140 INTRODUCTIONTO COASTAL PROCESSES AND GEOMORPHOLOGY

increases with decreasing grain size, due to the fact that these sediments
form hydraulically smooth beds and the grains are cohesive. For coarSer
sediments the critical bed shear stress increases with grain size, reflecting
the overriding importance of the weight force. The situation is more COlll_
plicated in the case of poorly sorted sediments or cohesive sediments
with a high water content.
• Sediment is transported as either bedload or suspended load. In the caSe
of the former the grains are supported by continuous (traction) or inter-
mittent (saltation) contact with the bed. In the case of the latter the grains
FLUVIAL-DOMINATED COASTAL
are supported by upward-directed fluid momentum related to turbu-
lence. The sediment transport rate can be calculated using a variety of
ENVIRONMENTS - DELTAS
equations. Most of them involve either the excess bed shear stress or the
fluid power, which is the product of the bed shear stress and flow
velocity.
• Settling of cohesionless sediment is governed by grain properties such as
the size (mass) and shape, whereas settling of cohesive sediment is gov-
erned by the suspension concentration and the development of flocs.
• Bedforms can be classified according to their dimensions and related flow 6.1 INTRODUCTION
regimes. Current and wave ripples are small-scale bedforms and dunes
and antidunes are large-scale bedforms. Ripples and dunes are the Coastal deltas are accumulations of allochthonous (terrigenous) sediment
products of subcritical flow and antidunes are the product of supercritical deposited where rivers enter into the sea. River sediments may also accu-
flow. Ripples seem to occur in relation to hydraulically smooth bed mulate at the head of coastal embayments if the coastline is drowned (bay-
conditions whereas dunes seem to occur in relation to hydraulically head delta), but these deposits are generally controlled by estuarine
rough bed conditions. processes and will not be discussed here (see Section 7.2.1). This chapter
focuses on situations where the delta is sufficiently large to cause the adja-
cent coastline to prograde. This implies that sediments must be delivered by
5.8 FURTHER READING the river faster than they are dispersed by waves, [Link] and ocean currents.
For a river to deliver sufficient sediment to cause coastal progradation, the
Allen, J.R.L., 1984. Sedimentary Structures: Their Character and Physical Basis. drainage basin usually needs to be large, although high rates of precipita-
Elsevier. [The most comprehensive work available on the variety of bed- tion and catchment denudation are also sufficient conditions. Large
forms known and the physical processes responsible for them.] drainage basins are mostly restricted to the tectonically passive trailing-
Allen, J.R.L., 1985. Principles of Physical SedimentoloPI George Allen and edge of continents where the drainage divide is well inland from the coast.
Unwin. [A detailed physical account of all aspects of sediment dynamics High rates of precipitation and catchment denudation mostly occur in mid
by one of the most active and respected researchers in this field.] to low latitudes. Inman and Nordstrom's (1971) census of major deltas
Allen, EA., 1997. Earth Surface Processes. Blackwell Science. [A valuable placed 57% along trailing-edge coastlines (e.g., the Amazon), and 34.5%
advanced text that includes chapters on sediment dynamics.] along coasts fronting marginal seas that are often protected from ocean
Leeder, M., 1999. Sedimentology and Sedimentary Basins: From Turbulence to waves by island arcs (e.g., the Klang). Many in this latter group are located
Tectonics. Blackwell Scientific Publications. [Another valuable advanced in the mid to low latitudes (e.g., the Fly).
text that includes chapters on sediment dynamics.] There is an enormous volume of literature on deltaic environments. Most
Pye, K., 1994. Properties of sediment particles. In: K. Pye (editor), Sediment research either addresses case studies of individual deltas or struggles to for-
Transport and Depositional Processes. Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1-24. mulate an all-encompassing classification of deltas in order to make some
[Provides a detailed overview of sediment properties.] sort of broader sense of the case studies. There are several major controlling
factors, all of which can vary between wide limits, so the possible combina-
tions seem endless (Figure 6.1). Rather than focusing on delta classification
schemes, this chapter will concentrate on the morphodynamic processes
occurring in deltaic environments. This approach still requires us to adopt a
142 INTRODUCTION TO COASTAL PROCESSES AND GEOMORPHOLOGY FLUVIAL-DOMINATED COASTAL ENVIRONMENTS - DELTAS /43

Mississippi

~
Fluvial processes

DELTA
MORPHOLOGY

o"~,
~ • ,·,:,·,\
Mahakam

Ebro

Figure 6.1 - Interaction of factors responsible for the observed global variation in
delta morphology [Modified from Elliot, 1986,] Niger I Mekong
o

~
'" Rhone Nile
classification scheme in order to structure and scope our discussion. We will § Kelantan
U Brazos
use the scheme proposed by Galloway (1975), because it has received wide- San Francisco Copper
spread acceptance, it is reasonably straightforward, and it offers a suitable Wave processes

context for focusing on processes. Other delta classification schemes are

rancisco
reviewed in Reading and Collinson (1996), Boggs (1995) and Postma (1990).

6.2 GALLOWAY'S CLASSIFICATION OF DELTAS

Figure 6.2 - Galloway's (1975) tlassification of fine-grained deltas, The end-member
Galloway's scheme is a tripartite classification with three end-members types are fluvial-, tide- and wave-dominated, [From Briggs et 01, 1997,] [Copyright ©
(Figure 6.2): I997 Taylor & Francis Books, reproduced with permission,]

• Fluvial-dominated deltas are characterized by large catchments, river gradation and yet are modified substantially by wave or tidal processes (e.g.,
discharge into protected seas with minimal nearshore wave energy, and a the Niger and the Ganges-Brahmaputra). We therefore adopt Galloway's
small tidal prism. scheme and acknowledge its shortcomings. The next three sections focus on
• Wave-dominated deltas are characterized by exposure to open-ocean the morphodynamics of fluvial-dominated deltas, with a brief description of
swell. how waves and tides modify delta morphology in particular settings.
• Tide-dominated deltas are characterized by a tidal prism larger than the It is important to understand that Galloway's scheme seeks only to clas-
fluvial discharge. sify medium to fine-grained deltas, which include almost all the major
Relative rather than absolute magnitude of river, wave and tide power is the deltas of the world. A different type of coastal delta occurs on the tectonical-
important controlling factor. ly-active leading-edge of continents. These settings are characterized by
Fluvial-dominated deltas are the only delta-type that is indisputably a proximal drainage divides, steep hinterland slopes, high rates of denuda-
delta. Reading and Collinson (1996), and others, have noted that many tion, and narrow-deep continental shelves. This combination of factors pro-
deltas classified as wave-dominated may be better classified as beach-ridge duces coarse-grained, steeply-sloped, fan- and braid-type deltas. While not
strand plains, since most of their sediment is supplied by littoral drift rather as large as their finer-grained counterparts, these deltas can be locally
than river processes. Similarly, many so-called tide-dominated deltas should important in terms of coastal progradation. We conclude this chapter with a
probably be considered estuaries since they are transgressive systems. brief summary of coarse-grained delta morphology, and highlight the con-
Nevertheless, there are major deltas that meet the criteria of coastal pro- trasts with their larger, finer-grained counterparts.
/44 INTRODUCTION TO COASTAL PROCESSES AND GEOMORPHOLOGY FLUVIAL-DOMINATED COASTAL ENVIRONMENTS - DELTAS /45

tion. In general terms we perceive a situation where the river continuously

6.3 GENERIC DELTA MORPHOLOGY
delivers sediment to the coastline and causes the delta front to prograde
seaward through deposition of the relatively coarse sediments closest to the
Delta morphology is a result of factors common to both the river catchment
coast and the finer sediments further seaward. The finest sediments are
and the receiving basin (coastal waters), as well as factors unique to each
deposited on the prodelta. As the delta front progrades horizontally the
(Figure 6.1). The combination of all these factors, together with their rate of
delta plain aggrades vertically. The resulting sediment distribution through
change through time, determines the delta regime (i.e., river-, wave-, or tide-
the delta wedge is then a general fining in the seaward direction and a gen-
dominated), which in turn controls the delta morphology. There are numer-
eral coarsening upwards in the vertical direction. Reading and Collinson
ous possible permutations, each leading to a unique delta morphology.
(1996) review much of the geological and sedimentological literature on
Often only one factor needs to be different to produce a completely different
deltas. The following paragraphs describing the delta plain, delta front and
style of delta. For example, two deltas that have exactly the same catchment
prodelta provide a synthesis of their expansive review.
characteristics and exactly the same receiving basin characteristics, except
one has a larger basin subsidence rate, will evolve into two markedly differ-
ent delta morphologies. The slowly subsiding delta will prograde furthest 6.3.1 Delta plain
seaward with a relatively thin sediment wedge, whereas the rapidly subsid-
The delta plain can be traversed by either a single or multiple channels,
ing delta will have the thickest sediment wedge, due to the constantly
whose role it is to distribute water and sediment from the river valley out to
increasing accommodation space at the river entrance. The two deltas will
the presently active coastline. The number of these distributary channels
also develop different entrance conditions. Because the delta with the slow
active on the plain at anyone time is mostly related to the slope of the plain
subsidence rate progrades the furthest, it will be the first to become exposed
and the grain size of the sediment load. Rivers carrying a coarse-sediment
to open ocean waves and tides, whilst the other remains fluvially-dominat-
load across a steep delta plain have several simultaneously active distribu-
ed. This is just one example of how varying a single factor can produce
tary channels, whereas rivers carrying a fine-sediment load across a gently-
markedly different deltas.
sloped delta plain have relatively few (although there may be numerous
Although the detailed morphology of deltas varies from one example to
abandoned channels). Distributary channels convey predominantly unidi-
the next, depending on the delta regime, there are three morphological units
rectional flow on the upper delta plain and behave much like fluvial chan-
common to almost all deltas (Figure 6.3): the delta plain, delta front and
nels, but they may convey reversing tidal flows on the lower plain and
prodelta. The delta plain is the sedimentary platform that mantles recent
behave more like estuarine channels. There is a corresponding zonation of
coastal progradation. The sedimentary deposits of the delta plain are called
morphological features within the interdistributary areas. The upper delta
topset beds and they lie unconformably over the sediments of past delta
plain includes fluvial features such as levees, floodplains, lakes and
fronts, which are called foreset beds. Each foreset bed marks a previous
swamps between the active channels, all of which are fed sediment by over-
location of the delta front during the delta's progradation. Each foreset bed
bank flow during floods. On the other hand the lower delta plain includes
onlaps the bottom-set beds, which are the product of prodelta sedimenta-
estuarine features such as brackish lagoons, tidal flats, shallow bays,
marshes and relict beach ridges.
Delta plain Delta front Prodelta The distributary channels are relatively high-energy environments, so
/ 1/ /l ./ they tend to contain only the coarsest fractions of the sediment load. The
interdistributary areas, however, are low-energy environments dominated
by deposition of fine-sediment from suspension. Due to the continual initia-
tion, growth and abandonment of distributary channels associated with
delta switching (Section 6.5), the distribution of sediment on the delta plain
can be complex. It is not uncommon, for example, for relatively coarse sedi-
ments from an active or recently abandoned distributary channel to be jux-
taposed with relatively fine sediment deposited under quiescent conditions
in an interdistributary lagoon.
The surface slope of the delta plain is generally horizontal to very gently
Figure 6.3 - The three generic morpho-stratigraphic units found in all fine-grained seaward dipping, and this slope is always maintained, even when the delta
deltas: delta plain (topset beds), delta front (foreset beds) and prodelta (bottomset front is prograding. Thus the topset beds of the delta plain are also horizon~
beds). [Modified from Haslett, 2000.J tal to very gently dipping. For topset beds to aggrade the basin must
 146 INTRODUCTION TO COASTAL PROCESSES AND GEOMORPHOLOGY FLUVIAL·DOMINATED COASTAL ENVIRONMENTS - DELTAS /47

subside, otherwise the distributary channels will continually erode the delta
(b) Plane jet
plain. The thickest topset beds are associated with the largest rates of basin
subsidence. The main causes of basin subsidence are isostatic compensation
for sediment loading and sediment compaction.
:1f. Coarse sand
{f' Coarse sand
6.3.2 Delta front Plan View
Fine sand
~ Silt & clay

The delta front is the most active part of the delta and the most interesting Mouth

from a morphodynamic viewpoint. It is also where the uniqueness of each

delta is most apparent. Most of the sediment issuing from the presently '~""~~~:::-~'--=--=~---c:---_-:-
active distributary mouths is deposited on the delta front. As the river water Long~udinal View
exits the distributary mouth it expands and decelerates, thus losing its com-
petency to transport sediment. The coarsest sediment is deposited first and (d) Tide-Dominated
produces a distributary mouth bar. The morphology of the bar depends on
the hydrodynamic behaviour of the river effluent as it leaves the distribu- dJ ~

~ . "'-'~)t""~'~
tary mouth, plus any modification caused by waves and/ or tides. The I
details are discussed more fully in Section 6.4. In summary, using the termi- Plan View
nology of Coleman (1982), the three types of effluent and related bar mor- .~t-~'-,'~,
-r;~-_. ~_ ','. ... '~"-"',',"',"",'-~,'
·-_r ',.','. _ _ LInear
phology are: (1) an axial jet, which deposits a lunate bar that is relatively Plan V. ~----,...~ ~oaJs
A lew ~ ',. ~:':""'C'"
narrow and with subdued relief (Figure 6.4a); (2) a planar jet, which
. _, ,_,_,_"~A\'\:~"T"",, I\I\~
deposits a broad radial bar or a broad middle ground bar with high relief -.:'----
-:- -- ~..:~,
and bifurcating channel (Figure 6.4b); and (3) a buoyant plume, which -~ : ....,
Longitudinal View X-Section View
deposits long, straight, subaqueous levees and a distal bar (Figure 6.4c). The
distributary mouth bars associated with jets are situated closer to the dis-
tributary entrance than those associated with buoyant plumes. Tides tend to Parallel wave I (e) wave-Dominated Oblique wave
rework sediments at the distributary mouth into linear shoals that are ori-
ented perpendicular to the coastline (i.e, parallel to the direction of tidal
approach I 'I'
(', k SWa;m bars
~~r.
approach

.k~~" ~. .
/
flow; Figure 6.4d). Waves tend to rework the sediments into swash bars and ...
~- --,;,Jl)-n:"f~",;' '"
'-'\~\ \ \'\.;'I I""
beach ridges that are oriented parallel to the coastline (i.e., parallel to the
refracted wave crests; Figure 6.4e). -7 ~_,~.,.:,:'>,--e:~t
)\" )j;,4" ,'~
.- r :1 ~ 1:1 i ~
--
'Jl t), :'

f
Plan View l~<~>':"/ / t 1,:\,,,
6.3.3 Prodelta I" , " \}f.~~"':,\
I::' Plan View lit. ":.:, ;;:
1/4' '- ,,' .
The large distance between the prodelta and the distributary mouth means -'Iff ,'L:swa~ bars

that only the finest sediments reach this zone, generally very fine silts and '~f~~,)i:~~~ ,)
clays. These sediments settle from suspensions carried by either jets or =.. _." ~ __~~cr:~~~.~ ..."" :.'1"',");1'
L:~t~·· ,./ ,
buoyant plumes. The lack of bedload transport and a generally horizontal to )~:'~':/'
C':-.."..

Longitudinal View,
gently-sloping bed means that the prodelta aggrades vertically to produce ~': ,,-
';J
.. ·1
relatively flat-lying bottomset beds (Figure 6.3). Not all deltas include a - - . - , _ _ ---'l..- _ _ i',;
........--~ r~,_ 1"'
prodelta - if present, they are located in water depths beyond the regional - \ ! '.,.-
X-Section View
wave base and are also largely unaffected by tides. The only potentially .,r

active process on the prodelta is mass wasting, which refers to the move-
ment of bed sediment downslope under the action of gravity. If mass wast- Figure 6.4 - Morphology of distributary mouths dominated by: (a) axial jets. (b) plane
ing is unimportant then the prodelta surface will generally be smooth and jets, (c) buoyant plumes, (d) strong tides and (e) strong waves. [From Wright 1977.J
featureless. If it is important then a variety of slumps, depressions and ero- [Copyright © 1977 Geological Society of America, reproduced with permission.]
sive channels and gullies can disrupt the surface (Figure 6.5).
/48 INTRODUCTION TO COASTAL PROCESSES AND GEOMORPHOLOGY FLUVIAL-DOMINATED COASTAL ENVIRONMENTS - DELTAS /49

Box 6.1 - GRAVITy-DRIVEN TURBIDITY CURRENTS

In Chapter 5 we discussed at some length the sediment transport mechanics

based on fluid drag over the top of a sedimentary bed. There are a variety of addi-
tional transport modes whose mechanics are based on the downslope com-
ponent of the sediment weight force (product of mass and gravity). These
gravity-driven transport modes include soil creep, slides, debris flows and turbidity
currents, We briefly discuss the mechanics of turbidity currents here as an
example.
Turbidity currents are negatively buoyant, highly-concentrated, near-bed sus-
pensions (typically composed of sand, silt and clay) that flow downslope under
their own weight (Figure 6.6),There is no motion of the overlying water necessary
to provide drag - gravity does all of the work. Turbidity currents characteristically
consist of a head and a body The body typically travels 16% faster than the head
and so is constantly feeding the head region with fluid and sediment. The velocity
of the turbidity current increases with the thickness of the body and with the
density difference between the suspension and the ambient fluid.

Body Head
I II I

Figure 6.5 - Sidescan sonar mosaic showing mass wasting features in the Mississippi
River delta, USA. [From Coleman et 01., 1998.J [Copyright © 1998 Coastal Education
and Research Foundation, reproduced with permission.J Figure 6.6 - Turbidity current produced in the laboratory displaying the character-
istic head and body regions. [From Allen, 1994.J [Copyright © 1994 Blackwell
Publishers, reproduced with permission,J
Reading and Collinson (1996) identified the following three conditions nec-
essary for mass wasting: (1) a very high sedimentation rate, which leads to
As the turbidity current flows downslope, the Kelvin-Helmholtz waves that
retention of pore waters and ultimately high pore water pressure following
develop at the head (Figure 6.6 and Box 6.3) serve to entrain relatively clear fluid,
burial, resulting in a low shear strength for the sediment; (2) biodegradation of
thus reducing the bulk density and negative buoyancy of the suspension. Sediment
organic detritus and the production of methane gas, which further weakens
is also deposited at the base of the turbidity current. In order for a turbidity cur-
the sediment; and (3) a shock mechanism (e.g., storm waves or tectonic activi- rent to be sustained, these mechanisms that reduce the bulk density of the suspen-
ty), providing the trigger for mass wasting. Mass wasting events can be initiat- sion must be balanced by the body region entraining sediment and continually
ed in the prodelta zone, for example, as collapse depressions. Reading and feeding it to the head. It is this sediment entrainment by turbidity currents that is
Collinson describe these as shallow « 3 m) bowl-shaped depressions about responsible for eroding many of the channels observed on the lower delta front
100 m wide that result from liquefaction of the sediment, typically by storm and prodelta. They are able to carve these often enormous channels during a rela-
waves. It is more likely, however, for mass wasting to be initiated on the more tively small number of transport episodes, because their large bulk density and
steeply-sloping delta front and their effects extended to the prodelta. For hence their large mass generates more momentum than relatively clear currents of
example, a rotational slump or submarine slide that develops into a turbidity similar discharge. Detailed discussions of turbidity currents, and other gravity-driven
current and erodes a channel down the delta front and across the prodelta (Box transport mechanisms, can be found in Allen (1985), Allen (1997) and Leeder
6.1). These channels are slightly sinuous, up to several kilometres long, up to ( 1999).
20 m deep and up to 1500 m wide (Reading and Collinson, 1996).
 ----
150 INTRODUCTION TO COASTAL PROCESSES AND GEOMORPHOLOGY [Link] COASTAL ENVIRONMENTS - DELTAS /5/

Figure 6.7 - Schematic dia- (a) Homopycnal conditions

6.4 DELTA-FRONT MORPHODYNAMICS
gram showing three water ~

In a classic paper, Bates (1953) introduced the notion that delta-front

morphology could be understood in terms of hydrodynamic jets. In a
density patterns: (a) homopyc-
nal conditions, (b) hypopycnal \
~o
---,,- 0
0\0 \....
0
\....
\
conditions and (c) hyperpycnal river! \_ ~ ~ ~ sea
subsequent paper that is now also a classic, Wright (1977) built on Bates' [Link] lines are isopyc-
foundation to provide a complete synthesis of river mouth morphodynam- nals labelled with indicative
ics. This section is a summary of these two papers. water densities in kg m-3.
The hydrodynamic behaviour of the river effluent as it enters the receiv- Homopycnal conditions are
ing basin is controlled by the current speed at the river mouth, the slope of associated with river effluents
the sea bed seaward of the river mouth and the vertical density distribution (b)Hypopycnalcond~ons
behaving as jets. Hypopycnal
~
through the water column. Depending on how these factors combine, the and hyperpycnal conditions are

--(/,~~
~ 7~sea
effluent can behave as either a jet or a plume (Table 6.1). The principal deter- associated with river effluents
mining factor is the density pattern, examples of which are illustrated in behaving as positively- and river \or§J 00'0

Figure 6.7. When the water is well mixed vertically the isopycnals (lines of negatively-buoyant plumes,
equal density) are vertical and the water density at the surface and the bed respectively.
are similar (i.e., homopycnal conditions). When the water is stratified the
isopycnals are nearly horizontal, with the least dense water mass floating on
the most dense water mass. If the river effluent is the least dense, because it
(c) Hyperpycnal conditions
is fresher than the basin water, then it travels seaward on the surface (i.e.,
~
hypopycnal conditions). If the river effluent is the most dense, because it
has sufficient suspended sediment to makes its bulk density greater than
the coastal water, then it travels seaward along the bed (i.e., hyperpycnal
conditions).
~
river
---- .-...
~
~
~70<S
~ea
/Q

~ "oS"-...
-----..
"70<10 ----...
7035 "-
"-..
............

Given that the water exiting a river mouth is usually fresh and loaded
with sediment and the coastal water is saline, there is always the potential
for hypo- or hyperpycnal conditions. Whether this potential is realized or

Table 6.1 Morphodynamic summary of distributary mouth processes whether mlxmg and homopycnal conditions prevail depends on the
strength of the river current (which will tend to promote mixing) and the
Jet Plume Tides Waves difference in density between the river and coastal waters (which will tend
Axial Planar Surface Near-bed to promote stratification). The prevalence of one over the other is represent-
ed in the densimetric Froude Number g
River current Large Large Moderate Moderate Small Small
velocity u
Offshore slope Steep Gentle Relatively
steep
Relatively
steep
Relatively
gentle
Relatively
steep F~ Vgh' (1 _~~) (6.1)
Density Homopycnal Homopycnal Hypopycnal Hyperpycnal Homopycnal Homopycnal
conditions where u is the river current velocity (or the plume velocity in hypopycnal
conditions), g is the gravitational acceleration, h' is the depth of flow (or the
Morphology Narrow, Broad, radial Subaqueous Gullies and Linear Swash bars
thickness of the plume in hypopycnal conditions), and PR and pc are the
lunate bar bar or middle- levees and channels from channels and and beach
densities of the river and coastal water, respectively. For supercritical values
ground bar distal bar mudslides shoals ridges aligned
and turbidity aligned parallel to
of F;. greater than unity the effluent behaves as either an axial or plane jet
and bifurcating
channel CUITents perpendicular the coast and for subcritical values less than unity it behaves as a buoyant plume.
to the coast Subcritical plumes may become critical due to an increasing river discharge
(and velocity), decreasing water depth, or decreasing density ratio.
 /52 INTRODUCTION TO COASTAL PROCESSES AND GEOMORPHOLOGY

6.4.1 Jets
Axial jets occur where river water exits a distributary mouth at high speed
------- -- Box 6.2 -
FLUVIAL·DOMINATED COASTAL ENVIRONMENTS - DELTAS

FLOW VELOCITY IN AN AXIAL JET

/53

into a deep basin under homopycnal conditions (Table 6.1; Figure 6.8a). Axial jets are simple to produce in the laboratory and are relatively well under-
There is no interaction between the jet and the sea bed, hence the energy of stood, because the complications that arise due to interaction with a solid bound-
the jet is dissipated almost entirely by turbulent mixing between the jet and ary are absent. The behaviour of the jet with distance from the orifice can be
the coastal water (turbulent diffusion). The jet consists of a core region that described completely if the current velocity at the orifice and the width of the
extends from the river mouth a short distance seaward. The mean current orifice are known (e.g., Allen, 1985; Allen, 1997). Figure 6,9a shows that the jet
velocity is constant throughout the core region, and the turbulence intensity spreads laterally at a roughly constant rate, the angle between the longitudinal axis
is large. Beyond the core region is the zone of established flow. In this zone of the jet and the margin being about I2°. The spreading is due to turbulent eddies
turbulent eddies cause the jet to exchange water and momentum with the along the margin of the jet causing an exchange of fluid and momentum between
basin water. This results in the expansion of the jet, a deceleration of its the jet and ambient waters. Since the total discharge and momentum flux through
any cross-section in the jet must be equal (i.e., conservation of mass and momen-
velocity and a reduction in the turbulence intensity with distance from the
tum), the cross-sectionally averaged velocity in the jet must decrease with distance
distributary mouth. The expansion rate, indicated by the spreading angle, is
constant at about 12°, so the corresponding deceleration of the cross-section-
(a) (b)
ally averaged velocity of the jet is also constant (Box 6.2). Beyond the core x/ro
region, the jet loses its competency to transport sediment and it deposits 100

sediment in the form of a lunate bar (Figure 6Aa). In cross-section, this bar
rises gently from the distributary mouth to the bar crest and then slopes
steeply seaward. The lateral extent of the bar is relatively narrow and con-
sistent with the width of the jet. The coarsest sediment is deposited around
the margins of the core region and the sediment progressively fines in the
seaward direction. Axial jets and lunate bars may occur at newly created

(a) Axial (inertia-dominated) jet (b) Plane (friction-

dominated) jet

Plan Plan
20
Fresh water _ _
Mouth
//1/
Turbulent effluent

3--- 30 20 10 ~
"" 0,25
10 20
ylro
30

\\\\\\\\\\\\\%\~: ,
Cross-section Cross-section Uo

Figure 6.8 - Schematic illustration of (a) an axial (inertia-dominated) and (b) a plane Figure 6.9 - (a) Laboratory visualization of an axial jet showing an approximately
(friction-dominated) jet, showing both plan and cross-section views. Note that axial constant rate of expansion from the orifice. [From van Dyke, I982.J [Copyright ©
jets do not interact with solid boundaries after exiting the mouth and are free to 1982 The Parabolic Press.J (b) Velocity contours in an axial [Link] distance in the x
expand in all directions. Plane jets are strongly influenced by the sea bed. [From and y directions is normalized by the radius r of the jet and the velocity u is nor-
Leeder; 1999; modified from Wright, 1977.J [Copyright © 1994 Blackwell Publishers, malized by the velocity at the orifice uo. [From Allen, 1985.J
reproduced with permission.J
/54 INTRODUCTION TO COASTAL PROCESSES AND GEOMORPHOLOGY FLUVIAL-DOMINATED COASTAL ENVIRONMENTS - DELTAS 155

from the orifice. If the angle of spread is constant it can be shown that the spatially- across the surface and negatively-buoyant plumes travel along the bed. The
averaged velocity across the section, IT, decreases with distance at a constant rate former situation is the more common, and is best developed when the river
given by water exits the entrance with low to moderate velocity into relatively deep
water (Table 6.1). Moreover, the river discharge should exceed the tidal
IT=_W_- Uo prism, but should be insufficient to keep out the tidal intrusion of salt water
x tone
into the lower reaches of the distributary channel (similar to a salt-wedge
where W is the width of the orifice, x is the distance from the orifice, e is the angle estuary; Section 7.3.1). These conditions produce stable stratification with
of spread and Uo is the velocity at the orifice. In reality, the velocity in the river the fresh river water floating on the denser, saline coastal water. The situa-
entrance is not constant across the section, but is a maximum at the centre and a tion of negative buoyancy arises if the river water is carrying so much sedi-
minimum at the margins. This leads to a velocity distribution across the jet similar ment in suspension that the bulk density of the fresh river water is larger
to that shown in Figure 6.9b. As expected, there is a decrease in velocity with than the density of the saline coastal water. This usually requires suspended
distance from the orifice, but there is also a decrease in velocity between the sediment concentrations of the order of 100 g 1-1, which is rare. One example
centreline and the adjacent margins. is the Huanghe River delta, which delivers silt-sized sediment from the
Mongolian plateau in the interior of China to the Gulf of Bohai (Wright et
al., 1986). Here we will restrict our discussion to the more common,
distributary mouths, but the necessary conditions generally do not persist. positively-buoyant plume.
As deltas develop the receiving basin becomes shallower so the jet is even- The margins of buoyant plumes are marked by sharp boundaries known
tually affected by the sea bed, and therefore becomes a plane jet. as fronts. These fronts can at times be recognized simply by an obvious
Plane jets occur where river water exits a distributary mouth at high colour difference between the plume and the coastal water. They may also
speed into a shallow basin under homopycnal conditions (Table 6.1; Fig be marked by lines of flotsam composed of foam, algae, or debris carried by
6.8b). The vertical expansion of the jet is restricted by the shallow water the river. The lines of flotsam that mark fronts provide a clue to the nature
depth, and in order to conserve mass and momentum this is compensated of flow within the plume (Figure 6.10). The plume is flowing seaward, being
for by an increased horizontal spreading angle that is about 16°. In addition driven through the river entrance by the sloping water surface and related
to energy dissipation by turbulent diffusion along the sides of the jet, there pressure-gradient force (see Box 3.1). Because the plume is positively buoy-
is also energy dissipation at the base of the jet by friction with the sea bed. ant and elevated slightly above the coastal water, there is also a gentle slope
Due to the greater spreading angle and bed friction, velocities in the jet from the centre of the plume out towards the margins (i.e., the front). This
decrease more rapidly with distance so neither the core region or the estab- sloping water surface is also 'associated with a pressure gradient force and
lished flow region extend as far seaward as they do in the case of an axial therefore a secondary, lateral surface flow. The diverging surface flow at the
jet. Consequently sediment deposition is rapid and occurs closer to the centre of the plume draws water vertically upwards and the convergent
entrance. The resulting radial bar slopes rapidly up from the mouth to the flow at the margins of the plume drives water vertically downwards to
bar crest and then slopes gently seaward. Continued deposition results in a complete the circulation. It is the surface flow convergence at the plume
positive feedback situation. As the water depth over the bar gets shallower front that accumulates the flotsam. The convergent flow at the base of the
through deposition, frictional dissipation of the jet increases, thus enhancing plume means that as sediment is transported seaward its lateral dispersion
sedimentation and further shallowing over the bar. In order to continue near the bed is limited, so it tends to deposit in linear, subaqueous levees.
delivering sediment to the coast the jet must expand laterally to the point
Figure 6.10 - Schematic
where it bifurcates, forming two channels either side of a middle-ground Front, where Front, where
cross-section of a buoyant
bar. When the flow splits, the vertical and lateral mixing in each channel is flotsam collects flotsam collects
plume showing circulation
reduced so each can continue further seaward. in the plane transverse to ~r4c-~ ~~~

6.4.2 Buoyant plumes

the flow. The principal
flow direction is either
~!!i!i!i*t1!(~\ :~:: dftgen:~=e - l..}01iii!~::!~!~!!ii~i~:!:!i!
into or out of the page. Ambient '::::~. water
salt water ..::::-:::....~ ~
J '" ~ ""..-:.::..'::::::'
~>::: Ambient
water. /
salt water
When neither the river water exiting a distributary mouth or the coastal

JlltiiiiJII,l
[From Wright, 1977.]
water are turbulent enough to induce thorough mixing then the waters over [Copyright © 1977
the delta front will be stratified. In this case the river water proceeds sea- Geological Society of
ward as a plume that is either positively (hypopycnal conditions) or nega- America, reproduced with
tively (hyperpycnal conditions) buoyant. Positively-buoyant plumes travel permission.]
156 INTRODUCTION TO COASTAL PROCESSES AND GEOMORPHOLOGY FLUVIAL-DOMINATED COASTAL ENVIRONMENTS - DELTAS 157

Figure 6.12 - Satellite image

Box 6.3 - MIXING AND SEDIMENTATION IN A
showing part of the
'CRITICAL' PLUME Mississippi River delta, USA,
an archetypal fluvial-domi-
As a buoyant plume expands laterally with distance from the river mouth it nated delta displaying the
becomes progressively thinner in order to conserve mass, If at the same time the classic 'birds-foot' morphol-
plume velocity remains roughly constant, then the densimetric Froude number ogy. [Modified image from
may eventually reach a value of one (Equation 6, I), If this occurs, then the weight the NASNScience Photo
force of the plume is insufficient to counteract the inertial forces driving the Library, USA]
plume, so the shear along the density interface between the base of the plume
and the coastal water will distort the interface into a series of internal waves
(Figure 6, I Ia), Wright (1977) proposed that these waves promote mixing
between the basal plume water and the coastal water; thus causing the plume to
lose mass, momentum, and competency to transport sediment. This results in the
coarser sediment being deposited to form the distal bar. The plume's deceleration
eventually causes the Froude number to drop below unity again, thus suppressing
mixing and enabling the plume to continue travelling seaward with the fine sedi-
ment load (Figure 6, I I b), The fine sediment is progressively deposited seaward
beyond the distal bar. These levees grow seawards and steadily extend the length of the distribu-
tary channel. In addition to long, subaqueous levees, deposition from posi-
(a) tively-buoyant plumes is also responsible for a distal bar. The mechanics of
distal sedimentation from the plume are complex, but they are controlled, at
least in part, by the changing value of the densimetric Froude number as the
plume thins with distance travelled from the distributary entrance (Box 6.3).
Positively-buoyant plumes and long, linear levees produce a delta front
morphology that often has a 'birds-foot' appearance. This is the hallmark of
fluvial-dominated deltas; including the Mississippi River delta, USA (Figure
6.12). The fresh water discharge rate of this river varies between 8,400 and
28,000 m 3 S-l, whereas the mean tide range is only 0.2 m. This predominance
of fresh water flow, together with an annual sediment load of 2.1 X 108
(b) tonnes (mostly consisting of fine sediment), results in the regular occurrence
front
Constant U Decreasing U
I of sediment-laden positively-buoyant plumes, which are actively extending
u- ~:>~- the delta front region (Wright, 1978; Milliman and Meade, 1983).
~

ti rrrT1I//,~wedge 6.4.3 Tide- and wave-effects

nJuj}I/i7

Along meso- and macro-tidal coastlines the primary effect of the tide on
delta front processes is to cause strong mixing and the maintenance of
Figure 6.11 - (a) Laboratory visualized internal waves produced on the interface
homopycnal conditions. The river effluent typically behaves as a plane jet
between two liquids in relative motion to each other. In this case the waves are
Kelvin-Helmholtz waves, [From van Dyke, 1982,] [Copyright © 1982 The Parabolic
that is interacting with strong tidal currents flowing roughly parallel with it
Press,] (b) Schematic longitudinal view of a buoyant plume showing the changes in
(i.e., perpendicular to the coastline). The result is elongated distributary
densimetric Froude number as the plume thins in the seaward direction, mouth bars separated by tidal channels (Figure 6.4d). In order for the sys-
When the plume is at its thinnest the Froude number reaches supercritical values tem to be a delta there must be a net transport of sediment seaward to
and internal waves develop along the base of the plume, [From Allen, 1997; achieve coastal progradation. The situation is made complex, however, by
modified from Wright, 1977.] [Copyright © 1997 Blackwell Publishers, reproduced the fact that flooding tidal currents oppose the river effluent and ebbing cur-
with permission,] rents flow with it. This results in mutually-evasive sediment transport
zones in which one side of the channel conveys sediment mostly in the
/58 INTRODUCTIONTO COASTAL PROCESSESAND GEOMORPHOLOGY FLUVIAL-DOMINATED COASTAL ENVIRONMENTS - DELTAS /59

Figure 6.13 Satellite Figure 6.14 ~ Satellite image

image showing the Fly River showing the Shoal haven
delta, Papua New Guinea, River delta, Australia, an
an archetypal tide-dominat- archetypal wave-dominated
ed delta displaying the delta displaying the classic
classic 'funnel-shape' mor- 'arcuate-shape', swash-
phology. Also note the lin- aligned shoreline. At the
ear sand ridges and tidal time of photography the
channels aligned perpendi- Shoal haven entrance was
cular to the coast. Arrows closed. [Modified image from
indicate direction of net Geoscience Australia's Oz
beload transport at the Estuaries database.]
distributary entrance.
[Modified Image from
Geoscience Australia, repro-
duced with permission.]

(Figure 6.4e). The seaward extent of the delta front is further limited by the
reworking of delta front sediments by waves in the form of shoreward-
seaward direction while the other side conveys it mostly in the landward migrating swash bars. As these bars weld to the beach, the delta plain pro-
direction. grades as a series of beach ridges and swales. When waves approach with
Mutually-evasive transport is well developed in the tide-dominated Fly their crest parallel to the coastline they are refracted symmetrically around
River delta, Papua New Guinea (Figure 6.13). The fresh water discharge rate the distributary mouth bar. When they approach obliquely, however, they
of this river is relatively large with an annual average of 7,000 m 3 S-l. The cause longshore transport and spit growth, with the river entrance con-
tidal discharge rate, however, is about 18 times the river discharge rate. The stantly migrating downdrift.
annual sediment load delivered to the delta is 8.5 x 107 tonnes. The domi- The Shoalhaven River delta, Australia is an archetypal wave-dominated
nant tidal discharge results in homopycnal, reversing tidal currents control- delta (Figure 6.14). The river discharge is relatively modest, but episodic;
ling sedimentation. The net bedload transport (by combined river and tidal the mean annual discharge rate is 57 m 3 S-l, but is punctuated by flood
flow) at the entrance of the far northern channel is directed landward on the events with a discharge rate of 5,000 m 3 S-l. Sediment delivery to the delta
north-side and seaward on the south-side (Figure 6.13). There is a similar front occurs almost entirely during flood events, since the entrance is typi-
mutually-evasive net bedload transport pattern in the southern channel. cally closed for long periods between events. Closure is achieved by persist-
Despite some sediment being transported landward at specific sites in this ent wave energy pushing delta sediments landward. The significant wave
system, on the whole, most sediment is being transported seaward to feed height exceeds 1.5 m for 50% of the time and exceeds 3 m for 5% of the time
an actively prograding delta front (Harris et aI., 2002). (Wright, 1976): The dominant wave energy has shaped the long, arcuate
When delta systems are connected to a steep shoreface the delta front beach to the north of the entrance, which is backed by a wide beach ridge
may be exposed to high-energy waves. Waves also enhance mixing, hence plain that is also composed of delta sediment.
any buoyancy is destroyed and the river effluent again behaves as a modi-
fied plane jet. Waves encountering the jet experience a shortening of their
length and a corresponding increase in their steepness. As a result the L, ,'-:: =-'~ ,-~5QI:~!~:~Y\'ITCH,i~§ ~, =' "",J
waves break further offshore in a water depth greater than they otherwise
would. This widens the surf zone on the delta front, which further enhances Presently active deltas are relatively young features, having developed in the
mixing and causes wave setup (Section 4.6.5). Wave setup has the effect of last 7,000-10,000 years since sea level reached its present high-stand position.
reducing the water surface slope through the distributary mouth and there- The oldest deltas, fronting coastal valleys that were rapidly infilled, have
fore reducing the river current velocity, thus the bar tends to be deposited undergone several cycles of what is termed delta switching during the
closer to the mouth than it otherwise would be in the absence of waves Holocene. This is where the active region of coastal progradation switches
 /60 INTRODUCTION TO COASTAL PROCESSES AND GEOMORPHOLOGY [Link] COASTAL ENVIRONMENTS - DELTAS /6/

branching on the upper delta plain into two or more distributary channels
(a) Lobe Switching (b) Channel Switching I (e) Channel Extension that continue to the coast generally with no further branching (Figure 6.15c).

~
At anyone time a single distributary channel will carry the bulk of the river
floW and sediment load, thus undergoing rapid progradation while the other
channels are largely dominated by transgressive estuarine processes. Both
channel switching and channel extension are initiated for the same reasons
as lobe switching; i.e., overextension of the presently active distributaries,
which reduces their competency to convey sediment across the delta plain.

,
,,
------"t----....--
6.6 COARSE-GRAINED DELTAS
,
,
.";~'.
Up to this point we have concentrated on deltas deposited in relatively
shallow coastal waters that consist predominantly of mixed sand and mud
delivered to the coast by channelized flows as both bedload and suspended

(a) Fan delta

---------f-------
~
.i'"", '....- t:=
..«, /P' - .z:1'1'%1 Ii ,',' '

Basin

Figure 6.15 - Schematic plan view of the three styles of delta switching: (a) lobe
switching; (b) channel switching; and (c) channel extension. The border between the
Progradation
fluvial valley and the delta plain is indicated by the dashed, horizontal line. [Modified
from Coleman, 1982].
Turbidity current
from one location on the delta to another. The interval between switching
varies between a few hundred to a few thousand years, depending on the
size of the delta. Coleman (1982) identifies three types of switching: lobe
switching, channel switching and channel extension (Figure 6.15). ' (b) Braid delta
Lobe switching occurs when the active area of delta progradation con-
Distinct
sists of a network of numerous distributary channels. After a period of time delta plain _ L:=
;~arad;H d "t :"
the active lobe becomes shallow, over-extended and inefficient at conveying
sediment all the way across the delta plain. The entire network is then aban-
doned in favour of another more competent channel cut through a shorter,
steeper section of the delta plain (Figure 6.15a). When this happens, the ini-
tial lobe becomes completely inactive with respect to fluvial processes and
may undergo subsequent erosion by waves and tides. New lobes typically
develop in coastal bays between previous lobes, or they extend over the top
of previously subsided lobes. Lobe switching is favoured where there are
low offshore slopes, and low wave- and tide-energy. Channel switching Figure 6.16 - Schematic showing both oblique and cross-section views of two styles
occurs well upstream, somewhere on the fluvial plain (Figure 6.15b). A new of coarse-grained deltas. (a) Fan deltas are a subaqueous extension of subaerial allu-
course is cut for the river and a new delta develops. This style of switching vial fans, thus there is no delta plain and no subaerial progradation. (b) Braid deltas
produces coastal progradation over a wide area, although it may be patchy. display a distinct delta plain and undergo subaerial progradation. [From Nemec, 1990.]
It seems to be favoured where there are intermediate offshore slopes, and [Copyright © 1990 International Association of Sedimentologists, reproduced with
high wave- and tide-energy. Channel extension involves the fluvial channel permission.]
 /62 INTRODUCTION TO COASTAL PROCESSES AND GEOMORPHOLOGY FLUVIAL-DOMINATED COASTAL ENVIRONMENTS - DELTAS /63

load. This is the delta style characteristic of tectonically-passive, trailing_ mode of sediment transfer across the various zones of the delta (Table 6.2).
edge coastlines. Along tectOnically-active, leading-edge coastlines deltas are The mechanism for sediment delivery to the delta front of fans is predomi-
relatively rare, but they can be locally important areas of coastal prograda_ nantly gravity-driven transport, with some poorly confined river flow
tion. These deltas are characteristically coarse-grained, due to their proximi_ occurring during flash-flooding. The river effluent is most likely to behave
ty to the sediment source, and consist mostly of gravels, cobbles and as a weak axial jet, but it has little impact on the delta front morphology.
boulders. Coarse-grained deltas also tend to have much steeper slopes than Episodic avalanches and debris ~ows that .initiate at the top .of the slope and
their fine-grained counterparts, due to the narrow and deep continental continue all the way to the base m one epIsode are responSIble for building
shelf that characteristically fronts leading-edge coastlines. Coarse-grained the long, steeply sloping delta front (Figure 6.16a). In contrast with fine-
deltas can be classified as either the fan- or braid-type (Figure 6.16). grained deltas, the coarsest and finest materials are generally well mixed
Fan deltas are composed of the coarsest sediment (largely cobbles and across the delta front, even out to the deepest water depths. Horizontal
boulders) and Occur where a subaerial fan feeds directly into coastal waters progradation and vertical aggradation is restricted to the seaward margin of
or a bedload-dominated river discharges into very deep coastal waters. the delta front, thus there is little change in the coastline position unless the
Slopes on the underwater part of the fan generally exceed 27° and may basin becomes sufficiently shallow to permit the development of a braid
reach 35-40° for angular material (Nemec, 1990). Almost all progradation delta.
and aggradation occurs beneath the water level of the receiving basin, hence On braid deltas a mixture of gravity-driven and stream-driven transport
the delta plain is virtually absent from this style of delta (Figure 6.16a). occurs across the delta plain. The upper delta plain receives material via
Braid deltas are composed of a slightly finer and better sorted sediment mix avalanching and debris flows, usually triggered by heavy precipitation. This
(largely gravels and cobbles) that is delivered by braided rivers that cross a material makes its way across the lower delta plain to the delta front as bed-
narrow coastal plain before reaching the coastline. Offshore slopes are gen- load carried by numerous braided streams. At the delta front these streams
erally not as steep, thus permitting a morphological style that is similar to debouch into the ocean as plane jets, immediately depositing their bedload
fine-grained deltas. The three generic morphological units - delta plain, at the top of the subaqueous slope. When the top of the slope becomes over-
delta front and prodelta - can all be recognized (Figure 6.16b). steepened material then travels down the subaqueous delta front by
An important difference between coarse- and fine-grained deltas is the gravity-driven processes. The graVity-driven transport of coarse material
occurs as unconfined debris flows while finer material is transported as
Table 6.2 Summary of sediment transport mechanisms for coarse- and fine- poorly confined debris flows and turbidity currents.
grained deltas

Morphological Fan deltas Braid deltas 6.7 SUMMARY

Fine-grained deltas
unit
Delta plain Land-derived slope failure Land-derived slope failure Bedload and suspended
• The largest deltas commonly occur along tectonically-passive trailing
and avalanches; bedload and avalanches; bedload edge coastlines. A large catchment area, a high a1U1Ual rainfall, a high
load transport in well-
transpoli by unconfined transport by poor to well- confined channels catchment denudation rate, and low wave- and tide-energy at the coast
river flow confined river flow all have a positive impact on the areal size of the delta. A rapid subsi-
dence rate will produce the thickest deltaic wedge and a slow subsidence
Delta front Land- and delta fi'ont- Bedload transpoli by rate will produce the most expansive deltaic wedge.
Bedload and suspended
denved,unconfined friction dominated jets; load transpoli by waning • Fine-grained deltas consist of three distinct morpho-stratigraphic units:
avalanches and debris delta front-derived, poor jets; suspended load the delta plain with topset beds, the delta front with foreset beds and the
flows to well confined turbidity transport by plumes; delta prodelta with bottomset beds. The delta front is the region of active
currents; land-derived fi'ont-denved slumps and coastal progradation and displays the greatest morphodynamic variabil-
avalanches channelized turbidity ity.
currents • Delta front morphology includes subaerial and subaqueous levees and a
Prodelta Land- and delta front- Delta front-derived Suspended load transpol't variety of distributary mouth bars. The precise nature of these features
derived, unconfined debriS flows and poorly by plumes; delta-front depends on the nature of the river effluent and any modifications caused
avalanches and debns channelized turbidity derived turbidity currents by tides and waves.
flows currents • When homopycnal conditions occur and the densimetric Froude number
is much greater than unity the river effluent behaves as a jet. When
 "
/64 INTRODUCTION TO COASTAL PROCESSES AND GEOMORPHOLOGY

hypopycnal conditions occur and the densimetric Froude number is less

than unity the river effluent behaves as a positively-buoyant plume. In
special circumstances hyperpycnal conditions occur and the river effluent
behaves as a negatively-buoyant plume.
• Jets create deltaic bars situated proximal to the distributary mouth and
plumes create deltaic bars that are distal. Tides cause deltaic bars to
become elongated in the seaward direction. Waves cause deltaic bars to
migrate shorewards to become beach ridges.
• Coarse-grained deltas occur on tectonically-active leading-edge coast- Tl
lines. They differ from their fine-grained counterparts in many respects. E~,
They are composed predominantly of gravels, cobbles and boulders,
rather than sands, silts and clays. They also occupy steeper and deeper
receiving basins. The most striking contrast, however, is that sediment
transport mechanics in coarse-grained deltas are dominated by gravity-
driven processes whereas in fine-grained deltas they are dominated by
fluid dynamic processes.

6.8 FURTHER READING

Dalryml
Colella, A. and Prior, D.B., 1990. Coarse-grained Deltas. Special Publication drowne(
Number 10 of the International Association of Sedimentologists, marine
Blackwell Science, Oxford. [A useful compilation of papers on the rela- fluvial 1
tively under-studied coarse-grained deltas.] valleys,
Reading, H.G. and Collinson, J.D., 1996. Clastic coasts. In: H.G. Reading Sea leve
(editor), Sedimentary Environments: Processes, Facies and Stratigraphy, estuarie:
Blackwell Science, Oxford, 154-231. [A valuable synthesis of the extensive relative
literature on delta morphology, sedimentology and stratigraphy]. infilled i
Stone, G.W. and Donley, J.e. (editors), 1998. The world deltas symposium: A received
tribute to James Plummer Morgan (1919-1995). Special Thematic Section: space ar
Journal of Coastal Research, 14, 695-916. [A broad collection of recent land (6'
papers covering many aspect of delta geomorphology.] betwee
Wright, L.D., 1977. Sediment transport and deposition at river mouths: A iment h
synthesis. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 88, 857-868. [Seminal Deltas
paper describing the relationship between effluent dynamics and mor- coastlinl
phology of distributary-mouth bars.] infilling
The v
tide), tq
result ir
evolvin~
ingly th
I
ronmen
this chd
purpose
generic
processE