Class 12 Biology - Chapter 4: Principles of Inheritance and Variation
1. Introduction
Genetics: Study of heredity and variation.
Heredity: Transmission of characters from parents to offspring.
Variation: Differences among individuals.
2. Mendel and His Experiments
Gregor Johann Mendel used Pisum sativum (garden pea).
Reasons: Short life cycle, clear traits, self & cross pollination.
Traits studied include: seed shape, seed color, flower color, etc.
3. Mendel's Laws
- Law of Dominance
- Law of Segregation
- Law of Independent Assortment
4. Monohybrid Cross
Cross between one trait. F1: All dominant. F2 phenotypic ratio 3:1, genotypic ratio 1:2:1.
5. Dihybrid Cross
Cross between two traits. F2 phenotypic ratio = 9:3:3:1.
6. Chromosomal Theory
Sutton and Boveri proposed genes are located on chromosomes.
7. Incomplete Dominance
F1 shows intermediate phenotype. Example: Red × White -> Pink flowers.
8. Codominance
Class 12 Biology - Chapter 4: Principles of Inheritance and Variation
Both alleles express. Example: AB blood group (IAIB).
9. Multiple Allelism
More than 2 alleles control one trait. Example: ABO blood group - IA, IB, i.
10. Polygenic Inheritance
Trait controlled by many genes. Example: skin color, height.
11. Sex Determination
Humans: XX/XY, Birds: ZW/ZZ, Grasshoppers: XO system.
12. Mutation
Sudden heritable change in DNA. Types: Gene and chromosomal mutation.
13. Pedigree Analysis
Family tree of inheritance. Symbols: square=male, circle=female, shaded=affected.
14. Genetic Disorders
Mendelian: Hemophilia, Sickle Cell Anemia, Thalassemia
Chromosomal: Down (Trisomy 21), Turner (XO), Klinefelter (XXY)
Diagrams to Include
- Monohybrid and Dihybrid Cross
- Pedigree Symbols
- Blood Group Inheritance
- Chromosomal Theory Illustration