minimize variability and enhance reliability.
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Grade 9 Bilingual Notes handout DAKIPS