Electric Power System

and
AC Supply
 Introduction
• In the day to day life, we use electrical power for
various applications including the domestic &
industrial applications.
• For most of the domestic applications, we use a
single phase ac supply.
• For high power industrial applications, the three
phase ac supply is used.
• For certain domestic applications such as
telephones, the dc supply is used.
• For certain applications such as electric trains, a
high voltage DC system is used.
 Difference between AC & DC
Quantities
Sr. Parameter AC DC
No.
1. Waveform

2. Definition It is a signal which It is a signal which changes

changes its magnitude as its magnitude but does not
well as polarity. change its polarity.
3. Use of Possible Not possible
transformer
4. Distribution High Low
efficiency
 Continued…
Sr. Parameter AC DC
No.
5. Design of Easy Not easy
machines
6. Generation Easy From the ac waveform
using commutator or
rectifier
7. Applications AC motors, domestic DC machines, HVDC
& industrial supply system
etc.
 Electrical Power Supply System
• The electrical power supply system can be
subdivided into three subsystems, as follows:
1. Generation system.
2. Transmission system.
3. Distribution system.
• The electrical energy generated by the generating
system is transmitted to the load centres by the
transmission system. This energy is then
distributed to the distribution system.
 Generating System
• The function of generating system is to
generate electrical energy.
• The input to such a system may be thermal
energy, hydro-energy or nuclear energy.
• The generating systems are broadly classified
into two types:
1. conventional system
2. Non-conventional system
 Conventional System
• Conventional generating systems are those which
take non-renewable source of energy as the raw
material. The conventional systems are classified
as follows:
1. Thermal system:
Converting heat energy of fuels like
coal, petrol etc. into electrical energy.
2. Hydroelectric system:
Converting potential energy of stored
water into electrical energy.
 Continued…
3. Nuclear system:
Converting heat obtained by nuclear
fission reaction into electrical energy.
4. Diesel electric system:
Converting energy stored in diesel
into electrical energy.
 Non-conventional System
• Non-conventional systems are those which
use renewable source of energy as the input.
• The non-conventional systems are classified as
follows:
1. Solar energy 2. Wind energy
3. Tidal energy 4. Energy from biogas etc.
 Extra High Voltage Transmission
System (EHVAC)
• The increased demand of electricity needs more
generation of electrical power. As the generation
takes place at remote places, an efficient
distribution system is necessary.
• Fig. 1. shows the simplified block diagram of the
extra high voltage AC transmission system.
• This system can be broadly divided into two
parts:
a. Transmission system.
b. Distribution system
 Step up transformer

132 kV

Step down transformer

33 kV

33 kV

400/230V

Fig. 1: Basic EHVAC system

 Transmission System
• Transmission system is further divided as:
1. Primary Transmission
2. Secondary Transmission.
1. Primary Transmission:
• As shown in fig. central station/ generation system generates
power using three phase alternators at 6.6/11/13.2/32kV.
• This voltage is then stepped up by suitable three phase
transformer, to 132 KV.
• This voltage is stepped down to 33 kV using step down
transformer which is at receiving station.
 Continued…
2. Secondary Transmission:
• From receiving station, power is then transmitted
at 33 kV by underground cables to various
substations (ss) located at various points in the
city.
• This known as secondary or low voltage
transmission.
• At the substations, this voltage is further reduced
from 33kV to 3.3/11kV, using step down
transformer.
 Distribution System
• Distribution system is further divided as:
1. Primary Distribution
2. Secondary Distribution.
1. Primary Distribution:
The output of substation at 3.3/11 kV can be
directly given to a customer whose demand
exceeds 50 kVA using special feeders. This is
primary distribution.
 Continued…
2. Secondary Distribution:
• The secondary distribution is done at 440/400/230
V.
• The reduction in the voltage level from 3.3kV to
400/230 V is done by the step down transformer
at the distribution substations.
 Types of Transmission &
Distribution System
• The transmission & distribution systems are
classified as:
1. AC System
2. DC System.
 AC Power Transmission
• AC power transmission is the transmission of
electric power by alternating current.
• Usually the transmission lines are three phase
AC current, whereas, in electric railways,
single phase AC current is sometimes used for
railway rectification system.
 Advantages of AC System
1. High voltage can be built-up.
2. The fluctuation in the voltage level as per
requirement can be done using step-up and
step-down transformers.
3. Maintenance cost of substations and
generation cost of AC voltage is low.
4. The motors used are simple in construction &
have low maintenance.
5. Maintenance of substation is cheap.
 Disadvantages of AC Systems
1. The initial set up is very expensive.
2. The resistance offered by the lines is high
which cause skin effect and thus leading to
voltage drop.
3. The AC lines are more sensitive to corona.
4. The AC lines even show losses due to
reactance offered by the line.
5. The speed of alternator requires to be
controlled.
 DC Power Transmission
• For many reasons power is generated, transmitted,
distributed and consumed as an alternating current. But,
if certain applications need the use of DC, the AC was
converted to DC locally by motor generator sets, rotary
converted to DC locally by motor generator sets, rotary
convertors etc.
• There are certain advantages or technical reasons too
associated with the DC system, which are as follows:
1. Due to large charging currents, the use of high voltages
AC for underground transmission over longer distance
is prohibited. But, for DC there is no such limitations.
 Continued…
2. Parallel operations of AC with DC increases
the stability limits of the system.
• A DC transmission line requires converters at
each end, i.e. at the sending end where AC is
converted into DC and at receiving end where
DC is again converted to AC for use.
 Advantages of DC Transmission
1. The line construction is simple. Hence, the line is
cheaper as compared to AC.
2. The power per conductor of DC is more as compared
with AC.
3. There is no charging current required because of
which the length of transmission is not limited and the
cable need not be derated.
4. The DC line is cheaper & simpler as it requires two
conductors instead of three.
5. High operating voltages possible.
6. No stability problem.
 Disadvantages of DC Transmission
1. Expensive converters.
2. The power transmitted can be used at lower
voltage only.
3. Voltage transformation is not easier in case of
DC and hence it has to be done on the AC
side of the system.
4. Circuit breaking for multi-terminal lines is
difficult.
Applications of DC Transmission
1. Long distance bulk power transmission.
2. Under ground or under water cables.
3. A synchronous interconnection of AC system
operating at different frequencies or where
independent control of systems is desired.
 Utilization of Electrical Power
• The electrical power has number of applications or
utilization areas . It is used in domestic as well as industrial
applications.
• Following are some of the applications of electrical power:
1. Domestic applications such as lighting, fans, heaters,
irons, TV etc.
2. AC & DC motor drives.
3. Machine tool applications.
4. Electrically operated vehicles, trains, cars.
5. Welding
6. Induction heating & dielectric heating.
7. Electroagro systems.
 AC
Fundamentals
 AC Supply System
• The electric supply used for the domestic
applications is single phase ac supply whereas
that used for the factories, institutions etc. is a
three phase ac supply.
• The single phase ac supply is a two wire
system, the two wires involved are called
“Phase” and “Neutral.’’
Continued….
 Characteristics of Sinusoids :
Time Period: T — Time necessary to go through one cycle. (s)
Frequency: f — Cycles per second. (Hz)
f = 1/T
Radian frequency(Angular frequency):  = 2f = 2/T (rad/s）

Amplitude: Vm Im
i = Imsint， v =Vmsint

v ,i
Vm , Im

0  2 t
 Characteristics of Sinusoids :
vt   Vm sin  t i

v ,i _ R

0 t1 t2 t

+ R

Both the polarity and magnitude of voltage are changing.

 An alternating quantity changes continuously in magnitude and alternates in
direction at regular intervals of time. Important terms associated with an alternating
quantity are defined below.

1. Amplitude
It is the maximum(+ve or -ve) value attained by an alternating quantity. Also
called as maximum or peak value
2. Time Period (T)
It is the Time Taken in seconds required to complete one cycle of an
alternating quantity. Denoted by T
3. Instantaneous Value
It is the value of an alternating quantity at any instant. Instantaneous values
denoted by small letters

4. Frequency (f)
It is the number of cycles that occur in one second. The unit for requency is
Hz or cycles/sec.
The relationship between frequency and time period can be derived as
follows.
Time taken to complete f cycles = 1 second
Time taken to complete 1 cycle = 1/f second
T = 1/f

5. Angular Frequency (ω)

Angular frequency is defined as the number of radians covered in one
second(ie the angle covered by the rotating coil). The unit of angular
frequency is rad/sec. ω=2πf
 Alternating Current

The shape of an ac quantity need not always be a sine wave

An alternating current, as the name implies, goes through a series of different
values both positive and negative in a period of time T, after which it
continuously repeats this same series of values in a cyclic manner.

Wave forms of three a-c variations. T is the period (or duration) of one cycle.
 Types of Periodic Waveform

The shape of an ac quantity need not always be a sine wave

 Effective or R.M.S. Value
• The effective or RMS value of an ac current is
equal to the steady state or DC current that is
required to produce the same amount of heat as
produced by the ac current provided that the
resistance and time for which these currents flow
are identical.
• RMS value of ac current is denoted by Irms and
RMS voltage is denoted by Vrms.
• RMS value of a sinusoidal waveform is equal to
0.707 times its peak value.
Irms = 0.707 Im
• RMS value is called as the heat producing
component of ac current.

Fig. 1: Effective or RMS value & average value of

ac waveform
 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

The arithmetic average of all the values of an alternating quantity over one cycle is
it’s average value.
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 =
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒

𝑇
1
𝑉𝑎𝑣 = 𝑣 𝑑𝑡
𝑇
0
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
 Root-Mean-Square Voltage (Vrms ) or effective value

RMS value is an effective value of AC quantities which needs to be considered for

different types of calculations and assumption and it is also equivalent to its DC value
 Root-Mean-Square Voltage (Vrms ) or effective value
The effective value of a periodic current is the dc current that delivers the same
average power to a resistor as the periodic current
Overview of Presentation
fig. 1: Peak and peak to peak value
Sadiku
Example 11.7, 11.8
Practice problem 11.7, 11.8
 Phasor Representation of an AC
Quantity
• A phasor is a straight line with an arrow
marked on one side.
• The length of this straight line represents the
magnitude of the sinusoidal quantity being
represented and the arrow represents its
direction. Direction of Rotation

Length represents magnitude

Reference axis
Fig.1: Phasor representation of a sinusoidal quantity
Phase of an Alternating Quantity
• Phase angle:
The equation of the induced emf in the
conductor is
v = Vm sin ωt = Vm sinθ …… (1)
In equation (1), θ is the angle made by the
conductor with the reference axis & it is called
as the Phase Angle.
 Continued….
• Phase Difference:
 It is not necessary that two voltages or current
waves originate at the same instant of time.

VB VA

Fig.1.: Concept of phase difference

 Continued….
 As shown in fig. 1, two waves do not have the same zero
crossover point so, we say that there is a phase difference
between them.
 Both VA and VB have the same frequency & same peak
voltage.
 We can represent two voltages mathematically as follows:
VA = A sin ωt
VB = A sin (ωt – π/2 )
VB = A sin (ωt – ø ) (ø = π/2 ) ……..(2)
 The angle π/2 is known as the phase difference between VA
and VB.
 Phase difference can take any value between 0 and 2π.
 Continued….
• Leading and Lagging Phase Difference:
1. Leading phase difference:
If the phase angle ø in equation (2) is positive then
the phase difference ø is said to be a leading phase
difference. In other words, we say that voltage VB
leads the voltage VA.
2. Lagging phase difference:
If the phase angle ø in equation (2) is negative, then
the phase difference is said to be a lagging phase
difference. That means VB lags behind VA by ø.
Continue….
Continue.
 Continue….

sin 𝜔𝑡 + 900 = cos(𝜔𝑡)

sin 𝜔𝑡 − 900 = −cos(𝜔𝑡)
cos 𝜔𝑡 + 900 = −sin(𝜔𝑡)
cos 𝜔𝑡 − 900 = sin(𝜔𝑡)
sin 𝜔𝑡 ± 1800 = −sin(𝜔𝑡)
cos 𝜔𝑡 ± 1800 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡)
 Characteristics of
Phase difference Sinusoids :
v  Vm sin(t  1 ) i  I m sin(t   2 )

  v  i   t  1  (t  2 )  1  2
  1   2  0 — v(t) leads i(t) by (1 - 2), or i(t) lags v(t) by (1 - 2)

  1  2  0 — v(t) lags i(t) by (2 - 1), or i(t) leads v(t) by (2 - 1)

  1   2  0    1   2  
  1   2  
In phase 2 Out of phase
v, i v, i v, i
v v v
i
i i
t t t
 Characteristics of
Review
Sinusoids :
The sinusoidal waves whose phases are compared must:
1. Be written as sine waves or cosine waves.
2. With positive amplitudes.
3. Have the same frequency.

360°—— does not change anything.

90° —— change between sin & cos.
180°—— change between + & -


 s i n   c o s       c o s   
2
 3   2

 c o s   sin    
 2
 Characteristics of Sinusoids :
Phase difference

v1  220 2 sin 314 t  30   v2  220 2 cos314 t  30  

Find   ?
  
v2  220 2 cos 314 t  30   220 2 sin 314 t  30   90  
 220 2 sin314 t  120 


  1   2  30 120   150

If v 2  220 2 cos314 t  30 


 
v 2  220 2 cos 314 t  30   220 
2 cos 314 t  30   180  

 220 2 cos 360   314t  210   
 220 2 sin314 t  150 
 90  
 220 2 sin314 t  60  
  1  2  30   60   30 
 Characteristics of
Phase difference
Sinusoids :

V m sin  t  
 3
v, i
v 
I m s i n   t  
i  3
• • •
-/3 /3  t
Representation of AC Quantity in
Rectangular & Polar Form
Sinusoids and phasors
1. Complex Numbers
2. Rotating Vector
3. Phasors

Single Phase AC Circuits

 A phasor is a complex number that represents the amplitude and phase of a sinusoid

A sinusoidal voltage/current at a given frequency, is characterized by only two

parameters : amplitude and phase

A complex number z can be written in rectangular form as

𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦
Where 𝑗 = −1 ; x is the real part of z; y is the imaginary part of z.
In this context, the variables x and y do not represent a location as in two-dimensional
vector analysis but rather the real and imaginary parts of z in the complex plane

where r is the magnitude of z, and φ is the phase of z

 Phasors
e.g. voltage response Time domain
v  t   V m cos   t   
Re vt 
Complex form: v t   Vm e  
j t 

Angular frequency ω is
known in the circuit.
Phasor form: V| Vm | 

Frequency domain
A sinusoidal v/i

Complex transform By knowing angular

frequency ω rads/s.
Phasor transform
V| Vm | 
 Phasors
Rotating Vector
y

v  Vm sin(t   )
Vm



0 x
 Phasors
Complex Numbers

A  a  jb — Rectangular Coordinates
Imaginary axis
A  A cos  j sin  
b
A  A e j— Polar Coordinates

 Real axis
a
conversion：
A  a2  b2
A  a  jb  A  Ae j b
  arctg
a

j
Ae  a  jb a  A cos
b  A sin


e  j90  cos90  j sin 90  0  j   j

 Phasors
Complex Numbers
Arithmetic With Complex Numbers

Addition: A = a + jb, B = c + jd, A + B = (a + c) + j(b + d)

Imaginary Axis

A+B

B A
Real Axis
Complex Numbers
Arithmetic With Complex Numbers

Subtraction : A = a + jb, B = c + jd, A - B = (a - c) + j(b - d)

Imaginary
Axis

B A
Real
A -B Axis
Complex Numbers
Phasors
Arithmetic With Complex Numbers

Multiplication : A = Am  A, B = Bm  B
A  B = (Am  Bm)  (A + B)

Division: A = Am  A , B = Bm  B
A / B = (Am / Bm)  (A - B)

𝑉𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + ∅ − 900 )
Phasors

Phasors

A phasor is a complex number that represents the magnitude and phase of

a sinusoid:

im cost      Im

Phasor Diagrams
• A phasor diagram is just a graph of several phasors on the complex
plane (using real and imaginary axes).
• A phasor diagram helps to visualize the relationships between currents
and voltages.
Phasors
Complex Exponentials

A  A e j

Aejt  Ae j( t   )  A cos(t   )  j A sin(t   )

Re{ Ae jt } | A | cos(t   )

 A real-valued sinusoid is the real part of a complex exponential.

Complex exponentials make solving for AC steady state an
algebraic problem.