S1 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE -I

Module – II

ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE AND PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN

Appreciating architectural vocabulary of buildings by identifying and understanding the
elements of architecture and principles of design.

THE PRIMARY ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE – POINT, LINE, PLANE AND VOLUME

Starting with the point as the prime generator of all form, each element presented in the order
of its growth from the point, first as conceptual element, then as a visual element in the
vocabulary of architectural design.

1. POINT
A point as the prime generator of form indicates a
position in space. Conceptually it has no length width
or depth and is therefore, static, directionless and
centralised. As the prime element in the vocabulary of
form, a point can serve to mark:

 The two ends of a line

 The intersection of two lines
 The meeting of a line at the corner of a plane
or volume.
 The centre of a field
A point is conceptually without shape or form, it begins to make its presence felt when a visual
field.

At the centre of its environment, a point is stable and at rest, organizing surrounding elements
above itself and dominating its field. When the point is moved off-centre, however, its field
becomes more aggressive and begins to compete for visual supremacy. A visual tension is
created between the point and its field.
Dots centrally placed within a composition
create symmetry and are neutral and
static; through they tend to dominate the
space around them. Dots placed off center
create asymmetry. They are dynamic and
actively influence the space around them.

TWO POINTS

 To visibly mark a position in space or on the ground plane, a point must be projected
into a vertical linear element such as a column or tower. It should be noted that a
columnar element is seen in plan as a point and therefore retains the visual
characteristics of a point.

Other point generated forms are:

 Two points, established in space by columnar

element or centralized forms, can define an
axis, an ordering device that has been used
throughout history to organise building forms
and space.
2. LINES
A point extended becomes line. Conceptually a line has
length, but no width or depth. A line, in describing the
path of a point in motion, is capable of visually
expressing direction, movement, feelings and growth.
Where a point has no dimension, a line has one
dimension. They have a length, but nothing else. The
fundamental characteristic of a line is to connect or
unite. This connection can be visible or invisible. Line
can serve to:

 Creates shape and form.

 Define borders or limits between objects.
 Describe the edges of, and give shape to planes.
 Articulate the surfaces of planes.

The character of a line, whether taut or limp, bold or tentative, graceful or rugged is
determined by our perception of its length and width ratio, and its degree of continuity. The
interval between a series of lines and the width of those lines varies, a rhythm is created.
Changing the colour or value of the lines can add more complexity to that rhythm.

The direction or the orientation of line can affect its role in visual construction. Different types
of lines are:

 Vertical line
It can express a state of equilibrium with
the force of gravity or human condition,
or mark a position in space. It creates a
feel of dominance and spirituality.
Standing free within a space, a vertical
line defines zones of space within the
enclosure.

Centred in space - Create equalling zone

of space between itself and the
surrounding wall planes.
Off centered in space - hierarchical zones
of space differentiated by size, form and
location.
Vertical linear elements can also be used to define
transparent volume of space. In the above example, the
four minaret towers define a spatial field from which the
dome of Hagia Sophia rises in splendour.

Articulate the edge and surfaces of planes and volumes. A

linear elements affect a surface texture will depend on
their visual weight, direction and spacing.

Seagram Building, New York

 Horizontal lines
It can represent stability, the ground plane, the horizon, or a body at rest.

 Diagonal lines
Diagonal lines can be read as ascending (bottom left to top right) or descending (top left
to bottom right). An oblique line is a denation from the perpendicular or horizontal. It
can be seen as a vertical line falling or a horizontal line rising. In either case, it is
dynamic and visually active in its unbalanced state.
 Curved lines
Lines can be bent, curved,
connected and intersected,
etc. thus bringing various
suggestions of motion and
creating different dynamics
for a design
3. PLANE
 Shape is the primarily identifiable character of the plane Properties.
 Surface Color, pattern and texture creates visual weight and stability.
 Defines the limits or boundaries of a volume.

Dot and line relationships

1. HORIZONTAL PLANE-(FLOOR-BASE PLANE)
 Base plane
 Elevated base plane
 Depressed base plane
 Overhead plane
Base plane
A horizontal plane layering as a figure on a contrasting background defines a simple field
of space. For a horizontal plane to be seen as a figure there must be a perceptible
change in color, tone or texture between its surface and that of the surrounding area.
Although there is a continuous flow of space across it, the field nevertheless generates a
spatial zone or realm within its boundaries.

 Flooring as a movement guide


  Flooring to express threshold

The surface articulation of the ground plane is often used in architecture to define a
zone of space within a large context.

Spatial definition can be used to differentiate between a path of movement and place of
rest, establish a field from which the form of a building rises out from the ground, or
articulate a functional zone within a one room living environment.

Elevated Base plane

 A horizontal plane elevated above the
ground plane establishes vertical surfaces
along its edges that reinforce the visual
separation between its field and its
surrounding ground.
 Creates a specific domain within a larger
spatial context. The change in levels that
occur along the edges of the elevated
plane defines the boundaries of its field and interrupt the flow of space across the
surface.

 Surface characteristics of the base plane continue up and across the elevated
plane, and then the field of the elevated plane will appear to be very much a part
of the surrounding space.
 The edge condition is articulated by a change in form, colour, texture, then the
field will become a plateau that is separate and distinct from its surrounding.
Examples:-
Depressed Base plane
 A horizontal Plane depressed into the ground plane
utilizes the vertical surfaces of the lowered area to
define a volume of space.
 Isolate a field of space from a larger context.
Vertical surface of the depression establish the
boundaries of the field. The boundaries are not
implied as in the case of an elevated plane, but
visible edges that begin to form the walls of the space.
 The field of space can be further articulated by contrasting the surface treatment
of the lowered area and that of the surrounding base plane.
 The Contrast in form, geometry or
orientation can also visually reinforce
the identity and independence of the
sunken field from its larger spatial
context.
Examples:-
Overhead plane (roof)
 A horizontal Plane located overhead defines
a volume of spaces between itself and the
ground plane
 Overhead plane or roof as a spatial
enclosure.
Examples:-
2. VERTICAL PLANES-(WALL PLANES)
 Single vertical planes
 L-shaped planes
 U-shaped planes
 Four planes- Closure

Vertical elements of form play in firmly establishing the vertical limits of a spatial field.
Greater presences in our visual field than horizontal planes and are therefore more
instrumental in defining a discrete volume of space and providing a sense of closure and
privacy for those within it.

Single Vertical planes

 It divides the volume of space
 It has frontal qualities.
 Two faces of planes can be
equivalent or vibrant through form,
colour or texture.
 Height of a vertical plane relative to
our body height and eye level- plane
to visually describe space.
 The surface colour, texture and
pattern of a plane affect our
perception of its visual weight, scale
and proportion.
 Examples:-Barcelona pavilion by Mies van
de rohe

L-shaped Vertical planes

 It defines a field of space along a diagonal from its corner outward.
 Two edges of the field are clearly defined by two planes of the configuration, its
other edge remain ambiguous unless further articulated by additional vertical
elements, manipulations of the base plane, or an overhead plane
 Two planes will isolate from each other and one will appear to slide by and
visually dominate the other.
Parallel Vertical planes
 Defines a field of space between them.
 The open ends of the field, establishes by the
vertical edges of the planes, give the space a
strong directional quality.
 Its primary orientation is along the axis about
which planes are symmetrical.
 Spaces are extroverted in nature.
U shaped-Vertical planes
 Defines a field of space that has an inward focus as well as an outward orientation.
 The extension of the spatial field into the adjoining space can be visually reinforced
by continuing the base plane beyond the open end of the configuration.
 Plane of the opening is further defined with columns or overhead elements, the
definition of space will be stronger and the continuity will interrupted.

 Openings at the corners- multi directional and dynamic

 If the field is square or nearly square, the space will be static and a character of a
place to be in, rather than a space to move through.
 U shape configuration defines the outdoor space.
INWARD FOCUS AND OUTWARD DIRECTION. Therme vals by Peter zumthor

Four planes –(Closure)

 The strongest type of spatial definition in architecture. Because the field is
completely enclosed, its space is naturally introverted.
 From a large urban square
 To a courtyard or atrium space
 To a single hall or room within a building complex
Example:-
4. VOLUME AND FORM
 A plane extended in a direction other than its intrinsic direction becomes a volume.
 Conceptually a volume has three dimensions: - Length width and depth.
 The architectural volume of a building is the total cubic area enclosed within its
perimeter.
 Portion of space contained and defined by wall, floor, ceiling and roof or quantity of
space displaced by the mass of a building.
 A volume can be analysed and understood to consist of –

Space

 Space has its physical form that can be easily decoded and described by its concrete
characteristics such as length, width, scale, geometry and also texture, colour, light, etc.
 Space creates settings which organize our lives, activities and relationships.

Primary characteristics of volume

 Shape
 Size
 Colour
 Texture
 Shape

 The characteristic outline or surface

configuration of a particular form

 Shape is the principle aspect to identify

and categorize form.

Example: Shape and form relation

 The primary shapes can be extended or rotated to generate volumetric forms or solids
which are distinct, regular and easily recognizable.

 Gives a sense of 3 dimensional volume.

 It refers more specifically to the essential aspect of form that governs its appearance.

Example:
Size

The physical dimensions of

length, width and the depth of a
form. While these dimensions
determine the proportions of a
form, its scale is determined by
its size relative to other forms in
its context. All shape has size.

 Scale is determined by its size

relative to other forms in its contact

Example:

Colour

 A phenomenon of light and visual perception that may be described in terms of an

individual perception of hue, saturation and tonal value.
 Colour is the attribute that most clearly distinguishes a form from its environment. It
also affects the visual weight of a form.
  All shape is distinguished from its surrounding
 Colour is emotional.
 It gives Visual weight of a form.
 Colour changes our moods very effectively.
 It affects all our senses.

Colour gives warm and cool feelings to spaces.

• Red, orange, yellow- warm colours and blue, green, violet are cooler

• Warm hue with high intensity…. Active

• Cool hues with low intensity….relaxing

• Deep and cool colors appear to be contrast

• Light warm colours tend to expand and increase the apparent size of an object
especially when seen against a dark background

• Cool coloures increase spacial depth

• Nutralised colours are more flexible and create dramatic effect.

Texture

 The visual and tactile quality given to a surface by its size, shape, arrangement and
proportions of its parts.
 Texture also determines the degree to which the surface of a form reflects or absorb
incident light.

 It refers to the surface characteristics of a shape.

 It gives tactile quality to the surface.
 It is sensitive.
Texture can be created by:-

 Similar material (monolithic).

 By Size
 Merging different materials.
 Layering of different textures gives spatial depth.
 Texture by light
 MODULE 3-
PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN
The Principles are concepts used to organize or arrange the structural elements of design. The
way in which these principles are applied affects the expressive content of the work. The
principles of design help to arrange and organize the elements in a design. The main principles
of design are:-

1) BALANCE

Balance is the concept of visual equilibrium, stability and relates to our physical sense of
balance. Balance in a three dimensional object is easy to understand; if balance isn’t achieved,
the object tips over. is a state of equalized weight/tension and is visually balanced. Most
successful compositions achieve balance in one of three ways:

Symmetrically (Formal balance)

The elements within the design are identical in relation to a centerline or axis. If you draw a line
down the centre of the page, all the objects on one side of the screen are mirrored on the other
side (they may not be identical objects, but they are similar in terms of numbers
of objects, colours and other elements. Sometimes they are completely identical (often seen in
architecture).

Asymmetrically (Informal balance)

Asymmetrical balance occurs when compositional units that have equilibrium within the total
design but are not identical. Parts of the design are not identical but are equal in visual weight.
Objects on each side of the central dividing line are different. More exciting and dramatic. It
involves placement of objects in a way that will allow objects of varying visual weight to balance
one another around a fulcrum point or a line.
Radially

Balance based on a circle with its design extending from its centre (ex. Wheels with spokes,
daisies, stars). Design elements radiate outward from the center. Radiation creates a sweeping,
dramatic, circular motion in a room.

2) RHYTHM AND MOVEMENT

Rhythm can be described as timed movement through space; an easy, connected path along
which the eye follows a regular arrangement of motifs. The presence of rhythm creates order in
a composition. Rhythm depends largely upon the elements of pattern and movement to
achieve its effects. A movement in which some elements recurs regularly.
Movement: is the path the viewer’s eye takes through the composition, often to a focal area. It
can be directed along lines, edges, shapes and color. Movement is closely tied to rhythm.

Three types of Rhythm:

 Regular Rhythm
A regular rhythm occurs when the intervals between the elements, and often the
elements themselves, are similar in size or length.

 Flowing Rhythm
A flowing rhythm gives a sense of movement, and is often more organic in nature.
 Progressive Rhythm
A progressive rhythm shows a sequence of shapes and forms through a progression of
steps.

3) EMPHASIS
To distinguish one area of a design from the areas around it. Emphasis is also referred to
as point of focus, or interruption. It marks the locations in a composition which most
strongly draw the viewers’ attention. Usually there is a primary, or main, point of
emphasis, with perhaps secondary emphases in other parts of the composition.

Emphasis can be achieved through size, placement, shape, color, and/or use of lines.
Examples:-
Emphasis by Position Emphasis by Colour and Emphasis by Size
isolation

Emphasis by Shape Emphasis by line

4) CONTRAST

The state of being strikingly different from something else in juxtaposition or close
association. Contrast achieves emphasis by setting the point of emphasis apart from the
rest of its background. Various kinds of contrasts are possible.

Contrast of colour, texture, size, placement or shape will call attention to a specific
point.

5) PROPORTION AND SCALE

Proportion-The ratio of height to width in a two or three dimensional frame of
reference. Proportion refers to the relative size and scale of the various elements in a
design. The issue is the relationship between objects, or parts, of a whole. This means
that it is necessary to discuss proportion in terms of the context or standard used to
determine proportions.
 Proportion refers to the rightness to the size of the parts in a total work.
 The relationship between the part to each other and the whole.

Scale-The relative size of an object to the other object, its settings or human
dimensions.
 Proportion

Proportion by relating the size of the parts to the whole

Scale-The relative size of an object to the other object,

its settings or human dimensions.
6) Variety
It shows difference, for example when combining one or more elements of art to create
interest by adding slight changes. Variety can relieve monotony by giving the eye a
number of different details to look at.

Some of the most common ways of creating Variety are by creating differences in:

 Sizes – large vs. small

 Shapes – geometric vs. organic/free form, real vs. abstract

 Values – light vs. dark

 Colors – warm vs. cool, complementary, intense vs. dull

 Textures – smooth vs. rough

 Direction – horizontal vs. vertical/diagonal/curved.

Variety by shape

Variety by direction
7) Unity
The whole or coherent effect of a design which results from the combination of all its
components. It summarizes all of the principles and elements of design. It refers to the
coherence of the whole, the sense that all of the parts are working together to achieve a
common result; a harmony of all the parts.
 The state of oneness or wholeness
 Unity is the relationship among the elements of a visual that helps all the
elements function together.