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INTRODUCTION
Carter OUTLINE
‘mScience 1s KNowteDGe ‘ Dirrenent Socat Scinces: A Gumpse
1m Cussirication oF Sciences: Pasicat SCIENCES AMD SOCIAL SCIENCES Tit Becomncs oF Soaoocy
sm Sociat Sciences ane Less Exact im Characteristics oF Eanty Socovosy
vm The necessiry For Sociat Sciences 1m EstaBusiient oF Socoiocy as a Science
1m Sociotocy as a Sociat Science ‘m= Conrraeurions oF Aucuste Come, Hensent Spencer, Kant Mane,
vw Ewencence oF Sociat Sciences: A Brier HisToRIcaL BACKGROUND ‘Ewiue Durkin AND Max Weser
1m New INTELLECTUAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL TENDENCIES AND THEIR IMPACT ON SOCIOLOGY IN INDIA
‘Te Devetopment oF Soctat Sciences t= Twe Usroaate Goats oF Sociotocy
1m Devetopment oF Direnent Sociat Sciences,
ESS
Sociology is the youngest of the Social Sciences: Its major concem is society, and hence it is popularly known as the
“Science of Society”. But, if we are to understand the entire scope of the subject, how it is to be studied, what sociologists
do, how they do, what methods they follow, what problems they face in their studies, it is necessary to know the meaning,
of Science and the classification of sciences into physical and social.
SCIENCE IS KNOWLEDGE
‘Science is concerned with knowledge. It refers to the body of knowledge systematically arranged. Knowledge is its pur-
Pose and system refers to the method that has to be followed for the acquisition of knowledge. Exploring the different horizons
of knowledge is not only a challenge but also a matter of great intellectual delight to a scientist. Knowledge is as vast as an
‘ocean. The more a scientist acquires it, the more it remains to be acquired. Not only a scientist is more interested in acquiring
knowledge but also he is better equipped to do so.
CLASSIFICATION OF SCIENCES
Itis humanly impossible for any individual to master the whole of knowledge with all its complexity and diversity,
(One can only attempt to understand more about one or the other branch of knowledge. There are different sciences to deal
with different branches of knowledge. These sciences are of two kinds: (i) Physical Sciences, and (ii) Social Sciences.
Physical Sciences
The physical sciences deal mostly with the natural inanimate objects. They are regarded as more precise, exact and
less dubious. Ex: Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Geology, Geography, Astronomy, etc.
‘The physical scientists make use of the scientific method in order to acquire knowledge in their respective fields. They can
Concluct experiments to verify the facts. Theories and laws of universal validity are established more easily and accurately in
Physical sciences. They provide less scope for doubt and uncertainty. Prediction is not only possible, but also easy and accurate,
The problem of objectivity can be overcome ‘easily. The relationship between cause and effects is relatively more clear here. 4
anne enae Ss a wae 4 | Sociology
Social Sciences
‘The term Social Science is often loosely applied to any kind of study which is concerned with man and society. By,
in the strict sense, it refers to “the application of scientific methods of the study of intricate and complex network of huray
relationships and the forms of organization desired to enable peoples to live together in socieie® As Young and Mack say,
“By Social Science we mean thase bodies of knowledge compiled through the use of scientific method which deal with the
forms and contents of man’ interaction”. Ex: History, Political Science, Economics, Sociology, Anthropology, Psychology etc
To be social is to interact, to participate in group life. All human beings are social. People interact with other people
in order to survive, All human beings live in society, that is to say, every person is a member of the same human group
vr some social environment, The physicist, the chemist, the astronomer and the biologist study the universe, in which we
live and the elements of which it is composed, in an attempt to understand our physical environment. Similarly, the social
scientist studies the environment in which we live in, and attempts to understand human society and to predict how people
will interact in a given set of circumstances.
Social Sciences are Less Exact
When compared with the physical sciences, the social sciences are less exact and less precise. The social scientists
face many difficulties while making their studies. Scientific method, with all its established procedures, cannot be strictly
used in social investigations, because experiments of laboratory conditions are difficult to be arranged in the social field
Controlled experiments are almost impossible here. The whole society constitutes the laboratory for the social scientist
Since the social scientists have to deal with man who is more complex and everchanging, their studies become less precise
though not completely dubious. Complexity of social data, interdependence of cause and effest, problems of obj
and prediction etc., have made social science comparatively less exact.
The Necessity for Social Sciences
‘The two global wars of the 20th century have created new anxieties and new fears for the mankind. These wars the
world had to bear with before it could properly maintain its balance which was previously disturbed by the process of
Industrial Revolution of the 18th and 19th centuries. The scientists, philosophers, administrators, politicians and many
other thoughtful observers have been warning human beings for many years of the dangers of the increasing imbalance in
their culture. The recent scientific advances in physical sciences culminating in the atomic bomb, hydrogen bomb, germ
warfare and even the tragedy of Hiroshima, have at last awakened even the innocent people all over the world to the need
for comparable competence in social sciences.
‘The science has shown that itis capable of organising the forces of the atom to cause the destruction of the entire world
by a single explosion. It has posed a challenge whether it is possible to organise the forces inherent in human beings and
in human society to make such destruction impossible. Hence the necessity of social science. This need, the humanit
obliged to fulfil in mutual self-defense.
Tis an irony that the material resources like coal, iron, oil, forest, soil and minerals are better organised than human
resources like human energy, intelligence, inherent goodness of man etc, Today governments are busily engaged in armament
race. Every country spends millions for inventing or possessing destructive weapons on agencies. But no country spends
even a fraction of it to stop such dangerous and suicidal works.
Fortunately, realisation has dawned. It is now felt that the imbalance between the physical and social sciences is to
be set right. Advancement in physical sciences alone cannot bring man happiness. Social sciences are equally important in
promoting human welfare. Social sciences help in understanding and controlling social interactions. “The anthropologist
the astronomer of the social in 1954, The U.N.O., UNESCO, W.H.O. are
organisations which attempt forthe solution of the modem world problems on sociological knowledge.
In conclusion, it can be said that a medical doctor has a basic doctrine that he should prevent disease and save life.
Similarly, the social scientist has a basic doctrine that he should prevent friction and violence in human relations and that
the should save lives and help in establishing peaceful and self-respecting relations between man and man.
SOCIOLOGY AS A SOCIAL SCIENCE
‘Sociology is one of the members of the family of Social Sciences. As a young social science, it has acquired a distinct
status for itself. Its importance and practical usefulness are widely recognised today. Introduction | 5
if js
. ee = i sense, sociology also is concerned with the life and activities of man. It studies the,nature and
character ¢ ciety, and also its origin, and development, structure and i
Seat terete velopment, structure and functions. It analyses the group life of man
oe ee to determine the relationship and inter-dependence between different elements of social life; between the
noral and the religious, the economic and political, the intell i cand t i
the scientific and the technological, and non-material Firs a Sth ae
‘Sociology also discovers the fundamental conditions i i i
ya of social stability and social change. It analyses the influence of
seonomis pettical, technological, cultural and other forces and factors on man and his life. It endeavours to examine the
influence of biological and geographic factors on man also, It throws more light on various social problems like poverty,
beggary, over-population, crime, unemployment, etc.
EMERGENCE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES: A BRIEF HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
__ The beginning ofthe tradition of social sciences has been one of the major developments of the 1th century. Social
sciences such as economics, political science and history though have a long story of their own, could get the recognition
as “social sciences” only in the 19th century. Thinkers and writers such as Herodotus [known as the “Eather of History”};
Aristotle [often known as the “Father af political science"}; Manu, the great law giver; Kautilya, an authority on
“Arthashastra”, and many others had written good treatises on different areas of social sciences more than 2000 years ago.
‘The political and social atmosphere of ancient Greece, Rome and India also favoured this kind of intellectual exercises. Due
to historical reasons these countries could not maintain the same tempo during the Middle Age. [500 A.D. to 1550A.D.]
But during 17th and I8th centuries the processes of{Renaissance] and{Enlightenmentlzave a big impetus to the continuation
of the tradition of reasoning, This change in the intellectual atmosphere favoured the development of sciences which came
to be called “social sciences”.
SS
Impact of Twin Revolutions: The French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution
It is often said that social sciences in the 19th century are mostly understood as responses to the
that was created in men’s minds by the weakening of the old order under the twin blows of the| ordand the
Tndusirial Revolution) The European society was hard hit by these{tvin Revolutions) The old social order that rested on
Kinship, land social class, religion, local community, and monarchy became very shaky. Thinkers were more concerned
about finding ways and means of reconsolidating these elements of social order. Hence the history of Ith century politics,
industry, and trade is basically about she practical eforts of human beings 10 reconsolidate these elements, Thus, itis
obvious thatthe history ofthe 19th century social thought is about theoretical efforts to reconsolidate them - that is, fo give
them new contents and meaning.
“in terms of the immediacy and sheer massiveness ofthe impact on human though and values, t would be dificult to find
revolutions of comparable magnitude i human history. The political, social and cultural changes that began in France and
England atthe very end of the 18th century spread almost immediately through Europe and the America in We 19th century
Gaither on toAsia, Africa, and Oceania in the 20th. The effects of the two revolutions the one overwhelmingly democratic in
‘he thrust the other indusrial capitalist, have been fo undermine, shake, or topple instntions that had endured for centuries,
them systems of authority, status, belief and community”. q
even millennia, and with U
New Intellectual and Philosophical Tendencies and their Impact on the Development of Social
Sciences
“The twin revolutions, [the French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution of Britain] that took place inthe I8th century
in Europe let loose a new intellectual and philosophical wave. Intellectual currents inthe form of socio-politiea} ideologies
were also witnessed, For example, te ideologies of individualism, socialism, uiltarianism, [Link], took ther birth
It became fashionable for intellectuals and thinkers to float new ideologies and spread novel ideas:
Of the various types of intellectual influences, the impact of positivism, humanitarianism and evolutionism on social
Sciences was considerable.
" Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. 27, p. 367. 6 | Sociology
Positivism
Positivism implied nor merely an appeal to science but almost reverence for science. The positivist appeal of sce
was to be scen everywhere, The 19th century saw the virtual insitutionalisation of the ideal of science. The great sim ys
that of dealing with moral values, institutions, and all social phenomena through the same fundamental methods that com
be used so suecessfilly in such areas as physics or biology.
Prior to the 19th century, no very clear distinction had been made between| But now the
distinction between philosophy and science became very clear, It was also felt that every area of man’s thought and behavioy,
could be put to scientific investigation, More than anyone else, it was (Auguste Comtglwho heralded the idea ofthe scientf
treatment of social behaviour. His book “Positive Philosophy” [original French name: “Cours de philosophie Positive,
published in six volumes between 1830 and 1842, sought to demonstrate the necessity of the science of man in society. He
coined the word “sociology” to name such a science. He argued that this science called “sociology” would do for “man the
social being” exactly what biology had already done for “man the biological animal”. Comte was not alone to argue andig
think in this manner. He was supported by many thinkers of the day.
Humanitarianism
Humanitarianism, though a very distinguishable current of thought, it was closely related to the idea of “science of
society”. Humanitarianism is an ideology committed to the cause of human welfare or societal welfare, The ultimate purpose
of social science was also thought by almost everyone to be the welfare society. Humanitarianism entered the sphere of “soci
consciousness” and made the people to realise the need for doing something for the improvement of the poor and needy.
Dueto the influence of humanitarianism, several social service organisations, orphanages, poor houses, child protective
laws came in. Great concer was shown towards the poor in the artistic, literary, religious and political communities,
Hospitals and sanitaria sprang up in many cities. Making provisions for drinking water facilities, educational opportunities,
economic assistance etc. for the benefit of the needy, became a part of the local administrative bodies. The need for more
“social philosophising” was called for. A genuine application of the science of human understanding was needed. It is clear
from the above, that humanitarianism and social science were reciprocally related in their purposes. All that helped the
cause of the one could be seen as helpful to the other,
Evolutionism -
The third of the intellectual influences is that of evolution,” It affected everyone of the social Sciences each of which
‘was concerned with the idea of “development”. It was believed that the idea of evolution would help people to understand
the development in social structures ot societies as it had helped the biologists to understand the development in the structure
of animals.
‘The impact of Charles Darwin's “origin of Species”, published in 1859, was of course great and further enhanced the
‘appeal of the evolutionary view of things. It should be noted thet even before the publication of Darwin's work, Comte,
‘cer and Marx had already given shape to the idea of evolution in thei literary works. “The important point, in any
‘vent, is that the idea or the philosophy of evolution was in the ai throughout the century, as profoundly contributory to
the establishment of sociology as a systematic discipline in the 1830s as to such fields as geology, astronomy, and biology.
Evolution was as permestive an idea as the Trinity had been in medieval Europe”
Development of Different Social Sciences
‘Among the disciplines that formed the social sciences, two contrary, but powerful tendencies a ist dominated them,
(i) The first was the drive towards unification, that is towards a single, master: ‘social science. Some thinkers felt that it was
better io have a single science of society [that would take its place in the hierarchy of sciences} than to have a plurality of
social seiences. Inthe 1820s itself Auguste Comte wrote calling for a new science, the one to study man a a social animal.
Comic, Spencer, Marx, Bentham and many thers to join them, saw the study of society as a unified enterprise, Since society
ia an indivisible thing, the study of society mst be a unified ofe. This was their basic belief.
ion means “fo develop” or “Wo unfold”. implies continuous change that takes place especially in some structure.
‘Sccial thinkers like Comte and others borrowed the term from biological science and replaced it with “social evolution”, The tem
Social evolution” was used by them o explain the evolution of human society from one stage to another, from simplicity to complexity:
Encyclopedia Britannico, Vol. 27, p. 369. ee
Anthropology
Psychology
Introduction [7
(id The second tendency was towards specialisation of individual social sciences. It was this opposite tendency of
specialisation or differentiation that won out. In spite of the dreams of Comte, Spencer, Marx and others, there were to be
found atthe end of the 19th century not one, but several distinct, competitive social sciences. Development of colleges and
‘universities throughout Europe and America very strongly supported this process. These formal educational institutions in
fact, started the “age of specialisation”. This began first in Germany and later on spread to England, America, France and
other countries. The philosophy of specialisation became so fascinating that no major field of study could escape the lure
of specialisation,
Different Social Sciences: A Glimpse
As it has already been said earlier social sciences refer to a related group of disciplines that study various aspects of
human behaviour. The main social sciences are—sociology, economics, political science, anthropology and psychology.
History is also included in this category. Human behaviour, of course, does not come in such neat compartments, In
reality the boundaries between, the social sciences ate very vague and constantly shifting. Each one of these sciences has