Chapter 2: Limits

1. The Limit of a Function

2. The Limit Laws

3. Continuity

4. Asymptotes

Rabih Ghostine 1 / 28
2.1 The Limit of a Function
Definition
Suppose f (x) is defined when x is near the number a except
possibly at a itself. Then we write
lim f (x) = L
x→a
and say ”the limit of f (x), as x approaches a, equals L”.

We say that the limit of the function f (x) as x approaches 2 is

equal to 4. The notation for this is lim f(x) = 4
x→2 2 / 28
2.1 The Limit of a Function
Definition
To evaluate the limit of a function lim f (x), we start by direct
x→a
substitution. If direct substitution produces an undetermined form
such as 0/0, or ∞/∞, or ∞ − ∞, we can use the following
algebraic techniques:
1. Factoring or expanding
2. Multiply by the conjugate
3. Common denominator

Example 1: Evaluate Limits by Direct Substitution

(a) lim 2x 2 − 3x + 4 = 2 · 52 − 3 · 5 + 4 = 39


x→5

x 3 + 2x 2 − 1 (−1)3 + 2 · (−1)2 − 1 0
(b) lim = = =0
x→−1 5 − 3x 5 − 3 · (−1) 8
3 / 28
2.1 The Limit of a Function
Example 2: Evaluate Limits by Factoring
4x 2 − 8x (x
4x  −2)

(a) lim = lim =8
x→2 x − 2 x→2 x−
 2

x 2 − 2x − 3 (x + 1) −3)
(x 
(b) lim = lim = −4
x→3 3−x x→3 −
(x−3)


x x2 − 1


x3 − x x −1)(x
(x  + 1)
(c) lim = lim = lim =2
x→1 x − 1 x→1 x −1 x→1 x−
 1

 x 2 + 3x + 9

x 3 − 27 −3)
(x

(d) lim = lim = 27
x→3 x − 3 x→3 x−
3

(3 + h)2 − 9 9 + 6h + h2 − 9 h
(6 + h)
(e) lim = lim = lim =6
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h

4 / 28
2.1 The Limit of a Function
Example 3: Evaluate Limits Using the Conjugate
√  √
√

x 2 + 9 − 3 x 2 + 9 + 3
x2 + 9 − 3
(a) lim = lim √
x2

x→0 x→0
x2 x2 + 9 + 3

x2 + 9 − 9 1
= lim √

 =
x→0
x2 x2 + 9 + 3 6

√ √
√

t− 3t + 4 t − 3t + 4 t + 3t + 4
(b) lim = lim √

t→4 4−t t→4 (4 − t) t + 3t + 4

t 2 − 3t − 4
= lim √

t→4 (4 − t) t + 3t + 4

(t + 1) −
(t  4)
 5
= lim √
=−
t→4 −
(t − 4) t + 3t + 4
   8 5 / 28
2.1 The Limit of a Function

Example 4: Evaluate Limits Using Common Denominator

  √
1 1 1− 1+x
lim √ − = lim √
x→0 x 1 + x x x→0 x 1 + x

√
√

1− 1+x 1+ 1+x
= lim √ √

x→0 x 1+x 1+ 1+x

1
− 1
− 
x
= lim √ √

x 1+x 1+ 1+x
x→0 

1
=−
2

6 / 28
2.1 The Limit of a Function

Example 5: Evaluate Limits at Infinity (Take Highest Order)

(a) lim x 2 − x = lim x 2 = ∞


x→∞ x→∞

3x 2 − x − 2 3x 2 3
(b) lim 2
= lim 2
=
x→∞ 5x + 4x + 1 x→∞ 5x 5

x2 + x x2
(c) lim = lim = lim (−x) = −∞
x→∞ 3 − x x→∞ −x x→∞

r r
25x 2 + 2 25x 2 5
(d) lim = lim =
x→∞ 9x 2 + 4 x→∞ 9x 2 3

x +1 x 1
(e) lim = lim = lim =0
x→∞ x 2 + 3 x→∞ x 2 x→∞ x
7 / 28
2.1 The Limit of a Function
Properties
sin x cos x − 1
1. lim =1 2. lim =0
x→0 x x→0 x

Example 6: Find the Limits

sin 5x 5 · sin 5x 5
(a) lim = lim =
x→0 3x x→0 3 · 5x 3

1
sin x sin x
sin x x · x
 · 1
(b) lim = lim x = lim x =
x→0 sin πx x→0 sin πx x→0 1 π
πx · sin πx

>
πx x · 
π
πx

sin 3x sin 5x 3 · sin 3x 5 · sin 5x

(c) lim 2
= lim · = 15
x→0 x x→0 3x 5x
8 / 28
2.1 The Limit of a Function

0
cos θ − 1 cos θ−1
*
cos θ − 1 θ · θ

·
(d) lim = lim θ = lim θ =0
θ→0 sin θ θ→0 sin θ θ→0 1
θ· sin θ
θ θ
·
θ

sin 3x 3 · sin 3x 3 3
(e) lim = lim = lim 2 =−
x→0 5x 3 − 4x x→0 3x (5x 2 − 4) x→0 5x − 4 4

sin (x − 1) sin (x − 1) 1 1
(f) lim 2
= lim = lim =
x→1 x + x − 2 x→1 (x − 1)(x + 2) x→1 x + 2 3

9 / 28
2.1 The Limit of a Function

Definition of One-Sided Limits

• We write: lim f (x) = L
x→a−
and say ”the limit of f (x), as x approaches a from the left, is
equal to L”.
• We write: lim f (x) = L
x→a+
and say ”the limit of f (x), as x approaches a from the right,
is equal to L”.

10 / 28
2.1 The Limit of a Function
Example 7
Consider the graph of a function g . State the following values:

(a) lim g (x) = 3 (b) lim+ g (x) = 1 (c) lim g (x) DNE
x→2− x→2 x→2

(d) lim g (x) = 2 (e) lim+ g (x) = 2 (f) lim g (x) = 2

x→5− x→5 x→5

Example 8: Find the Following Limits

2x 6 2x 6
(a) lim+ = + =∞ (b) lim = − = −∞
x→3 x − 3 0 x→3− x − 3 0 11 / 28
2.1 The Limit of a Function
Theorem
lim f (x) exists if and only if the left and right limits are equal.
x→a

lim f (x) = L ⇐⇒ lim f (x) = lim+ f (x) = L

x→a x→a− x→a

Example 9: Determine whether the following limits exist.

1 x2 + x x2 + x − 6
(a) lim (b) lim √ (c) lim
x→0 1 + e 1/x x→0 x3 + x2 x→2 |x − 2|

1 1 1
(a) lim = = =1
x→0− 1 + e 1/x 1 + e 1/0− 0
e −∞

*
1+
1 1 1
lim = = =0
x→0+ 1+e 1/x 1 + e 1/0+ *∞
e∞
1+

Since the left and right limits are not equal, the limit does not
exist. 12 / 28
2.1 The Limit of a Function

x2 + x x(x + 1) x(x + 1)
(b) lim √ = lim p = lim √
x→0− 3
x +x 2 x→0 −
x (x + 1) x→0 |x| x + 1
2 −

x (x + 1) x +1
√ = lim √ = −1

= lim
x→0− −
x x + 1 x→0− − x + 1

x2 + x x(x + 1) x(x + 1)
lim+ √ = lim+ p = lim+ √
x→0 3
x +x 2 x→0 x (x + 1) x→0 |x| x + 1
2

x (x + 1) x +1
√ = lim √

= lim =1
x→0− x x + 1 x→0− x + 1


Since the left and right limits are not equal, the limit does not
exist.

13 / 28
2.1 The Limit of a Function

x2 + x − 6 −2)(x
(x  + 3)
(c) lim = lim

x→2− |x − 2| x→2− − −2)
(x 

= lim −(x + 3) = −5
x→2−

x2 + x − 6 −2)(x
(x  + 3)
lim+ = lim+

x→2 |x − 2| x→2 (x
 −2)


= lim+ (x + 3) = 5
x→2

Since the left and right limits are not equal, the limit does not
exist.

14 / 28
2.2 Limit Laws
Limit Laws
If c is a constant, and lim f (x) and lim g (x) exist, then:
x→a x→a

1. lim [f (x) ± g (x)] = lim f (x) ± lim g (x)

x→a x→a x→a

2. lim [cf (x)] = c lim f (x)

x→a x→a

3. lim [f (x)g (x)] = lim f (x) · lim g (x)

x→a x→a x→a

f (x) lim f (x)

4. lim = x→a if lim g (x) 6= 0
x→a g (x) lim g (x) x→a
x→a
h in
5. lim [f (x)]n = lim f (x) where n is a positive integer
x→a x→a

6. lim c = c
x→a
15 / 28
2.2 Limit Laws

Example 10
Suppose that lim f (x) = 2 and lim g (x) = −2. Use the Limit
x→1 x→1
Laws to evaluate the following limits:
f (x)
(a) lim [f (x) + 5g (x)] (b) lim [f (x)g (x)] (c) lim
x→1 x→1 x→1 g (x)

Solution:
(a) lim [f (x) + 5g (x)] = lim f (x)+5 lim g (x) = 2+5(−2) = −8
x→1 x→1 x→1

(b) lim [f (x)g (x)] = lim f (x) · lim g (x) = 2 · (−2) = −4

x→1 x→1 x→1

f (x) lim f (x) 2

x→1
(c) lim = = = −1
x→1 g (x) lim g (x) −2
x→1

16 / 28
2.3 Continuity
Definition
A function f is continuous (it takes place gradually, without
interruption or abrupt change) at a number a if f (a) exists and
lim f (x) = lim+ f (x) = f (a)
x→a− x→a

Example 11
The figure shows the graph of a function f . At which numbers is f
discontinuous? Why?

17 / 28
2.3 Continuity

Types of Discontinuous Functions

1. Removable Discontinuity If lim f (x) = lim+ f (x) 6= f (a)
x→a− x→a

2. Jump Discontinuity If lim f (x) 6= lim+ f (x)

x→a− x→a

3. Infinite Discontinuity If lim f (x) or lim+ f (x) goes to

x→a− x→a
infinity

18 / 28
2.3 Continuity
Example 12
Show that the function f is discontinuous at 1. What is the type
of the discontinuity?

2
 x −x

x=6 1
f (x) = x2 − 1

 1 x =1

Solution:
• f (1) = 1

x2 − x x −1)
(x  1
• lim f (x) = lim 2
= lim =
x→1− x→1− x − 1 x→1−  − 1)(x + 1)
(x  2

Since the left limit is not equal to the image, the function f is
discontinuous at 1. The type of the discontinuity is removable.
19 / 28
2.3 Continuity
Example 13
Show that the function f is continuous at 1.
1 − x2
(
x ≤1
f (x) =
ln x x >1

Solution:
• f (1) = 1 − 12 = 0

1 − x 2 = 1 − 12 = 0


• lim f (x) = lim
x→1− x→1−

• lim+ f (x) = lim+ ln x = ln 1 = 0

x→1 x→1

Since lim f (x) = lim+ f (x) = f (1), f is continuous at 1.

x→1− x→1

20 / 28
2.3 Continuity

Theorem
The following types of functions are continuous at every number in
their domains:

• Polynomial

• Rational Functions

• Radical Functions

• Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

• Trigonometric Functions

21 / 28
2.3 Continuity

Example 14
x 2 + 5x
(a) Show that the function f (x) = is continuous at 2.
x −1
√
(b) Show that the function f (x) = 1 − 2 − x is continuous on
the interval [−1, 1].

Solution:
(a) f is a rational function, so it is continuous at every number in
its domain D = R \ {1}. Therefore, f is continuous at 2.

(b) Sf is a radical function, so it is continuous at every number in

its domain D = (−∞, 2]. Therefore, f is continuous on [−1, 1].

22 / 28
2.3 Continuity

Theorem
If f and g are continuous at a and c is a constant, then the
following functions are also continuous at a:

1. f + g

2. f − g

3. cf

4. fg

f
5. if g (a) 6= 0
g

23 / 28
2.3 Continuity

The Intermediate Value Theorem

If f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b] and f (a).f (b) < 0
then there is a number (root) c in (a, b) such that f (c) = 0.

y
4 f is continuous on [−2, 0]
• 3 • f (−2) = 3 > 0
f (0) = −1 < 0
2
so f must intersect the x-axis
1
so f has a root between [−2, 0]
• • x
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3
-1•

24 / 28
2.3 Continuity

Example 15
Show that the function f (x) = 4x 3 − 6x 2 + 3x − 2 has a root
between 1 and 2.

Solution:
f is continuous on its domain D = R, so f is continuous on [1, 2].

f (1) = 4 · 13 − 6 · 12 + 3 · 1 − 2 = −1 < 0

f (2) = 4 · 23 − 6 · 22 + 3 · 2 − 2 = 12 > 0

So the Intermediate Value Theorem says there is a root between 1

and 2.

25 / 28
2.4 Asymptotes
Vertical Asymptote
The line x = a is called a vertical asymptote of the curve
y = f (x) if at least one of the following statements is true:
lim f (x) = ±∞ lim f (x) = ±∞ lim f (x) = ±∞
x→a x→a− x→a+

Horizontal Asymptote
The line y = L is called a horizontal asymptote of the curve
y = f (x) if either
lim f (x) = L or lim f (x) = L
x→∞ x→−∞

x2 − 1
y = 1 is a horizontal asymptote of the function y = .
x2 + 1 26 / 28
2.4 Asymptotes
Example 16
Find the horizontal and vertical asymptotes of the function
√
2x 2 + 1 2x 2 + 1
(a) f (x) = (b) f (x) = 2
3x − 5 x +x −6

Solution:
A vertical asymptote is likely to occur when the denominator is 0:
5 5
3x − 5 = 0 ⇐⇒ x = . Therefore, the line x = is a VA.
3 3
√ √ √ √
2x 2 2|x| 2x 2
lim f (x) = lim = lim = lim =
x→∞ x→∞ 3x x→∞ 3x x→∞ 3x 3
√ √ √ √
2x 2 2|x| 2(−x) 2
lim f (x) = lim = lim = lim =−
x→−∞ x→∞ 3x x→∞ 3x x→∞ 3x 3
√ √
2 2
Thus both of the lines y = and y = − are HA.
3 3 27 / 28
2.3 Continuity
Example 17: Find the limits and deduce the VA and HA
(a) lim f (x)
x→−∞

(b) lim f (x)

x→∞

(c) lim f (x)

x→0

(d) lim f (x)

x→2−

Solution:
(a) lim f (x) = −1 ⇐⇒ y = −1 is a HA
x→−∞

(b) lim f (x) = 4 ⇐⇒ y = 4 is a HA

x→∞

(c) lim f (x) = ∞ ⇐⇒ x = 0 is a VA

x→0

(d) lim f (x) = −∞ ⇐⇒ x = 2 is a VA

x→2− 28 / 28