20 INTRODUCTION TO COASTAL PROCESSES AND GEOMORPHOLOGY

1.6 FURTHER READING

Carter, R.W.G. and Woodroffe CD., 1994. Coastal evolution: An introduc-
tion. In: R.W.G. Carter and CD. Woodroffe (editors), Coastal Evolution,
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1-31. [An authoritative intro-
duction into coastal evolution.]
Cowell, P.J. and Thorn, B. G., 1994. Morphodynamics of coastal evolution. In:
RW.G. Carter and CD. Woodroffe (editors), Coastal Evolution, Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, 33-86. [An excellent treatment of the prin-
SEA LEVEL
ciples of coastal morphodynarnics. Section 1.4 of this chapter is largely
based on this work.]
Davies, J.L., 1980, Geographical Variation in Coastal Development (2"d Edition),
Longman, New York. [This text is somewhat outdated, but still provides
a very good overview of the global distribution of coastal environments
and environmental conditions.]
Wright, L.D. and Thorn, B.G., 1977. Coastal depositional landforms: A 2.1 INTRODUCTION
morphodynarnic approach. Progress in Physical Geography, 1, 412-459.
[Benchmark paper outlining the morphodynamic approach to coastal The coastline is formed by the intersection of the sea level with the land. If
landforms. Section 1.3 of this chapter is largely based on this work.] sea level rises, the coastline is shifted landward, whereas if sea level falls,
the coastline is shifted seaward. Rising sea levels are referred to as trans-
gressive conditions and generally result in the drowning and/ or onshore
migration of coastal landforms. Falling sea levels are referred to as regres-
sive conditions and commonly result in the emergence of coastal landforms
and coastal progradation. Over short time scales (seconds-months), sea
level rises and falls w ith waves, tides, changes in atmospheric pressure and
wind. However, when these fluctuations are averaged out, a stable value
can be obtained. This constant value is referred to as the mean sea level
(MSL).
At the outset, we need to be aware of the distinction between two types
of sea-level changes:
• Relative sea-level change refers to changes in the sea level relative to that
of the land and operates on a regional/local leveL It can be brought about
by a change in the sea level and/ or a change in the level of the land.
• Eustatic sea-level change (sometimes referred to as absolute sea-lev~!
change) refers to a world-wide or global change in sea level and ~s
unrelated to local/regional effects. The most common cause of eustatic
sea-level variation is change in the ocean water volume.
When MSL is measured at a single location over an extended period, only a
relative sea-level curve can be derived. The eustatic change in sea level at
this location can only be determined from the relative sea-level curve if the
vertical movement of the land level is known. If sea-level measurements
indicate a constant relative sea level, this does not imply that both the land
level and eustatic sea level are constant- it is more likely that the change in
eustatic sea level is exactly balanced by the movement of the land.
 2.2 INDICATORS OF fORMER SEA LEVELS Indicators of sea levels higher than present (sea-level highstands) are easier
to find than those for lower sea levels (sea-level lowstands). This is because
MSL is known to have varied thr h tim
sea-level variation oug e and ample evidence of past evidence of sea-level lowstands are generally located below present sea
.d s can be found along most coastlines. Pirazzoli (1996) level and are hence not readily accessible. In addition, indicators of lower sea
provi es an excellent review of the different types of sea-level indicators. levels are often obliterated during subsequent submergence by higher sea
' : (c) levels.
4o'm e,.P;., Years BP (ky) Some of the most accurate sea-level indicators are marine organisms that
,: -~-""~'
e ' • "";' I
150
~,, 100 50 00 prod uce shells or hard surfaces and live at known tidal levels (e.g., lichens,
,•'o • •/• •./ ,' ,· \ 0 barnacles, coral, worms, oysters). These organisms form communities that
f~o•f•/ I ''.t..t'
. ~ o o •,· • •f / 1 \r·vl,' are commonly arranged in horizontal bands. Information about sea-level
;-'r-r
~
. ' .. , /
·~---..+, I
, '0 f
I Jf " I 40 I.C.
change can be obtained by comparing the elevation of present-day bands
·.. ' , • f ·' Q • • I / \ I i5.. (with living organisms) with those of similar fossil organisms which now
·. (• • • '' II 80(!l
\ '\.,~ • • .I / I' stand at a different level.
---' '"\ .·. .·I. V 120 Former sea levels in depositional coastal environments are recorded in
,' ''.:~ the coastal geomorphology and stratigraphy. An example of this is present-
/ / ') j i1 t ed in Figure 2.1 which demonstrates the presence of a series of coastal barri-
/ : (.. 5e 5c Sa 3
ers of different ages. Barriers are the main depositional element along
20 m Depth contour
wave-dominated coasts and, in our example, the present-day shoreline is
Pleistocene highstand barriers formed by a relatively young barrier system of Holocene age (1,000-8,000
years BP; 'BP' refers to before present). Landward of this barrier is an older
Holocene barrier
131-147 ky
0
Pleistocene barrier complex comprising three distinct units with their ages
Drowned interstadial barrier increasing in the landward direction (80,000-95,000, 131,000-147,000 and
217,000-261,000 years BP). Therefore, four periods of barrier formation can
r--------------.,.. MSL
be recognized in the stratigraphic record and during each of these, sea level
was close to the present MSL. Evidence of a fifth barrier system can be
found on the inner shelf. This barrier was build between 44,000 and 59,000
years BP, a time when sea level was c. 40 m below present MSL.
44-59 ky
Rocky coasts generally lack depositional features and indicators of sea-
20 mf
level change in these settings consist of eroded shore platforms, cliffs, notch-
~ 40 es and benches. As an example, Figure 2.2 shows a fossil notch, found in
close proximity to the contemporary shoreline, but at a significantly higher
elevation (c. 2 m above MSL) compared with active notches (c. 0.5 m above
MSL). This indicates that the fossil notch developed under higher relative
sea levels than present. Along some rocky shores, marine terraces (shore
\: BOm platforms) can be found high above present-day sea level, providing
~ compelling evidence of higher relative sea levels in the past.

~~~~~~ ~~~ ~~:~g0a~~~. ~~~~~~. (:)s~i~~~~~~~n;~ ~~r~~eer :~~c;:;: oen~~~~m=n~ Figure 2.2 - Fossil notch located c. 2 m
above MSL on Rottnest Island, Western
n the ~~ner shelf (b) Shore-normal cross-section (dashed line in (a)) through t~ Australia, providing evidence of sea-level
~~:~s arners showing their dimensions and ages ('ky' refers to thousand ear: highstand. [Photo G. Masselink.]
m t d present). (c) Group ages of the vanous barrier systems (shaded) and th/est·
a e positions of sea level when they formed. The numbers indicate the o 1-
lsotope Stages and the sea-level curve (dashed line) is that of xygen
~~~skl~:po~~~c8e6d).w[[Link]
·
Roy et a]/., 1994.] [Copyright © 1994
perm1ss1on.
Cambri~~a(fn~~er:~dy
 2.3 CAUSES OF SEA-LEVEL CHANGE be expressed as an equivalent water depth. For example, if all the atmos-
pheric water (water vapour) rained into the oceans, then sea level would
There are many causes of sea-level change. Some of these contribute to a rise by 36 mm. From Table 2.1 it is apparent that only groundwater and
eustatic sea-level change, but all contribute to relative changes in the sea frozen water (and to a lesser extent water in lakes and reservoirs) can be
level. 9n the basis of their spatial extent, we can distinguish between global, important contributors to changes in the ocean water volume. In particular,
regional and local causes of sea-level change. the melting or growth of continental ice sheets is of paramount importance
for eustatic sea-level changes. It is noted that melting of floating ice sheets
2.3.1 Global causes: Changes in ocean water volume and (mainly in the Arctic) has no effect on the eustatic sea level since the weight
thermal expansion of the ice is already supported by the water.
The melting/ growth of ice sheets is the main mechanism for sea-level
C?ne of the principal [Link] of ~ea-level fluctuations is a change in the quan- change and is referred to as glacio-eustasy. Later in this chapter, we will see
tity of water m the ocearuc basms. Such fluctuations are world-wide and are tha t glacio-eustatic sea-level change is strongly linked to climate change.
termed eustatic. An increase in the amount of water in the ocean results in a During cold climatic periods, sea water is progressively lost from the oceans
rise in sea level, whereas a decrease in the amount of oceanic water causes a via precipitation as snow on the continents. During warm climatic periods,
lowering of the sea level. Water is present on the Earth in various forms and the ice melts resulting in a rise in sea level.
locations, but the total volume can be considered constant and is expressed Even if the quantity of sea water remains constant, sea level may change
by the global water balance due to variations in the sea water temperature. Sea water density increases
with decreasing water temperature up to its freezing point at -1.75°C. In
K =A+ 0 + L + R + S + B + M + U +I (2.1)
other words, if a volume of water is heated (cooled), it will occupy a larger
where K is the total water volume (a constant) and the other variables are (smaller) volume. Therefore, a decrease in sea water temperature causes a
indicated in Table 2.1. The vast majority of the Earth's water is contained in fall in sea level, whereas an increase in sea water temperature induces a sea-
oceans and seas, but groundwater and frozen water (ice) also make up a level rise. The latter process is known as thermal expansion and we will see
significant proportion of the global water volume. These water volumes can later in this chapter that it is contributing significantly to present sea-level
Table 2.1 Estimates of storage volumes and equivalent water depth for rise. To get a feel for the importance of thermal expansion, an increase of
components of the world water balance. 1°C over a water depth of 4,000 m produces a rise in sea level of 0.6 m.

Parameter Present volume, Equivalent 2.3.2 Regional causes: Isostatic changes

lcml water depth
The Earth's crust floats on a denser underlying layer (asthenosphere), simi-
A Atmospheric water 13,000 36mm lar to ice floating on water. This two-layer system is in isostatic balance
0 Ocean and seas I,370,000,000 3.8 km when the total weight of the crust is exactly balanced by its buoyancy.
L lakes and reservoirs 125,000 35 em Addition of a load to the crust (e.g., water, ice or sediments) will upset the
R Rivers and channels 1.700 5mm isostatic balance. To compensate for the increased weight of the crust, some
s Swamps 3,600 IOmm of the asthenospheric material will flow away and the land level will fall.
B Biological water 700 Glacio-isostasy refers to isostatic adjustments of the Earth's crust due to the
2mm
M Moisture in soils and the loading and unloading of ice sheets (Figure 2.3). The weight associated with
65,000 18cm
unsaturated zone thick ice sheets causes a depression of the underlying land surface to a level
u Groundwater approximately equal to l{ of the maximum thickness of the ice (Box 2.1). At the
4,000,000 to 60,000,000 II to 166m margins of the depressed land surface, known as the forebulge, the land is
Frozen water 3l500,000 90m pressed slightly upward due to the flow of asthenospheric material towards
Antarctica 29,300,000 81 m this region. When the ice melts, the land surface will resort back to its former
Greenland 3,000,000 Bm position, thus the area formerly covered by the ice will come up and the fore-
Others 200,000 lm bulge will go down. This process is known as isostatic rebound. Shorelines
located in areas formerly covered by ice sheets (e.g., Canada, Scandinavia,
Note: there is a large uncertainty regarding the volume of water stored as Scotland) will therefore experience a postglacial fall in relative sea level,
groundwater (from Pirazzoli, 1996)
whereas coastlines in the forebulge areas will undergo a relative sea-level rise.
26 INTRODUCTION TO COASTAL PROCESSES AND GEOMORPHOLOGY
SEA LEVEL 27

NO ICE
average t hickness of 5 km during the height of the glaciation, implying that the

/ ~
amount of depression, and consequent rebound during deglaciat ion, may have
exceeded I km.

~ ~
Figure 2.4 - Schematic showing
isostatic balance. [From Allen, 1997.]
t t t f f f [Copyright © 1977 Blackwell

MELTING OF ICE t + GROWTH OF ICE

Publishers,
permission.]
reproduced with

of

Depth of compensation

There are considerable time lags involved with glacio-isostatic move-

ments due to the rigidity of the Earth's crust. These time lags are so long
that, even at present, the Earth's crust is still isostatically adjusting to the
ICE melting of ice sheets that occurred more than 10,000 years ago. For example,
Figure 2.3 :-Vertical land movements associated with glacio-isostasy for growing and
post-glacial uplift in the Baltic region due to isostatic rebound has amount-
melt1ng of 1ce sheets. Note t he presence of forebulge areas near the margins of the ed to 300 m over the past 10,000 years, and the region is still being uplifted
1ce sheet. at a maximum rate of 10 mm yr-1 (Figure 2.5). In Britain, isostatic adjust-
ments are also still ongoing. Scotland and north England, which were cov-
ered by ice during the last glacial period, are being uplifted at rates of up to
Box 2.1 - POSTGLACIAL REBOUND 2 mm yr-1, whilst south England, which is located in the forebulge area, is
subsiding by up to 2 mm yr- 1.
If we ignore the response times involved with isostatic adjustment, it is relatively
During deglaciation, melt water from ice sheets produces a considerable
easy to determ1ne the amount of postglacial rebound that can be expected follow-
Ing unload1ng. The follow1ng E>x<Jmple is derived from Allen ( 1997). Figure 2.4
load on the sea floor of the continental shelves. This results in a subsidence
~hows ~chemat1cally the depression of the Earth's crust by an ice sheet. The
of lhe sea floor due to hydro-isostasy. Along coasts with wide continental
1sostat1c balance above the depth of compensation can be performed for a col- shelfs, the water load across the shelf is not uniform because the deeper part
umn far from t he 1ce sheet and a column through the centre of the ice sheet , and of the shelf near the shelf edge experiences a higher pressure than the shal-
reads as low part near the coastline. As a result of this non-uniform pressure, a hinge
point is formed somewhere in the middle of the shelf whereby the subsi-
p,h, + Pchc = Pchc + PmWO dence of the deeper part of the shelf results in an uplifting of the shallow
where p,, Pc and Pm are the densities of ice, crust and mantle, respectively, and h,, part (Chappell et al., 1982). As a result, the shoreline may be uplifted and a
he and wo are the th1ckness of t he ice sheet, crust and the maximum deflection of relative fall in sea level is experienced. Most of the Southern Hemisphere
the land surface under the ice sheet, respectively. If the thickness of the crust is coastlines, where the effect of glacio-isostasy is not important or non-exis-
cons1dered constant, the isostatic balance can be simplified to tent, have experienced such a fall in relative sea level during the second half
of the Holocene (Section 2.5.1).
p,h, = PmWO
The geophysical effects of glacio- and hydro-isostasy have been investi-
Assuming further a density of ice of 800 kg m 3 and a density of the mantle gated using numerical models and Lambeck (1993) has distinguished four
material of 3,300 kg m 3 we find different zones:
p, • Near-field sites are regions within the limits of the former ice sheets.
wo = p;;; h, = 0.24h,
• Ice-margin sites are regions near the former ice margins.
Thus, depression of the Earth's crust is about a quarter of the thickness of the ice • Intermediate-field sites are regions just outside former ice margins.
sheet. The Laurentian ice sheet over the Hudson Bay area of Canada had an • Far-field sites are regions well away from the influence of the former ice
sheets.
28 INTRODUCTION TO COASTAL PROCESSES AND GEOMORPHOLOGY SEA LEVEL 29

Unconsolidated sediments, such as those found in deltaic environments,

often contain up to 50% water by weight. In peat layers, compaction may
N
reduce water content to as little as 10%. When the sediment is compacted,

t the land level drops. Also associated with deltaic environments is the
process of sediment-isostas~ where~y ~he Earth's crust is depressed du~ to
the weight of the deltruc sedrment (smular to glac10-1sostasy). The combma-
tion of compaction and sediment-isostasy makes deltaic environments very
prone to relative sea-level rise. The Mississippi delta, for example, has
exhibited a drop in land level over the last 10,000 years of c. 165m, equating
to a rate of relative sea-level rise of 16.5 mm yr-1 (Fairbridge, 1983).
Similarly, the Holocene relative sea-level rise for the Yangtze delta due to
land subsidence is estimated at 1.6-4.4 mm yr-1 (Stanley and Chen, 1993).
0 Land subsidence can also result from anthropogenic extraction of ground-
3 water, oil or gas, and can be important in river-mouth or lagoonal areas.
Land sinking due to water extraction has been reported from many coastal
2 regions, for example, 4.6 m in Tokyo and 2.7 m in the Po delta (Pirazzoli,
1996).

2.4 PLEISTOCENE SEA LEVELS

The Pleistocene, which started at 1.8 million years BP, is commonly known
as the Ice Age because it was a p eriod characterized by relatively low tem-
peratures compared to previous geological periods. During the Pleistocene,
17 alternations of cold climatic phases known as glacials and warm climatic
phases referred to as interglacials have been identified (Shackleton and
0 200 km Opdyke, 1976). The glacials lasted around 100,000 years whereas the inter-
' \
glacials had a sigrlificantly shorter duration, approximately 10,000 years.
\ The last glacial started about 70,000 years BP and finished 11,500 years BP.
During the interglacials ice sheets melted and sea level rose, while during
Figure 2.5 - lsobases of present-day rates of uplift of land surfaces in Sweden and the glacials ice sheets grew and sea level fell. Interspersed within the
Finland due to postglacial rebound in mm year- [Modified from Eronen, 1983.]
1
•
glacials and interglacials were cold and warm intervals of shorter
duration (c. 1,000 years), known as stadials and interstadials, respectively.
A remarkable outcome of global isostatic models is that the vertical land These shorter warming/ cooling cycles also caused eustatic sea-level fluctu-
ations. Along coastlines that have undergone a steady, tectonically-induced
movements caused by deglaciation are not limited to formerly glaciated
areas and nearby regions, but are assumed to extend more or less all around uplift over the Pleistocene, evidence of interglacial sea levels can be
the globe. observed in the form of raised shore platforms or coral reefs (Box 2.2). More
commonly, however, surficial traces of the earliest lower sea levels
associated with glaciations have been obliterated by subsequent rises of sea
2.3.3 Local causes:Tectonics and subsidence le~el. Hence, detailed sedimentological and stratigraphical evidence only
eXIsts for the youngest cycles. The next three sections will discuss in more
Locally, tectonic activity can result in changes in the level of the land.
detail the sea-level and climate variations that occurred during the
Trends of vertical displacement of tectonic origin often appear to be contin- Pleistocene.
uous and gradual over the long term, but frequently consist of spasmodic
movements associated with earthquake activity. Another local cause of sea-
level change is compaction of sediment resulting in land subsidence.
 SEA LEVEL 31
30 INTRODUCTION TO COASTAL PROCESSES AND GEOMORPHOLOGY

Box 2.3 - OxYGEN-IsoTOPE RATIO

BOX 2.2 - DERIVATION OF THE PLEISTOCENE
EUSTATIC SEA-LEVEL CURVE Analsyis of the oxygen isotope ratio makes use of the relative proportion of the
two oxygen isotopes lBO and 160 in the skeletal matenal of calcareous microfos-
There are two principal difficulties associated with determining the eustatic sea- SilS (foraminifera) (Shackleton, 1987). The ratio IB0 / 160 in these m1cro-organ1sms
level variation during the Pleistocene. First, it is very difficult to separate the is controlled by temperature-dependent fractionation of the isotopes from sea
eustatic sea-level variations from the effects of isostatic land movements. Second, ter into the skeleton of the micro-organism and the 1sotop1c compos1t1on of the
there have been a large number of glacial/interglacial cycles and the eustatic sea- wa [Link] latter is dependent on the amount of water stored in ice [Link]
sea B . ~ . II
level variations associated with each of these have occurred within a similar range. oxygen isotope 160 is lighter than 1 0 and evaporat1on pre1erent1a Y removes
Therefore, if the land level has remained constant during the Pleistocene, 16Q. Growing ice sheets imply a net transfer of water from the .ocean t~B the 1ce
stratigraphic evidence of the older glacials/interglacials may have been obliterated sheets, resulting in an enrichment of sea water w1th the heav1er 1sotope .o (Iso-
by subsequent glaciations. topically-heavy). Melting of the ice sheets on the other hand causes an ennchment
To overcome these two problems, most of the work on Pleistocene eustatic sea of sea water with the lighter isotope 160 (1sotop1cally-hght).
level has focused on locations distant from glaciated areas, and with a relatively Oxygen-isotopic compositions are measured relative to a global standard
simple history of tectonic uplift during the Pleistocene (Chappell and Shackleton, known as the Standard Mean Ocean Water (SMOW). The oxygen 1sotop1c com-
1986; Fairbanks, 1989). Under conditions of steady uplift, stratigraphic evidence of position of a sample can then be expressed as per mille differences relat1ve to
older interglacials, such as beaches, shore platforms and coral reefs, are raised SMOW:
above subsequent interglacial sea levels and will thus be preserved to a large 18 16
(' 80/ 160) sample- ( 0/ 0) SMCNV ]
degree. The result is a 'flight' or 'staircase' of interglacial morphologies, with the age B180 = 103 16
[ ('B0/ 0) SMCNV
of the features increasing with elevation.
To derive the eustatic sea-level change from such a flight of interglacial Positive values of 8 180 indicate enrichment of the sample in the heavier iso-
beaches/platforms/reefs one needs to know the rate of uplift 1n the region and the tope, negative values indicate depletion. Changes in the shallow water temperature
dates associated with these features. Eustatic sea level is then derived with a s1mple reflect to a large extent changes in the air temperature. Therefore, BlBO of shal-
formula low-water foraminifera can serve as a proxy for surface water or a1r temperature.
In the deep ocean, however, temperatures are likely to have fluctuated little during
E=P-U glacial-interglacial cycles, so 8 180 of deep-ocean (benth1c) foram1n1fera IS hkely to
where E is the amount of vertical shoreline displacement caused by eustatic represent changes in BlBO of sea water due to changes in ice volume. An Increase
change, P is the present elevation of the raised feature above MSI and U the 1n B1Ro indicates an increase in global ice volume and hence a fall 1n sea level.
amount of uplift that has occurred. For example, if a raised shore platform is found whereas a decrease in B1so represents a decrease in global ice volume and hence
at I 20 m above MSL, the age of the platform is I00,000 years and the rate of a rise in sea level.
uplift is I mm yr 1, then the platform has been uplifted by I00 m and the eustatic
change in sea level is 20 m. In other words, when the shore platform developed,
the record. In the literature, these cycles have been given Isotope Stage
the eustatic sea level was 20 m higher than present.
num bers to facili tate comparison between d ifferent oxygen isotop~ records.
The odd n umbers represent peaks in the 6180 records (sea-level hig~tands
and warm periods), whereas the even numbers indicate troughs m the
2.4. I Sea level in the Pleistocene: Evidence from deep-sea record (sea-level lowstands and cold periods). The most recent cycles
cores 18
(Isotope Stages 1- 18) are characterized by the largest ranges in 6 0 (greater
Evidence for changes in the sea-water temperature and eustatic sea level than 1) and longest periods (c. 100,000 years) . Presently, we appear to be at
during the Pleistocene can be derived from deep-sea co res by analysing the the start of another warming cycle.
oxygen isotope ratio 6180 (Box 2.3). This ratio can be used as a proxy for the As a rule of thumb, a difference of 0.1 in 6180 is equivalent to 10m of sea-
volume of water stored in ice sheets and therefore sea level. Figure 2.6 level change. From Figure 2.6 we can thus infer that sea level fluctuate~
shows the 6180 record for the last 2.6 My deduced from benthic foraminifera during the glacial-interglacial periods over a range of more than 100 m . This
present in a deep-ocean sediment core. Increasing values of 6180 represent technique is strongly dependent on the assumption that deep-sea tempera-
cooling periods and expansion of ice sheets (i.e., sea-level fall), and decreas- tures have remained constant. It is more desirable, therefore, to derive a
ing values indicate warming periods and melting of the ice sheets (i.e., sea- palaeo sea-level curve directly from stratigraphic evidence, rather than the
level rise). A large number of cooling/warming cycles can be identified in 6180 record. Chappell and Shackleton (1986) determined a eustatic sea-l evel
 32 INTRODUCTION TO COASTAL PROCESSES AND GEOMORPHOLOGY
SEA LEVEL 33

0~------------------------------------~
showed a progressive fall, but was characterized by large fluctuations at
least of the order of 20 m . Near the end of the last glacial, c. 18,000 years BP,
sea level was 130 m lower than at present.
2

l 3 2.4.2 Climate in the Pleistocene: Evidence from ice cores

9
;o
4 Ice cores, obtained by drilling through the layered accumulations of snow

5
I
6
I
8 I
10
I
12
I
14 I I
16 18
lf and ice deposited in polar or high-mountain ice sheets, permit a detailed
reconstruction of past climate which can be compared with sea-level curves
derived from deep-sea cores or with stratigraphic information. The ratios of
6 hydrogen and oxygen isotopes in the ice provide an index of former tem-
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 peratures (Box 2.3), while Greenhouse gas concentrations (mainly COz) can
Years BP (millions) be determined from sealed air bubbles. The most widely published results
of these ice core studies are from the Vostok drilling site in East Antarctica,
Figure 2.6 - Oxygen-isotope (o 180) record for the last 2.6 My deduced from benthic and the GRIP (Greenland Ice-core Project) and GISP2 (Greenland Ice-Sheet
foraminifera of deep-sea core ODP 677. The labels represent oxygen Isotope Stages
Project) sites in southern Greenland.
that are used un1versallyto faoiltate [Link] between o1Bo records. For example,
The Vostok ice core provides the most extensive record and includes the
Stage Se 1s assooated w1th the last 1nterglaoal, whereas Stage 2 is associated with the
last glacial. [Modified from Shackleton, et a/., 1990.] past four glacial-interglacial cycles (420,000 years). The complete Vostok
time series of COz and temperature is shown in Figure 2.8. Each of the four
curve over the last 250,000 years from a series of raised coral terraces on the glacial-interglacial cycles is characterized by a similar succession of changes.
Huon Peninsula, New Guinea (Figure 2.7). Their sea-level curve indicates Rapid warming occurs at the onset of the interglacial and a slow, but inter-
that sea level at the height of the last interglacial was very similar to mittent cooling takes place during the glacial. The amplitude of the temper-
present-day sea level. Over most of the glacial cooling period, sea level ature change is c. l2°C and the coolest part of each glacial occurs just before
the onset of the next interglacial. The temperature is strongly coupled to the
(a)
C02 concentration. High temperatures during the interglacials are associat-
l 4.0 ed with large C02 concentrations (270-280 ppm) and low temperatures dur-
0
co ing the glacials coincide with low C02 concentrations (190-200 ppm). The
7o 5.0 close match between the temperature and COz curve strongly supports a
Depth (m)
0 500 2500 2750 3000 3200 3300
I I
(b) 0

,~V"~
I
~ 280
,f.-/~ /§., K 26o
~ -50
I \ I \
a.
~ 240
~
Q)
I
,f. I '- ' 8 220 2<:)
I // '? 200
-;;; -100 0 ~
-2 ~
Q)
(/) I
.... ,. -4 ~
-1501-;t--.---~--,---::r~--,---,--.---.----,---,----,---.--, ~
-6 E
0 40 80 120 160 200 240 -8 ~
Years BP (ky)
18
Figure 2.7 - (a) 8 0 record from east equatorial core Vl9-30. (b) Eustatic sea-level 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
curve over t he last 250,000 years for the Huon Peninsula, New Guinea, derived from Years BP (ky)

a senes of ~1sed coral reefs. The time-axis of the sea-level curve was recalculated Figure 2.8 -Variations in C02 (top line) and temperat ure (bottom line) during the
records, 1nd1cat1ng that 8 1 0 serves as a good proxy-indicator of sea level. [Modified
us1ng th~ 8 0 record. ~ote the very good correspondence between the two past 420,000 years in the Vostok ice core from Antarctica. The core extends across
four complete glacial-interglacial cycles. A strong positive correlation between C02
from Chappell and Shackleton, 1986.]
concentration and temperature is evident. [Modified from Petit et a/., 1999.]
 SEA LEVEL 35
34 INTRODUCTION TO COASTAL PROCESSES AND GEOMORPHOLOGY

(b)
link between Greenhouse gases and past climate change. It is further noted (a)
that the variations in temperature and C02 over the last two glacial-inter-
June 21 Dec. 21
glacial periods shown in Figure 2.8 match well with the sea-level record
shown in Figure 2.7. N
t9--S---<J
-11
TIIt=23.5'
Osun
2.4.3 Causes of glacial/interglacial climate fluctuations Earth s s

Wh_at ~as caused the temperature and sea level to fluctuate so widely and
penod1cally over the Pleistocene period, in particular during the last 700,000
~ears? It is now widely accepted that the main trigger for climatic fluctua- (d)
tions wa~ small v~ri~tions in the Earth's orbit around the Sun causing (c)
changes m the radmtive heat energy received from the Sun (Berger, 1992).

,::~
Today 8 'Mar.20
There are three different mechanisms responsible for astronomical varia- June 21 --- __ ·
-------- ' Dec. 21
tions in solar radiation received at the top of the Earth's atmosphere (Figure
2.9): tl:l 0.02
Sept. 22
0 '
• Eccentricity- The orbit of the Earth around the Sun is not a circle, but an

25~
5,500 years ago Dec. 21
elli~se._ The orbit can b~ parameterized by the so-called eccentricity,
24

""8""•'"
whi~h 1~ based on the ratio of the major and minor of the ellipse (a value
of 0 md1cates that the Earth's orbit is a perfect circle). Temporal variations 23
in the eccentricity have a periodicity of 100,000 years.
June 21 22~
• Obliquity - The Earth's axis of rotation is not at right angles to the plane
of the orbit, but is inclined to it. This accounts for the seasonal alterations
of summer and winter. In the Northern Hemisphere, summer occurs 11,000yeE15arsago
S 1 22 §~ g'~ .
·c;; ·c
June
gJ :!:_ Mar.
.
when the axis of rotation is inclined towards the Sun, while winter occurs Dec. 21
~0 Dec.
June 21 a...,
':hen the axis of rotation leans away from the Sun. At present the inclina- E
tion, known as the obliquity, is nearly 23.5°, but the angle varies between F Sep~oo 400 300 200 1oo o
Mar. 20 Years BP (ky)
22.1° an_d 24.5°. The perio?icity of this variation is about 41,000 years.
• Precession - The onentation of the (inclined) Earth's axis of rotation rela-
Figure 2.9 -Three mechanisms responsible for variations in solar radiation received at
tive to the plane of the orbit is not constant, but changes with a period of the top of the Earth's atmosphere: (a) eccentricity. (b) obliquity, (c) precession and (d)
a?out 21,000 years. ~s periodicity is referred to as the cycle of preces- the assoCiated frequencies. [From Allen, 1997.] [Copyright © 1977 Blackwell
SiOn. At the present time, the Earth is closest to the Sun (perihelion) in the
Publishers, reproduced with permission.]
No~thern H~mis~he~e winter. However, due to the cycle of precession,
perihelion w1ll comc1de with the Northern Hemisphere summer in about Milankovich (1879-1958) who produced detailed curves of solar radiation
11,000 years. at various latitudes for the last 600,000 years. Milankovich found a conspic-
uous alternation of long periods of cool summers, which he considered
Of these orbital cycles only changes in eccentricity cause the Earth as a
would fail to melt all the winter snowfall in regions of appropriate latitude
whole ~o receive diffe~ent amounts of solar radiation. The other two cycles
or elevation, and long periods of warm summers, which would hinder the
(obliqwty and precesswn) cause a redistribution of solar radiation between
accumulation of snow. Comparison of the calculated solar radiation curves
se~sons in th~ d_ilierent hemispheres. For example, a relatively large obli-
with palaeo-temperature records has shown a remarkably close fit. In par-
qwty results m mcreased amounts of solar radiation during the Northern
ticular, the 100,000 years eccentricity cycle appears to be correlated with the
and Southern Hemisphere summers, and reduced amounts of radiation
glacial-interglacial variations of the last 700,000 years (Figure 2.6). Analysis
during the winters, but does not change the total amount of solar radiation
of the Vostok ice-core record by Petit eta/. (1999) demonstrated a very strong
received by the Earth.
climatic forcing by orbital cycles for periods at 100,000 years, 41,000 years
Many attempts have been made to calculate the variation in solar radia-
and to a lesser degree 21,000 years, providing further support for an orbital
tion due to the orbital cycles as a function of latitude and season. The most
notable of these have been those by the Serbian mathematician Milutin forcing of the glacial cycles.
 SEA LEVEL 37
36 INTRODUCTION TO COASTA L PROCESSES AND G EOMORPHOLOGY

The astronomical theory based on orbital cycles has certainly been valu-
able,_ but doe~ not provide the sole explanation for the alternation of glacials
and mterglaClals. There are three major observations that indicate that other 10

factors are involved:

20
• Orbital variations in solar energy have always been present, but before
the ~leistocen~ the~ did not bring about glacial and interglacial phases. 30
• Orb1_tal vanations m solar radiation cause disparate responses in both
herruspheres. The amount of solar radiation received by the two hemi-
40
spheres due to the orbital cycles shows an almost anti-phase relationship I I
..J
- when tl:e _Northern Hemisphere receives above-average amounts of ~ o ~----
..J
50~
solar radiation~ _the . Southern _Hemisphere receives below-average cCl> c
amounts. If vanahon m solar radiation is the only factor involved with ~ -5 ~
driving climate change, Northern and Southern Hemisphere glaciations
0.
~ .10 Shepard
60 5.
;:
should alternate, not occur concurrently. 1\ (1963) 0
a;
70 .D
• Changes in the Earth's receipt of solar radiation due to orbital variations £-15
0. .<::
a.
Cl>
~re relatively m~dest and only sufficient to cause direct cooling or warm- Cl Cl>
Cl
80
mg of around 2 C. In reality, past temperatures fluctuated by much more
than this amount. -.§. o------ 90
..J
The three observations listed above support the argument that variations in en
::;;
-5
solar radiation are not directly and linearly linked to global variations in cli- c~ 100
-10
mate. Climate change also depends on the way in which heat is transferred
~
across the Earth's surface via oceanic and atmospheric circulation. In order ;: -15 110
.2
for tt:e orbital_variation_in solar radiation to develop into full-blown glacials 1l
.<:: -20
and mterglaClals, the signal needs to be amplified by the Earth's internal [Link]>
ocean/ atmosphere system through positive feedback processes. It can there- Cl ·25 ~...,...--,---r-rL- 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
0 2 4 6
fo_re be concluded that the orbital cycles provide the external pacemaker for Years BP (ky)
Years BP (ky)
climate change which is modulated by the internal dynamics of the global
atmosphere/ ocean system (Hays et al., 1976). Figure 2. 10 - Late Pleistocene and Holocene sea-level curves according to Fairbridge
( 1961 ). Jelgersma ( 1961 ). Shepard ( 1963) and Fairbanks ( 1989).

2.5 HOLOCENE TRANSGRESSION

Pleistocene {11,500-18,000 years BP), speeding up to about 2 em yr- at the
1

start of the Holocene (7,000-11,500 years BP), then slowing over the mid-
The last glaciation reached a peak at around 18,000 years BP after which the Holocene (5,000-7,000 years BP) and reaching present sea level at about
earth warmed and the ice sheets started to melt. Deglaciation was interrupt-
5,000 years BP. There is little controversy about this general form, however,
ed by a penod known as the 'Younger Dryas', which occurred from
there has been fierce debate regarding the fine detail of the curve. For exam-
11,000-13,00? yea~s B~ and was characterized by a cold climate and glacial ple, according to Fairbridge (1961), tl1e sea-level curve is characterized by
advance. This penod IS generally considered part of the Pleistocene, hence significant fluctuations, whereas Jelgersma (1961) favours a gradual and
the Holo~ene starts at 11,500 years BP (Roberts, 1998). The melting of the ice
caps durmg the Holocene and the associated sea-level rise is known as the smooth rise in sea level.
The lack of consensus with regards to the fine-tuning of the Holocene
Holocene transgression (or Flandrian transgression). The melting histories sea-level curve is largely ascribed to the difficulties associated with separat-
of the various_ice_sheets wer~ not synchronous, but by about 6,000 years BP ing eustatic from isostatic effects. Determining the relative contributions of
almost all the 1ce mvolved with the glaciation had melted. these two effects to sea-level change is very difficult, if not impossible, and
A number of eustatic sea-level curves associated with the Holocene trans- the definition of eustasy as a world-wide, simultaneous, uniform change in
gression are shown in Figure 2.10. The general form of these curves indi-
sea level has recently been questioned. According to Tooley (1996), the
cates a relatively rapid rise in sea level of about 0.5 em yrl at the end of the
 38 INTRODUCTION TO COASTAL PROCESSES AND GEOMORPHOLOGY
SEA LEVEL 39

definition is obsolete and of historical interest only, while Morner (1987) has
argued that eustatic curves should only be defined for regions not for the Along many coastlines, glacio- and hydro-isostatic effects have had a sig-
whole Earth. Pethick (1984) adopts a pragmatic approach and points out nificant impact on the relative sea-level changes that occurred during the
that coastal geomorp~ologi~ts should not be too concerned with differenti- Holocene. Clarke eta/. (1978) used a geophysical model to determine land
ating be~een eust~hc and Isostatic sea-level changes, because what real! movements due to glacio- and hydro-isostasy, and combined these with a
~atters IS th_e relative sea level. Whether a sea-level rise is induced by ~ eustatic sea-level curve to derive relative sea-level changes during the
Isostatic fall m land level or a eustatic rise in sea level, the effect in terms of Holocene (Figure 2.11). The results indicate the existence of distinct groups
coastal morphology is similar. of sea-level curves that are closely linked to the four different regions identi-
I Glacial unloading II Collapsing forebulge 1-11 Transition
fied by Lambeck (1993; Section 2.3.2):
Ill Eustatic submergence
coastal emergence coastal submergence ~
100 a • At near-field sites (Zone I in Figure 2.11) the dominant contribution to

f:r~ 0 ~/ ~00~
j~-- -~ e~
~00 ::t:s~
sea-level change comes from ice-load effects, and late-glacial and post-
glacial relative sea-level have been falling because of the rising land.
• The intermediate-field sites (Zone II in Figure 2.11) correspond to the
forebulge around the former ice-margin which tends to subside in late-
0 10,000
Years BP
0 10,000
Years BP
0 10.000
0 10.000 glacial and p ostglacial times to compensate for the uplift in nearby for-
Years BP Years BP merly glaciated areas. In these sites the relative sea level continues to rise
even when deglaciation h as ceased, though at gradu ally decreasing rates.
• At ice-margin sites (Transition Zone I -II in Figure 2.11) the relative sea-
level curves vary greatly depending on the location, and range from a
progressive fall (curve l-Ila in Figure 2.11) to a progressive rise (curve
I-Ile in Figure 2.11).
• In far-field sites (Zones III-VI in Figure 2.11) glacio-eustatic changes in
sea level are considerably greater than glacio- and hydro-isostatic effects.
Relative sea-level rise predominates during the deglaciation period, often
followed by a slight relative sea-level fall of hydro-isostatic origin during
the late Holocene.

2.6 PRESENT SEA LEVEL

The geomorphology and sedimentology of the present-day coastline are pri-

marily the result of the Holocene, and to a lesser extent Pleistocene, sea-level
history. Of most interest to coastal communities, however, are the present
IV Oceanic submergence V Oceanic emergence and future changes in sea level. Over the last 100 years an exten sive global
00r~.:;-~~~:~ence network of tide gauges has developed, allowing an accurate assessment of
~ Ots=---------- 0~-.-----
VI
global sea-level changes. At present, more than 1400 tide gauges are opera-
~
-50~ tive worldwide, although there is a strong bias towards the Northern
..
; -50 ...
-50 ~ Hemisphere. Monthly and yearly means from most tide-recording stations
"
~ 0 10,000 0 10,000
Years BP Years BP
0 10,000 are stored in the data base of the Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level
Years BP
(PSMSL) at Birkenhead, UK, and are publicly available from their web site.
F:gure 2. I I - Global variation in relative sea-level rise derived using an isostatic mod- Tide gauges record changes in relative sea level and the central problem
=n~nder the assun;pt1on that no eustatic change has occurred since 5.000 years BP in identifying trends in eustatic sea level from tide ga uge data has been in
that the Earths mantle has a constant viscos1ty. Zone VI includes the landward removing the isostatic trend from the data. This is clearly indicated in
~arg1ns of continental shelves in zones Ill. IV and V Emerged beaches are predicted Figure 2.12, which shows local trends in sea level derived from a large num-
[~ Zon~s ~Ill, V and VI. [From Komar, 1998; modified from Clarke et a/. 1978 J
opyng t c 1978 Academic Press, reproduced with permission.] . .
ber of long-term (more than 40 years) tidal records. Most stations exhibit a
rise in sea level w ith rates of 1-3 mm yr1, but the tide record collected in
 SEA LEVEL 41
40 INTRODUCTION TO COASTAL PROCESSES AND GEOMORPHOLOGY

1
the Baltic region indicates a fall in sea level at a rate of up to 9 mm yr .
Clearly the Baltic region is still experiencing isostatic uplift due to
deglaciation.
Due to uncertainties in determining the isostatic effects, it is difficult to
obtain a reliable figure for eustatic sea-level rise. Nevertheless, efforts can be
made to account for the isostatic land-level changes by using geological
data directly from sites adjacent to tide gauges and subtracting trends in
land level from the relative sea-level change. Figure 2.13 shows the results
of two methods of estimating the eustatic component of sea-level rise. The
first method takes the mean of a set of 130 station trends (corrected for
changes in land level), resulting in a rate of sea-level rise over the last 100
years of 1.2 mm yr-1 . In the second method, the corrected data are averaged
annually into a composite global mean sea-level curve and the slope of the
curve is estimated to be 1.0 mm yr-1.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) concludes that
the average rate of eustatic sea-level rise during the 20th century is between
1 and 2 mm yr-1 . Comparison of the present rate of sea-level rise with the
1
geological rate over the last two millennia (0.1-0.2 mm yr ) implies a rela-
tively recent acceleration in the rate of sea-level rise. The onset of this accel-
eration appears to have occurred during the 19th century, and there is no
clear evidence of any acceleration of sea-level rise over the 20th century
alone (Church et al., 2001).
There are a number of factors that could have contributed to the eustatic
rise in sea level over the last century. It has become clear that the rise in sea
level is partly due to the concurrent increase in global temperature of
0.3-0.6°C over the last 100 years. The climate- and human-related factors
contributing to the observed sea-level rise of 1-2 mm yr1 and their ranges
of uncertainty are shown in Figure 2.14. The main factors include thermal

8.0 (b)

• Fennoscandia
[]europe
~~ Eastern North Amenca aod Gulf
[ill W&ttem North Ameflca
1111 SoulhAmenco
-8.0

-[Link]--_L--L--_L--.L--~.-..J
1900 1920 1940 1960 1980
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1880
1 Year
Sea level trends (mm yr- )

Figure 2. 13 - (a) Histogram of the number of tide gauge stations versus sea-level
trends. [Modified from Gomitz, 1993.] (b) Composite eustatic mean sea-level curve
over the last century (solid dots) with 5-year running mean (solid line). The period
195 1-70 has been used as the reference period (i.e., mean sea level from I95 1- 70
has been set to zero). [Modified from Gornitz, 1995.]
 42 INTRODUCTION TO COASTAL PROCESSES AND GEOMORPHOLOGY
SEA LEVEL 43

2. 7 FUTURE SEA LEVEL

Thermal expansion
rn The coastal zone is one of the most densely populated regions of the Earth
Glaciers and ice caps [] and the ability to predict future change in sea level is of obvious importance
to the global community. Not surprisingly, therefore, much research effort
Greenland (201h century)
rn
I
and funding has been, and still is, directed towards making such predic-
tions. It is well accepted that simple extrapolation of existing trends in sea-
Antarctica (20th century)
OJ I
level rise (1-2 mm yr-1 ) into the future is inadequate. Such an approach
ignores lag effects in the atmosphere and ocean to increased Greenhouse
~
Ice sheets (long- term) gases and neither considers future Greenhouse gas emission rates. To obtain
reliable predictions of future sea-level rise, sophisticated computer models
Permafrost have been developed that consider the interactions between ocean and
m
I atmosphere. The advantage of such coupled atmosphere-ocean general cir-
Sediment deposition culation models (AOGCMs) is that they can be run for different scenarios
thereby enabling an investigation of the effects of emission regulations.
Terrestrial storage I
'----_L_~ _ __j
Unfortunately, despite the high level of sophistication of the current
AOGCMs, their predictions include several major sources of uncertainty
Total estimated contributions (Warrick, 1993), and the only statement that can be made with near-
certainty is qualitative: global warming causes sea-level rise.
Observations The importance of obtaining good estimates of future sea-level rise has
been one of the main aims of the IPCC. The approach has been to run
sophisticated AOGCMs for a range of emission scenarios. Table 2.2 shows
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1.5 2 the projected sea-level rise over the period 1990-2100 for one of these
Sea-level rise (mm yr- 1) scenarios and the individual contributions of the different sea-level rise
components. The IPCC has consistently placed strong emphasis on provid-
Figure 2. 14 - Ranges of uncertainty for the average rate of sea-level rise from 191 0 ing a range of uncertainties associated with the predictions and therefore
to 1990 and the estimated contributions from different processes. [Modified from
Church et a/., 200 1.] minimum and maximum projections are given. The results indicate that sea
level is predicted to be 0.11-0.77 m higher than today by 2100 (the global
warming over the same period is c. 2°C). Most of the projected sea-level rise
expansion .of the ocean (contributing 0.3-0.7 mm yr-1), melting of glaciers is due to thermal expansion of the oceans, followed by increased melting of
a~d small ICe caps (0.2-0.4 mm yr- 1) and long-term adjustment of ice sheets
smce the Las~ Glacial Maximum (0-0.5 mm ycl). The 20th century contribu- Table 2.2 Sea-level rise due to climate change derived from running differ-
tw.n s of the 1ce sheets of Greenland and Antarctica have been estimated ent AOGCM models following the IS92a scenario, including the direct effect
~smg Ice sheet models. These models suggest that the Greenland contribu- of sulphate aerosols (from Church et al., 2001)
tion has b:en relative!~ modest (0-0.1 mm ycl), whereas Antarctica may
ha~e contr1~uted nega~vely to the sea-level rise (-0.2-0 mm ycl) through Minimum, Central value, Maximum,
an mcr~ase m Its total Ice mass due to mcreased precipitation. Changes in mmyr- 1 mmyr-1 mmyr- 1
te~re~trial storage of water may also have affected sea level, but the uncer-
Thermal expansion 0.11 0.27 0.43
tamhes [Link] with the estimates are very large (- 1.1-0.4 mm yr-1). An
exact .[Link] of past sea levels is difficult due to the large uncertainties Glaciers/small ice caps [Link] 0.12 0.23
associated With the contributing factors. Greenland (20th century effects) -0.02 0.04 0.09
Antarctica (20th century effects) -0.17 -0.08 0.02
•Sum 0.11 0.44 0.77
•The sum Includes contributions of permafrost, sedimentation and adjustments of
ice sheets to past climate change. The role of terrestrial storage is not considered.
 44 INTRODUCTION TO COASTAL PROCESSES AND GEOMORPHOLOGY

gla~ier~ and small ice caps. On this time scale, the contributions made by
maJO~ ICe she~ts. m Greenland and Antarctica are relatively minor, but they
may mcrease m unportance over longer time scales.

2.8 SUMMARY
• Relative sea-level changes are changes in the sea level relative to that of
theland and operate on a regional/local level. Such sea-level changes are TIDES
mainly rela~ed to i~ostatic .adjustments in the Earth's surface, in particular
~hos~ associated With the mcreased (decreased) load by expanding (melt-
mg) ICe caps.
• Eustatic sea-level changes are world-wide and are unrelated to
local/regional effects. The principal cause of eustatic sea-level fluctua-
tions is a change in the quantity of oceanic water.
• ~uring .the Pleistocene a large number of climatic cycles occurred, which 3.1 INTRODUCTION
m turn m~[Link]~ fluctuations in the eustatic sea level. During the
warm [Link] (mterglaCials), sea levels were relatively high and compa- The tidal rise and fall of the ocean surface due to the gravitational attraction
rable ~1th present-day sea level. During the cold periods (glacials), vast between the Earth, Moon, and Sun is barely noticeable in deep oceanic
quantities of sea water were stored in ice sheets and sea levels were more waters. On shallow continental shelves, along coastlines, and within estuar-
than 100m lower than present. ies, however, tidal processes can be the dominant 'shaper' of morphology.
• After the last glaciation of the Pleistocene, the Earth gradually became Even in environments w here wind-wave or fluvial processes are dominant,
warmer. Ice caps started melting and caused a eustatic rise in sea level. tidal processes often play a key subordinate role. A geomorphologist's inter-
The sea-level rise was initially rapid (2 em yr-1 from 7,000-11,000 years est in tidal processes is generally limited to the movement of sediment by
BP), but slowed down from 5,000-7,000 years BP, reaching present sea tidal currents in these shallow, coastal environments. In order to appreciate
level at about 5,000 years BP. fully the scope of tidal interaction with morphology, from small-scale bed-
• [Link] sea level is [Link] rising by 1-2 mm yr- 1. This rise is generally forms to large-scale morphological systems such as estuaries and deltas, it is
attributed to global warmmg. The sea-level rise is expected to accelerate important to have an appreciation of the fundamentals of tide-generation.
over the next century, and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Our understanding of tides is based largely on the works of two very
Change predicts that by 2100 sea level will be 0.11-0.77 m higher than influential mathematicians: Isaac Newton (1643-1727) and Pierre-Simon
today. Laplace (1749-1827). In his Principia Mathematica, Newton derived the funda-
mental astronomical forces that produce forced waves on an Earth covered
by a urtiform, infinitely deep ocean. Subsequently, in his Mecanique celeste,
2. 9 fURTHER READING Laplace derived the fundamental hydrodynamic equations that govern the
behaviour of these forced long waves on a more realistic rotating Earth with
Church, J.~., Gregory, J.M., Huybrechts, P., Kuhn, M., Lambeck, K., Nhuan, oceans of finite depth. A further contribution by William Thomson, also
M.T., Qm, D. and Woodworth, P.L., 2001. Chapter 11: Changes in sea lev- known as Lord Kelvin (1824-1907), demonstrated that Laplace's equations
el. In: Inte~?overnmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 2001: could describe tides in natural ocean basins surrounded by continental mar-
the Sczentific Bnszs, Contribution of Working Group I to the Third gins. Our discussion of tides will broadly follow this historical development
Assess~ent Re~ort ~f the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, of the topic. We will begin by describing the tide-generating force originally
Cambndge Uruve:sity Press, Cambridge, 639-693. [Most up-to-date derived by Newton. The Equilibrium Theory grew from this base and is
. acco~t of the relation between sea-level and climate change.] used to identify the major periodicities in the tide. Recent observations of
Prrazzoh, P.A., 1?96. Se~-level changes: The last 20,000 years. Wiley, Chichester. tides on a global-scale then lead into the discussion of the Dynamic Theory,
[Comprehensive revtew of Pleistocene and Holocene sea-level changes.] Which emerged from the work of Laplace and Lord Kelvin. Smaller-scale
interactions between tides and morphology, particularly relating to coastal
bays and estuary charmels, will be discussed in Chapter 7.