GENERAL BIOLOGY REVIEWER - 12 STEM VIANNEY
What is Biology?Biology is the branch of science that studies all forms of life - from the
smallest bacteria to the largest animals and plants.
Branches of Biology
Because living things are so diverse, biology is divided into many specialized fields that focus
on particular types of organisms or biological processes:
Botany: The study of plants, including their structure, growth, reproduction, and how they make
food through photosynthesis.
Zoology: The study of animals, including their anatomy, behavior, and classification.
Microbiology: The study of microscopic organisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and
protozoa. This branch helps us understand diseases and develop medicines.
Genetics: Focuses on heredity, or how traits are passed from parents to offspring through
genes, which are made of DNA.
Ecology: Studies how organisms interact with each other and their [Link] helps us
understand ecosystems, food chains, and biodiversity.
Anatomy: Examines the physical structures of organisms, like organs and tissues.
Physiology: Looks at how the body's systems work together to keep an organism alive, like
how the heart pumps blood.
Evolutionary Biology: Studies how species change over long periods, leading to the diversity
of life today.
Macromolecules are essential to the functioning of the human body.
Carbohydrates are the body’s main source of energy.
● The two categories of carbohydrates include sugar and starch.
Lipids provide stored energy reserves. This allows us to survive when carbohydrates are not
being supplied to the body.
● Lipids are large molecules that can be categorized as fats or oils.
● Lipids are composed of triglycerides.
Protein has nutrients which contain materials the body uses for growth and repair.
● Proteins are large molecules made up of combinations of amino acids.
● Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins.
● These building blocks bond together to form chains that are called peptides.
Nucleic acids are responsible for making each person functional and unique; they are the
blueprint for our genetic structure
● All nucleic acids are made from combinations of nucleotides.
What is Cell? A cell is the smallest structural and functional unit of life.
Cell Structure and Function
Cell Theory - All living things are made up of cells.
● Cell is the smallest unit that is capable of performing life function
Three main ideas:
1. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells.
2. The cell is the basic unit of structure and function in all living things.
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells.
Prokaryotic - Do not have structures surrounded by membranes
Eukaryotic - Contain organelles surrounded by membranes
Types of Organisms:
Unicellular - Made of one cell that does all functions
Multicellular - Made of many specialized cells.
● cells are specialized-they perform specific tasks
Plant vs. Animal Cells
Plant and animal cells are both types of eukaryotic cells, meaning they have a true nucleus and
membrane-bound organelles. However, they have key structural differences that relate to their
functions in nature.
Plant Cells - structured to support the plant's ability to make food, grow upright, and store
nutrients.
Cell Wall-Plant cells have a rigid outer cell wall made of cellulose, a tough carbohydrate.
Chloroplasts- Enable photosynthesis, the process where plants make food (glucose) from
sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water.
Central Vacuole-Plant cells have one large central • Maintains turgor pressure, helping the
plant stay firm and upright.
Animal Cells - more flexible and specialized for movement, interaction with other cells, and
rapid response.
No Cell Wall - Instead of a rigid wall, animal cells have a flexible cell membrane
No Chloroplasts - Animal cells do not perform photosynthesis, so they: Get their energy from
ingesting food.
Small Vacuoles - Animal cells may have many small vacuoles or none at all
Centrioles - Found only in animal cells, centrioles:
• Help in organizing the spindle fibers
CELL PARTS:
Cell Membrane - Outer membrane of cell that controls movement in and out of the cell
Cell Wall - Support and Protect Cells
Nucleus
• Directs cell activities
• Separated from cytoplasm by nuclear membrane
• Contains genetic material - DNA
Nuclear Membrane
• Surrounds nucleus
• Made of two layers
• Openings allow material to enter and leave nucleus
Nucleolus
• Inside nucleus
• Contains RNA
to build proteins
Chromosomes - Contain instructions for traits &
characteristics
Cytoplasm - Gel-like mixture, surrounded by cell membrane and contains hereditary material
Endoplasmic Reticulum Moves- materials around in cell
Smooth type: lacks ribosomes
Rough type (pictured): ribosomes embedded in surface
Ribosomes - Make proteins, found on ribosomes & floating throughout the cell
Mitochondria - Produces energy through chemical reactions — breaking down fats &
carbohydrates.
Golgi Bodies - Is the Protein 'packaging plant'.
• Move materials within and out of the cell
Lysosome - Digestive 'plant' for proteins, fats, and carbohydrates
• Cell breaks down if lysosome explodes
Vacuoles - Membrane-bound sacs for storage, digestion, and waste removal
• Help plants maintain shape
Chloroplast -Where photosynthesis takes place
• Contains green chlorophyll
ORGANELLES AND THEIR ROLES:
B. PLASMA MEMBRANE STRUCTURE AND TRANSPORT MECHANISMS
1. Structure of the Plasma Membrane
The plasma membrane, also known as the cell membrane, is a crucial structure that surrounds
the cell, acting as a protective barrier.
Phospholipid bilayer: This is the foundation of the membrane. It consists of two layers of
phospholipid molecules. Each phospholipid has a:
● Hydrophilic head (water-attracting) that faces outward toward the watery environments
inside and outside the cell.
● Hydrophobic tail (water-repelling) that faces inward, away from water.
Proteins: These are scattered throughout the bilayer and serve various important functions
Carbohydrates: These are attached to proteins (glycoproteins) or lipids (glycolipids) on the
outer surface of the membrane. They help in:
• Cell recognition, so cells can identify each other (important in immune response).
• Communication, allowing cells to send and receive signals.
Cholesterol: Cholesterol molecules are interspersed within the phospholipid bilayer.
2. Transport Mechanisms Across the Plasma Membrane The plasma membrane is
semi-permeable, meaning it allows some substances to pass through while blocking others.
This control is vital for maintaining balance inside the cell.
A. Passive Transport
Does not require energy (no ATP used).
Types of Passive Transport:
● Diffusion: Movement of small molecules like oxygen and Oxygen moving from the
carbon dioxide directly through the membrane. lungs into blood cells.
● Osmosis: Diffusion of water molecules through a selectively permeable membrane.
● Facilitated Diffusion: Movement of larger or charged molecules through transport
proteins.
B. Active Transport
Requires energy in the form of ATP.
Types of Active Transport:
Protein Pump:
Uses specific membrane proteins and ATP to move ions like sodium and potassium.
Sodium-potassium pump maintaining nerve cell function.
Endocytosis: The cell engulfs large particles or fluids by wrapping them in a membrane to form
a vesicle.
Exocytosis: The cell releases substances by fusing vesicles with the plasma membrane.
Trust in the LORDwith all your heart,
and do not lean on your own understanding.
In all your ways acknowledge Him,
And he will make your paths straight .”
Proverbs 3:5-6 ESV