Daily Geography Class Notes Compilation
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nraja200559Daily Geography Class Notes Compilation
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nraja200559Compilation of
Daily Class Notes
Geography
List of Lectures
Chapter 01: Geomorphology
1. Internal Structure of the Earth
2. Internal Structure of Earth (Part 02)
3. Continental Drift Theory
4. Continental Drift Theory (Part 02)
5. Plate Tectonics
6. Plate Tectonics (Part 02)
7. Plate Tectonics (Part 03)
8. Plate Tectonics (Part 04)
9. Hotspots
10. Volcanism
11. Volcanism (Part 02)
12. Volcanism (Part 03)
13. Endogenic and Exogenic Forces
14. Endogenic and Exogenic Forces (Part 2)
15. Endogenic and Exogenic Force (Part 03)
16. Aeolian Landforms
17. Aeolian Landforms (Part 02)
18. Fluvial Landforms
19. Karst Topography
20. Karst Topography (Part 02)
21. Coastal Landforms
22. Glaciated Landforms
23. Glaciated Landforms (Part 02)
24. Mass Wasting
25. Mass Wasting (Part 02)
26. Mass Wasting (Part 03)
Ch 02: Climatology
1. Atmosphere
2. Atmosphere and Insolation
3. Insolation And Temperature
3. Insolation And Temperature
4. Insolation And Temperature (Part 02)
5. Temperature
6. Temperature (Part 02)
7. Temperature Inversion
8. Pressure
9. Pressure and Wind Belts
10. Types of Winds
11. Types of Winds (Part 02)
12. Local Winds and Mediterranean Climate
13. Moisture in Atmosphere
14. Climatic Regions
15. Indian Monsoon
16. Indian Monsoon (Part 02)
17. Indian Monsoon (Part 03)
18. Indian Monsoon (Part 04)
19. Indian Climate and Climatic Classification
20. Climatic Classification and Human Settlement
21. Climatic Classification and Human Settlement (Part 02)
22. Cyclone And Urbanisation
23. Cyclone and Urbanization (Part 02)
24. Cyclone and Migration
25. Condensation, Precipitation, Thunderstorms and Migration
26. Climatic Classification and Regions, Migration
27. Climatic Regions, Thunderstorm and Migration
28. Population and Migration
Chapter 03: Oceanography
1. Oceanography
2. Temperature and salinity of ocean
3. Temperature and salinity of ocean (Part 02)
4. Temperature and salinity of ocean (Part 03)
5. Ocean Currents and Indian Physiography
Chapter 04: Indian physiography
1. Indian Physiography-1
2. Physiography of India (Part 02)
3. Indian Physiography (Part 03)
4. India’s Location
5. India’s Location (Part 02)
6. India’s Location (Part 03)
7. India’s Location (Part 04)
8. India’s Location (Part 05)
9. India’s Location (Part 06)
10. India’s Location (Part 07)
11. India’s Location (Part 08)
12. Indian Rivers
13. Indian Rivers (Part 02)
14. Soil
15. Soil Classification
16. Soil (Part 03)
17. Soil (Part 04)
18. Agriculture
19. Agriculture (Part 02)
20. Types of Crops and Irrigation
21. Types of Crops and Irrigation (Part-02)
22. Types of Crops and Irrigation (Part-03)
23. Industries
Geography
Chapter 01: Geomorphology
Lecture 01: Internal Structure of the Earth
Internal Structure of Earth:
Old View:
th
● In the 20 century,EdwardSuersgave this view onthe basis of chemical composition.
● According to this view, the Earth hasthree layers:
○ SiAl (Silica + Aluminium):It is the uppermost andlightest
(minimum density) layer of the earth. The continents are
made up of SiAl.
○ SiMa (Silica + Magnesium):The ocean basins are madeof
SiMa. SiAl (lighter) floats over SiMa (heavier).
○ NiFe (Nickel + Iron):This is the lowermost and densest
layer of the earth.
● This idea of Edward Suers isless relevant.
Recent/ Modern Ideas on Earth’s Internal Composition:
● On Basis of Mechanical Composition:
○ Chemically these layers are different but these layers behave as one
mechanically.
● On Basis of Chemical Composition:
○ There arethree layersof the earth:
■ Crust
■ Mantle
■ Core
Crust:
● It is theuppermost layerof the earth.
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● It is oftwo types:
○ Continental Crust:
■ It isthicker.
■ The average depth varies between30-35 kms.In factthe depth below the
Himalayas is 70-80 kms.
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■ It isless dense(approximately2.7 g/cm).
■ It is made up ofgranite rocks. This means graniterocks are lighter, less
dense and arerelatively hard. These rocks are igneousrocks (made up of
lava and magma).
○ Oceanic Crust:
■ It isthinner.
■ The depth varies between2-7 kmswhereas its averagedepth is5 kms.
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■ It isdenser(approximately2.9 g/cm).
■ It is made up ofbasalt rocks. This means basalt rocksare heavier, denser
andrelatively soft.These rocks are igneous rocks.
○ NOTE:Continent and ocean lie side by side.
Different Types of
Igneous Rocks:
● Extrusive Rocks:
Rocks formed by
lavaabove the
earth's surface.
● Intrusive Rocks:
Rocks made up ofmagmaand foundbelow the earth'ssurface.
Types of Rocks:
Extrusive Rocks Rhyolite Andesite Basalt Komatite
Intrusive Rocks Granite Diorite Gabbro Peridotite
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Properties: Properties of Properties of Properties of Properties of
Rhyolite and Andesite and Basalt and Komatite and
Granite: Diorite: Gabbro: Peridotite:
● Feldspar ● Silica ● Magnesiu ● Magnesiu
and content m and m and
Silica is Ferric Ferric
(approxi between (iron) (iron)
mately 45-60%. content content
70%) ● Thus, is high. is very
content these ● Silica high.
is high. rocks are content ● Silica
● Thus, known as is less content
these Intermed than is less
rocks are iate 40%. than
known as Rocks. ● Thus, 20%.
Felsic ● Because these ● Thus
Rocks. of high rocks are these
● Because silica known as rocks are
of high content, Mafic known as
silica these Rocks. Ultra
content, rocks are ● Because Mafic
these Acidic of low Rocks.
rocks are Rocks. silica ● Because
Acidic ● These content, of low
Rocks. arelight these silica
● These coloured rocks are content,
rocks are rocks. Basic these
formed Rocks. rocks are
by ● These Basic
sticky aredark Rocks.
and coloured ● These
viscous rocks. aredark
magma/l coloured
ava. rocks.
● These
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arelight
coloured
rocks.
Mantle:
● It is foundbelow the crustand uptoa depth of2900kms.
● Approximately83-84% of the volume of earthis coveredby mantle.
● It is divided intothree layers:
○ Upper Mantle:
■ It is foundbelow the crust and uptothe depth of400 kms.
■ Peridotite rocksare more common.
■ Olivine mineralis found.
○ Intermediate Mantle (Middle Mantle):
■ It is found between the depths of400-700/900 kms.
■ Very hard rockis found.
■ It is avery solid layer.
■ Spinel mineralis found.
○ Inner Mantle (Lower Mantle):
■ It is found between the depths of700/900-2900 kms.
■ This is thedensest layerof the mantle.
■ Perovskite mineralis found.
■ It is avery solid layer.
Core:
● It is foundbelow the mantle and uptoa depth of
6371 kms.
● It covers around15-16% of earth’s volume.
● This is thedensest partof the earth.
● It is further divided intotwo layers:
○ Outer Core:
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■ It is found between the depths of2900-4800/ 5150kms.
■ It is inliquid state.The reason being:
● As per geoscientists' assumptions,radioactiveelementsdecay. This
generates heat which increases the temperature leading to the
melting of the materials of this layer.
● Trapped Primordial Heat:The heat of the earth’s formationis still
trapped in the outer core.
■ The elements found in this layer includeiron withsome impuritieslike
silicates, sulphur, cobalt, and nickel.
○ Inner Core:
■ It is found between the depths of4800/ 5150-6371kms.
■ This is thedensest part of the earthbecause of thepresence of very very
dense iron.
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Geography
Chapter 01: Geomorphology
Lecture 02: Internal Structure of Earth (Part 02)
Mechanical Composition of Earth’s Interior:
● Lithosphere:
○ The lithosphere extends up to 0-100 km and consists of the crust and the upper
part of the upper mantle, behaving as one solid unit.
○ This solid unit is known as the Rocksphere, which is solid and brittle, meaning it
is not very flexible.
○ The lithosphere is fragmented into broken interlocked pieces, known as lithospheric
plates.
○ These lithospheric plates float over the asthenosphere.
● Asthenosphere:
○ The asthenosphere is a
semi-solid, jelly-like
layer of the Earth.
○ The upper part of the
upper mantle along with
the crust forms the
lithosphere, while the
remaining part is the
asthenosphere.
○ The depth of the asthenosphere varies from place to place, with an average depth
of 100-400 km.
○ The asthenosphere contains magma chambers, and most of the lava erupted during
volcanic activity originating from this layer.
○ Generally, the lithosphere is less dense than the asthenosphere.
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○ The presence of magma in the asthenosphere is mainly due to the decay of
radioactive elements, which generates heat and increases the temperature, causing
the material to melt and form magma chambers.
○
● Mesosphere:
○ The mesosphere is composed of the middle mantle and the inner mantle.
● Bryosphere:
○ The bryosphere is composed of the outer core and the inner core.
○ Geomagnetism is believed to be generated due to the interaction between the liquid
outer core and the solid inner core.
Sources of Information About the Interior of the Earth:
● Indirect Source
● Direct Source
Direct Source:
● Drilling and Mining:
○ Drilling and mining provide direct information about the upper part of the crust.
○ The disadvantage of this method is that it only provides information up to a depth
of 15-16 km.
● Volcanic Eruption:
○ Volcanic eruptions are another example of a direct source.
○ They clarify the presence of minerals found inside the Earth.
○ Volcanic eruptions indicate that there is a layer below the crust where magma is
present.
○ However, they do not provide information about the exact depth from which the
lava originates.
● Positives of Direct Sources:
○ Direct sources offer immediate and first-hand information.
○ They provide 100% authenticity of the information obtained.
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○ Direct sources validate the information gathered from indirect sources.
Indirect Sources:
● Study of Meteorites:
○ A meteor is a celestial body that burns out completely in the Earth's atmosphere
and does not reach the surface.
○ A celestial body that reaches the Earth's surface is known as a meteorite.
○ The burning of the outer covering of a meteorite is due to friction generated by the
air.
○ Geoscientists believe that the formation of meteorites and the planet Earth is very
similar.
○ If the core of a meteorite contains iron and nickel, it is assumed that the Earth's
core also contains iron and nickel.
● Temperature:
○ The temperature inside the Earth increases with depth.
○ The rate of temperature increase is not fixed and varies at different depths.
○ The upper part of the Earth's surface witnesses a higher rate of temperature
increase due to the abundance of radioactive elements.
○ After the asthenosphere, the rate of temperature increase reduces.
○ If the rate of temperature increase found at the crust continued throughout the
Earth's interior, the entire planet would be in a liquid state, which is not the case.
○ The study of temperature reveals that the Earth consists of various layers with
different materials.
● Seismology:
○ Seismology is the study of seismic waves, which are generated during
earthquakes.
○ Seismic waves are mechanical waves that provide a comprehensive X-ray of the
Earth's interior.
○ Seismology is the major source of information about the Earth's interior.
○ During earthquakes, energy is released in three forms: sound waves, radiation
energy, and mechanical waves.
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■ Sound waves do not provide significant information about the Earth's
interior.
■ Radiation energy, which transfers heat without requiring a medium, does
not help in understanding the Earth's interior.
■ Mechanical waves, known as seismic waves, require a medium to pass
through the Earth's interior and surface.
○ The study of seismic waves is conducted through seismograph stations.
○ Seismograph stations are located in the Arctic Ocean, Antarctic Ocean, and many
other parts of the world.
○ The focus is the origin of an earthquake, located below the Earth's surface. The
depth of focus can vary from 20 km to 120 km or even 200 km.
○ The epicenter is the point on the Earth's surface closest to the focus.
○ If the focus is near the Earth's surface, the earthquake will be more dangerous.
Types of Seismic Waves:
● Earthquake waves are basically of two types — body waves and surface waves.
● Body Waves: They travel within the body of the earth (inside the earth) . They help to
understand the interior structure of the earth. They are classified into Primary waves and
Secondary waves.
● Surface waves: They are moving above the earth's surface . They are classified into
Rayleigh waves and Love waves. They are responsible for the disaster.
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Geography
Chapter 01: Geomorphology
Lecture 03: Continental Drift Theory
Types of Seismic Waves:
1. Body Waves:
● Body waves are those waves that travelinside the earth.
● There aretwo typesof body waves:
○ Primary Waves (P-Waves)
○ Secondary Waves (S-Waves)
2. Surface Waves:
● These wavestravel along the surface of the Earth, rather than through its
interior.
● They are theslowest and most damagingof the seismicwaves.
● There aretwo main typesof surface waves:
○ Rayleigh Waves
○ Love Waves
Types of Surface Waves:
1. Rayleigh Waves:
● Rayleigh waves (named after Lord Rayleigh)
travel along the surface of the Earth, causing
the ground toroll in an elliptical (or orbital)
motion,along the direction that the wave is
travelling.
● The wave's motion issimilar to the motion of a waverolling across the ocean.
● These waves are themost destructivebut arenot
very frequent.
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2. Love Waves:
● Love waves (named after A.E.H. Love) are transverse waves that travel along the
surface of the Earth,causing the ground to shake from side to side,in a motion
perpendicular to the direction that the wave is travelling.
● It is themost frequentsurface waves and therefore it is responsible formaximum
destruction in a year.
Types of Body Waves:
1. Primary Waves (P-Waves):
● About:
○ These are thefirst waves to
reach the epicentre.
○ It is alongitudinal wave,
also known as a
compressional wave.
○ The velocity of primary waves is8-13.8km/second.
○ Itpasses through all mediums, namely liquid, solid,and gas.
○ Themaximum velocityof primary waves is observed in thesolid medium.
○ It is also known aspressure wavesbecause these waves increases and
decreases the pressure on the internal rocks.
○ These waves areanalogous to sound waves.
● Movement of P-Waves:
○ P-waves follow acurved and refracted
path. This proves that:
■ thedensity of the earth keeps on
changing with depth.
■ the earth is not a single material
body and it hasvarious layers of
different densities.
○ Theshadow zoneof P-waves lies between
105° and 145°.This occurs because of the refraction of the waves.
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○ The change in the velocity of P-waves indicates the start of a new layer
with a different density.
● Observation of P-Waves:
○ Upto 30-35 km of depth, thespeedof P-waves isslowi.e. around 4-6
km/sec. This indicates that upto this depth(continentalcrust)the
density of the earth is low.
○ Beyond 30-35 kms andupto 100 kms,
thevelocity increasesupto 7.8 km/sec.
This represents thata new layer (upper
part of upper mantle) begins having
high density.
○ Beyond 100 kms depth, there is a
sudden fall in the velocityof P-waves
which continuesupto the depth of
350/ 400 km.This depicts that the
layer below 100 km issemi-solid and
not hard enough (Asthenosphere). (Here rigidity decides thevelocity of
the P-wave.)
■ NOTE:In the asthenosphere, the velocity of P-wave decreases
therefore the asthenosphere is known as the‘Zoneof Low
Velocity’.
∝f (density, rigidity)
P Waves’ Velocity
This means that:
● High density = High velocity of P-wave
Low density = Low velocity of P-wave
● Hard Surface (Solid) = High velocity of P-wave
Soft Surface = Low velocity of P-wave
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○ From 400 kms andupto the depth of 2900 kms, the velocity of P-waves
increases progressively.Thus, it can be said thatwith increasing depth in
the mantle, the density also increases.
■ NOTE:In thelower/ inner mantle, the velocity becomes maximum
in the entire mantle. Therefore, the inner mantle is known as the
‘Zone of High Velocity’.
○ Thevelocityof waves againdropsbeyond 2900 kmsand remains almost
the sameupto the depth of 5150 kms(outer liquidcore).
○ Thevelocitybeyond 5150 km againincreasesand reaches the limit of 13.8
km/sec at the innermost part of the Earth. This indicates that the
innermost part/ inner coreis made up of with thedensest material which
can beiron.
2. Secondary Waves (S-Waves):
● About:
○ They aresecond to reach the epicentre.
○ They areanalogous to light wavesand are also known astransverse
waves. The movement of particles isperpendicular to
the direction of propagation of waves.
○ Theypass only through solid mediums and do not pass
through liquid and gas mediums.
● Movement of S-Waves:
○ S-waves also follow acurved and refracted path.
○ Theshadow zoneof S-waves lies between105°E and
145°W.
● Observation of S-Waves:
○ S-wavesdoes not pass through the outer corewhichmeans that the
outer core is in theliquid state.
○ S-wavespass through the asthenospherewhich means that the
asthenosphere isnot in the liquid state.
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Discontinuity:
● Discontinuity is alayer or transition zonewhere one layer of the Earth ends and another
layer with a different density starts.
● In1908-09, Mohorovicicwas the first person to give the concept of discontinuity. He
mentioned a transition layer between crust and mantle.
● The various discontinuities inside the earth include:
○ Conrad Discontinuity:Discontinuity between uppercrust (continent) and lower
crust (continent).
○ Moho Discontinuity:Discontinuity between lower crustand upper mantle. It was
discovered by Mohorovicis in 1908-09.
○ Repetti Discontinuity:Discontinuity between uppermantle and lower mantle.
○ Gutenberg Discontinuity:Discontinuity between thelower mantle and outer core.
It was discovered by Gutenberg in the 1920s.
○ Lehmann Discontinuity:Discontinuity between outer core and inner core.
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Geography
Chapter 01: Geomorphology
Lecture 04: Continental Drift Theory (Part 02)
Continental Drift Theory:
● In the 19th and Early 20th Century, People believed in the theory of Permanency, which
posited that continents and ocean basins were stationary.
● Catastrophism was another prevailing belief, suggesting that every landform on Earth was
the result of sudden, catastrophic forces.
● The Continental Drift Theory contradicts the theory of Permanency by asserting that
continents are moving and have moved in the past.
● In the 1850s, Antonio Snider first proposed the concept of continental drift.
● In 1910, F.B. Taylor, an American, presented a theory of continental drift, but it was
discarded because he could not explain or prove his theory effectively.
● In 1912, Alfred Wegener, a German meteorologist, presented the Continental Drift Theory
in the German language.
● Due to the First World War (1914-1919), his theory was not widely published until 1921.
● Wegener was studying past climates (paleoclimates) when he developed his theory.
● Wegener's Advantages:
○ By Wegener's time, many theories and studies on fossils and past climates had
already been conducted.
● He discovered fossils of organisms and vegetation from warmer climates in cold regions and
vice versa. Examples include:
○ Fossils of pine trees, which thrive in cooler regions, were found in the Sahara
Desert, a tropical region.
○ Fossils of corals, typically found in warmer tropical waters, were found on the
Norwegian coast, a cool temperate region.
● Wegener considered two possibilities:
○ In the past, climatic belts were different (this idea was later discarded).
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○ If the climate has remained as it is today, then continents must have moved in the
past.
● He adopted the second conclusion and used it as the basis for his Continental Drift
Theory.
Postulates of the Theory:
● There existed a supercontinent known as Pangea during the Carboniferous period,
approximately 250 to 300 million years ago.
● Pangea comprised all continental landmasses and was surrounded by a vast water body
called Panthalassa, with the modern Pacific Ocean being a remnant of Panthalassa.
● Note: Wegener did not mention anything about Pangea before the Carboniferous period. The
Earth formed around 4.5 billion years ago, with crust formation occurring approximately 3.5
to 3.8 billion years ago, and the Carboniferous period around 300 million years ago.
● Wegener accepted Edward Suess's idea that the Sial (continental crust) floats over the
Sima (oceanic crust) without friction. In reality, the lithosphere floats over the
asthenosphere.
● Wegener believed that the majority of Pangea was located in the southern hemisphere.
● Pangea began to break up into two large landmasses during the early and mid-Mesozoic
times, around 225 million years ago, leading to the formation of a new ocean/sea called
the Tethys Sea.
● By the Jurassic period, Laurasia (northern part) and Gondwanaland (southern part) had
further broken into several continents.
● From Laurasia, continents moved westward to form North America, Greenland, and
Eurasia.
● From Gondwanaland, continents moved in various directions: South America moved
westward, Africa, Madagascar, India, and Australia moved northward, and Antarctica
moved southward.
● The Mediterranean Sea is the remaining part of the Tethys Sea.
● The present-day configuration and positions of oceans and continents were established by
the Pleistocene Age (1.5 million years ago).
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World Map:
Geographical Zones and Hemispheres
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● Northern Hemisphere:
○ The half of the Earth lies north of the equator.
● Southern Hemisphere:
○ The half of the Earth lies south of the equator.
● Torrid Zone:
○ The region between the Tropic of Cancer (23½°N) and the Tropic of Capricorn
(23½°S).
○ In this zone, the Sun's rays are perpendicular at some point during the year.
● Arctic Circle:
○ Located at approximately 66½°N latitude.
○ In this region, the Sun's rays are slanting and never rise very high above the horizon,
leading to long periods of twilight or darkness.
● Antarctic Circle:
○ Located at approximately 66½°S latitude.
○ Similar to the Arctic Circle, the Sun's rays are slanting, resulting in extended periods
of twilight or darkness.
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● Temperate Zone:
○ The region between the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle in the Northern
Hemisphere, and between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle in the
Southern Hemisphere.
○ This zone experiences moderate temperatures and distinct seasons.
● Frigid Zone (Polar Zone):
○ The regions within the north of the Arctic and south of the Antarctic Circles.
○ These are known as heat deficit zones due to the low angle of incoming sunlight,
resulting in extremely cold temperatures.
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Geography
Ch 01: Geomorphology
Lecture 05: Plate Tectonics
Criticism of the Continental Drift Theory:
● On forces:
○ Gravitational Attraction:It was initially thoughtthat gravitational attraction could be responsible for the
continents moving towards the Equator. However, thistheory was discardedbecause if the force at the
Equator were indeed that strong, all landmasses would have been attracted towards the Equator. This
attraction would create a bulge, which is not observed.
○ Westward Movement of the Continents:Wegenercouldnot explain the forces responsible for
continental drift.The idea that gravitational forcesfrom the Sun and Moon (tidal force) could cause this
movement was previously presented by F.B. Taylor. However, thistheory was also discarded.
○ Explanations arenot satisfying the present-day characteristicsof forces.
● The explanation given by Waganer when asked about the formation of the Rocky Mountains is:
○ SIAL faces some obstruction from SIMA while floating over it. Due to this obstruction (friction), SIAL got
accumulated at a place and that led to formation of Rocky mountain.
○ Criticism:Contradicted his own concept that SIALmoves on SIMA without any friction.
● Hefailed to provide satisfactory answers to the questionof the formation of the island Arcs. Example:
Caribbean island, Indonesian island etc.
● His theory failed to explain the scenario of continents before the Carboniferous era.
● The concept of Sial and Sima is incorrect.
Evidence of Theory:
● Jig-Saw-Fit/Juxa Fit(Apparent affinity of the physicalfeatures):
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○ The coasts of the Atlantic Oceanfit together perfectly when matchedi.e. the western coast of Africa
fits with the eastern coast of South America. This alignment suggests that these landmasses were once
joined together.
● Structural Fit:
○ The rocks of the eastern coast of South America match those of
the western coast of Africa. This is possible only if these
continents were once together and later drifted apart. Example:
○ Example:
■ Borborema Plateau of South America and Fouta Djallon.
■ Angola Plateau of Africa and Patagonia Plateau of Argentina
■ The coal fields of the Appalachian Mountains in the USA match
those of the Pennines in the UK.
● Placer Deposits:
○ Placer deposits are thesediments deposited on theriver bed,but these sediments contain high-value
metallic minerals like gold.
○ Example:
■ Rich placer deposits of gold are found in Ghana, whereas the source of Gold bearing veins are supposed
to be in Brazil. This indicates that South America and Africa were once together.
● Fossil Evidences:
○ The presence of the same fossils on different continents, even though these continents are now separated
by large oceans, suggests that the continents must have once been closer together. Examples:
■ Fossils of the fernGlossopteris,found in southerncontinents such as India, Australia, South Africa,
the Falkland Islands, and Antarctica,suggest theselands
wereonce part of a supercontinent called Gondwana.The
presence of Glossopteris in carboniferous rocks across these
continents supports the theory of continental drift, as it is
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improbable that these plants spread across vast oceans independently. This evidence indicates that
these continents were once joined together.
■ Similarly, fossils of the freshwater reptileMesosaurushave been found inAfrica and South America.
This reptile could not have lived in saltwater, so this also suggests that Africa and South America
must have once been connected.
■ Fossils of theCynognathus, aTriassic landreptileapproximately 3m long, have been found inAfrica
and South America.It is unlikely that this reptilecould have swum across the Atlantic Ocean, so this
suggests that Africa and South America must have once been connected.
■ The fossils of theTriassic therapsid Lystrosaurushave been discovered inAfrica, India, and
Antarctica. Thedistribution of these fossilsindicatesthat theselandmasses were once connected.
● Paleoclimatic Evidence:
○ One of the most important pieces of evidence is thepresence of cooler region indicatorsfound in
tropical regions. For example, theTalcher regionin Odisha, which istypically warm, has glacial
evidence.Conversely, evidence of warmer regions isfound in cooler areas.
○ According to the present position of India, glaciers in tropical regions likeOdisha are not possible.The
presence ofglacial evidence in Talcher can only beexplainedif the continents were once situated closer
to the South Pole, rather than the equator. Another example is presence of coal fields in regions such as
Germany, the Appalachian Mountains (USA), the Pennines (UK), Scandinavia, and Siberia.
● Coal Evidence:
○ Dense forests in tropical regions are typically found where temperaturesrange from 27°C to 30°C and
annual rainfall is very high (250 cm to 300 cm).
○ The formation of coal involves several processes:subsidence of the land, rise in pressure, sediment
deposition, and the filling of depressions with sediments.
○ Formation of coal:
■ Dense vegetation becomesburied under these sediments,and over time, withextreme pressure and
temperature, this buried vegetationtransforms intosolid rock known as "coal."
■ Although present tropical regions lack significant coal deposits, coal is predominantly found in regions
such as Germany, the Appalachian Mountains (USA), the Pennines (UK), Scandinavia, and Siberia.
This suggests that these regions were once part of tropical belts and have since moved to cooler
temperate zones.
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Geography
Ch 01: Geomorphology
Lecture 06: Plate Tectonics (Part 02)
Post Drift Theories:
Convection Current Theory:
● Convection current theory was proposed by Arthur Holmes in 1930.
HolmessupportedtheContinentalDriftTheory,believingthatcontinents
had moved in the past.
● AsperHolmes,therearevastradioactiveelementspresentinthemantle
oftheearth.Thedecayofradioactiveelementsreleasesenergy,which
increases the surrounding temperature. As the temperature rises, rocks
begin to melt, forming molten magma.
● Sinceitishotandlessdense,itstartstorise,formingarisinglimb
of the cell. This rising limb hits the upper part of earth, crust and
develops a crack.
● Themoltenmagmacomesoutabovetheearth'ssurfacebypushingtheupperpart,i.ecrust.Thispushthus
starts the movement of the crust
● Not allthemagmacomesoutofthecrackandthereforemuchofitgetsdiverted,developingadiverging
limb.This diverging limb, due to friction, dragstheoverlying crust.This is how the crust startsto move.
● Sincethediverginglimbgetsawayfromthehotrisingpartofmagma,itstartstocooldownandbecome
dense,andasaresult,itstartstosinkdownformingasinkinglimb.Thissinkinglimb,afterreachingthe
magma chamber,converges and again starts to rise.
● Thus, a complete convection cellisformedwhichisresponsibleforthecontinuousmotionofthecrust.The
process of forming a convection cell comprises four types of limbs: rising limbs, diverging limbs, sinking
limbs, and converging limbs.
● Conventional current inthemantleisgeneratedbythermaldifferentiation.Thiscurrent istheprimary
driver for the movement of the lithosphere.
● According to Arthur Holmes, the depth of convection cells varies.
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Sea Floor Spreading Theory:
● Hess’stheorywasdevelopedbasedonsonarmappingoftheoceanfloorconductedduringandafterWWII,
which revealed mid-ocean ridges and deep ocean trenches.
● HarryHess'stheorywasbuiltonobservationsthatmid-oceanridgesaresiteswherenewoceaniccrustis
formed through volcanic activity, which then spreads away from the ridges.
● He wasaprofessorofGeologyatPrincetonUniversity(USA).HarryHessalreadyhadtheideaofthe
current theoryand the mapping of the ocean floor.
● Harry Hess combined the findings ofocean floor mappingwith theconvection current theoryand
eventuallypresented his theory of Sea-Floor Spreading.
● The main postulate of the Sea-Floor Spreading theory is that theocean floor is not static; rather, itis
mobile, expanding, and spreading.
● Due to the frictional drag of the diverging limbs, the ocean floor spreads. As the ocean floor spreads, new
lava emerges from the splitting point, leading to the formation of new ocean floor.
● Harry Hess proposed that below the ocean floor, there is magma and convection cells. The magma emerges
as lava from cracksformed by convection currents.When the lava comes into contact with the cold
ocean water, it begins tosolidify, forming a pointedridge.
● The movement of the ocean floor is driven by Ridge Push and the Frictional Drag of Diverging Limbs.
(Note: Harry Hess and Arthur Holmes did not addressthe destruction of the oceanic floor in their theories.)
Mapping of Oceanic Floor:
● During World War II, sonar technology was developed. With the help of sonar technology, it was found
that the oceans are not flat and featureless. In fact, the oceans have various features.
● The ridge, known as the Mid-Oceanic Ridge, is located in the central part of the ocean and is
associated with volcanism.It has a pointed peak andits formation is possible only when the older
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ocean floor is destroyed and new ocean floor is created.
● The age of the ocean floor progressively increases asone moves away from the Mid-Oceanic Ridge.
● The age of the continents (approximately 3.5 billionyears old)is generally greater than that of the
ocean floor ( not more than 250 million years old).However, some geoscientists and geologists believe
that the oceanic crust is older than the continental crust.
● This is possible only when the older ocean floor is destroyed and new ocean floor is formed.
Plate Tectonic Theory:
● PlateTectonicTheorydidnotemergefromasingleeurekamoment;rather,itdevelopedoveralongperiod
oftimethroughtheaccumulationofevidenceandrefinementofearliertheories.TheideasofCDTinspired
many geographers and led to the development of the concept of plate tectonics, challenging earlier
notions of geological permanence.
● Plate TectonicTheoryintegratesthecontributionsofkeyscientistssuchasAlfredWegener,whoinitially
proposed the theory of continental drift, and later scholars like J. Tuzo Wilson, W. Jason Morgan, Dan
McKenzie, and Robin Parker, who further refined and expanded the theory.
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Geography
Ch 01: Geomorphology
Lecture 07: Plate Tectonics (Part 03)
Plate:
● A plate is a geological structure approximately 100 km
deep,constituting the uppermost part of the Earth.
● It comprises both the crust and the upper part of the
upper mantle, collectively known as thelithosphericplate.
● These plates are broken,interlockedfragmentsthatfloat
over the asthenosphere.
● They are in constant motion, not stationary, and the
study of this movement is known as tectonics study.
Types of Plates:
● Continental Plate:A continental plate is a type oflithospheric plate
that lies beneath a landmass. In reality, there isno completely
land-based continental plate. For example, the EurasianPlate has the
largest landmass, but italso contains some waterbodies.It is approximately 100 km deep. The continental
crust is primarily composed of granite rocks.
● Oceanic Plate:An oceanic plate is a type of lithosphericplate thatlies beneath the ocean or sea.The
oceanic crust is primarily composed of basaltic rocks.
● Continental-Oceanic plate:A continental-oceanic plateis a type of lithospheric plate that includes bothland
and ocean areas. The part beneath theland consistsof granite rocks,while thepart beneath the oceanis
composed of basaltic rocks.Most plates areapproximately100 km deep.Examples include the
Indo-Australian Plate, North American Plate, South American Plate, Antarctic Plate, and Eurasian Plate. The
Pacific Plate is the largest plate.
There are 7 Major lithospheric Plates and Approximately 20 Minor Plates:
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● Major Plates:
○ Eurasian plate (Continental plate),
○ Pacific plate (oceanic plate)
○ African plate
○ Indo Australian plate
○ North American plate
○ South American plate
○ Antarctica plate
● Minor plates:
○ Philippine Plate
○ Burma plate
○ Caribbean plate
○ Nazca plate
○ Juan de Fuca's plate
○ Cocos plate
○ Arabian plate
○ Anatolian Plate
○ Java Plate
Types of Plate Margins:
● DestructivePlateMargins:Destructiveplatemarginsareregionswheretectonic
plates are destroyed. This occurs at convergent boundaries, where two plates
collide,leadingtooneplatebeingforcedbeneaththeotherinaprocessknown
as subduction.
● ConstructivePlateMargins:Constructiveplatemarginsareregionswhere
new plates are formed. These margins are typically found in areas of
divergence,wh
eretectonicplatesaremovingapartandmagmarisesfrom
the mantle to create new oceanic crust.
● Conservative Margins: Conservative margins are regions where tectonic plates neither diverge nor converge.
Instead,theplatesslidepasteachotheralongthesemarginswithout
creatingnewcrustordestroyingexistingcrust.Thistypeofboundary
is known as a transform fault boundary. Conservative margins are
associated with intense earthquakes, which can be disastrous,
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leading to significant loss of life and damage to infrastructure.Example: San AndreasFault.
Constructive Plate Margins or Divergent Plate Boundaries:
● Constructive plate margins, also known as divergent plate boundaries, arecharacterizedbytheformationof
mid-ocean ridges. The stages associated with the development of mid-ocean ridges include:
○ Intra-continental Rifting:
■ Intra-continental rifting beginswhenhot,lessdensemagmarisesfromthemantle,creatingarising
limb of the convection cell. As this rising magma reaches the
Earth's crust, it causes the crust to crack and results in domal
uplift. An example of this process is the Ethiopian Highlands,
which exhibit features of domal uplift.
■ As the magma continues to interact withthecrust,itexertstensileforcesthatpullthecontinents
apart. This divergence causes the central portion to subside, creating a rift valley. The process of
formingthisriftvalleyisknownasfaulting.Anexampleofariftvalleyformedthroughthisprocessis
the Great African Rift Valley, which stretches fromMalawitotheDeadSeaalongtheIsrael-Jordan
border.
○ Interplate Thinning:
■ During the subsidence of the crust, the two parts of the crust move apartduetodivergentforces.
Continued divergence causesfurthersubsidenceofthecontinental
block. As the block reaches greater depths, it interacts more
extensively with the magma, leading to additional melting. This
process makes the plate increasingly thin. With the increased
depth, water from neighboring seas or oceans can penetrate the
area,resultingintheformationofanewnarrowlinearsea, such
astheRedSea.Before20millionyearsago,theRedSeawaspart
of a rift valley system. The Arabian Plateisriftingawayfromthe
African Plate along an active divergent ridge system, forming the RedSea.Inthefuture,theGreat
African Rift Valley may evolve into a long, narrow sea.
○ Formation of Oceanic Ridges:
■ As thecontinentalblockbecomesincreasinglythin,magma
canmoreeasilyintrudeandemergeaslava.Thisprocessleads
totheformationofanoceanicridgeinthecenterofthesea.
The process continues, expanding the sea floor and creating
new ridges. For example, when South America and Africa
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drifted apart, the AtlanticOceanwasformedwiththeMid-AtlanticRidgeemerginginthemiddle.
The lava that forms the Mid-Atlantic Ridge isbasaltic in nature.
■ At divergent boundaries, the lava that erupts is typicallybasaltic in composition.
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Geography
Ch 01: Geomorphology
Lecture 08: Plate Tectonics (Part 04)
Destructive Margins at Plate Boundaries (Convergent Margins):
● Oceanic Plate-Oceanic Plate Collision (O-O Collision)
● Oceanic Plate-Continental Plate Collision (O-C Collision)
● Continental Plate-Continental Plate Collision (C-C Collision)
Oceanic plate - Oceanic plate collision:
● Since both plates are oceanic and basaltic, they are heavy.
● The collision will result in the formation of trenches, volcanic islands, seamounts, accretionary prisms, marginal
seas, earthquakes, and other related geological features.
● Formation of Trench:
○ Theheavieroceanic platesubducts below the lighteroceanic plate,
creating a V-shaped depression known as atrench. Trenches arelinear
depressionsbelow sea level.
○ Example:The subduction of the Pacific Plate beneaththe Philippine Plate
forms theMariana Trench, the deepest trench in theworld.
● Volcanic Island:
○ The subduction causes the heavier plate to reach depths where it
melts due to high temperatures, eventually forming amagma
chamber over time.
○ The hot magma rises and erupts explosively due to its andesitic and
rhyolitic nature, forming volcanic mountains. When these volcanic
peaks remain submerged, they are known as seamounts.
○ Sometimes, these eruptions are massive, leading the submerged
mountains to emerge asvolcanic islands.
○ The subduction will vertically form a linear chain of volcanic islands. This set of volcanic islands is known
as an archipelago.
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○ Some examples of archipelago islands areIndonesia (the largest archipelago of the world), Japan
Island, the Philippines Island, the Caribbean Island, and the Aleutian Islands.
Andesitic Lava or Rhyolitic Lava:
● Partial melting of the basaltic plate results in the formation of andesitic lava or rhyolitic lava. Andesitic
lava or Rhyolitic Lava is acidic, viscous, and sticky. Due to its high gas and steam content, it erupts
explosively.
● Accretionary Pri[Link]
○ These are fragments of one oceanic plate that get scraped off and
attached to the edge of another oceanic plate.
● Marginal Sea:
○ A marginal sea is a body of water situatedbetweena volcanic island and the
coast of a continent.
○ For example, the Japan Sea is a marginal sea located between the Asian continent
and the Japanese islands. The region also features the Japan Trench.
Note:
Back-arcbasins are extensional basins formed behind subduction zones by rifting volcanic arcs and accreting
new volcanic seafloor (Karig, 1970). Most back-arc basins are located behind the western limb of the Pacific
Ocean along current and past convergent boundaries.Forearcbasins are marine depositional basins onthe
trench side of arcs.
● Earthquake:
○ During the subduction process, the plates collide with immense force, causing
one to slowly slide over, under, or alongside the other. Hence, the subduction
zone is marked byfrequent earthquakes, a discovery credited to the
Beni-off Wadati zone.
Oceanic Plate - Continental Plate Collision:
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● In an oceanic-continental collision, the continental plate is lighter and primarily granitic, while the oceanic
plate is denser and basaltic. As a result, the oceanic plate subducts beneath the continental plate.
● Formation of Trenches:
○ Due to the subduction of theoceanic plate beneaththe continental plate, trenches will form. These
trenches are typicallyparallel to the coastlines.
○ Example: Due to the collision between the Nazca Plate (oceanic plate) and the South American Plate
(continental plate), thePeru-Chile Trench has formed.
● Formation of Earthquake:
○ During the subduction of the oceanic plate beneath the continental lithosphere, earthquakes are generated.
● Formation of Fold Mountain:
○ The accretionary prism is uplifted to such a height that it forms mountains. The continental plate, which
is composed of buoyant, lighter granite, also gets uplifted due to its lower density.
● Volcanic Eruption:
○ Fold mountains formed by oceanic-continental collisions are
characterized by parallel trenches and volcanic eruptions.
○ During subduction, the oceanic plate descends into the mantle,
where it partially melts to form magma.
○ This magma, which is andesitic or rhyolitic and rich in gas and
steam, erupts through the crust. The resulting volcanic activity
creates volcanic peaks within the fold mountains.
Note:
The magma often cannot intrude and reach the surface, so it accumulates below the fold mountains. As the
magma cools and solidifies, it forms a massive structure known as a batholith.
● Examples of Continental-Oceanic Convergence:
○ Juan De Fuca Plate (Oceanic Plate) - North America Plate (Continental Plate):
■ Rocky Mountains in North America
(USA-Canada)
■ California Trench.
■ Volcanic mountains like Mount Shasta, Mount
Rainier, Mount Saint Helens, and Mount
Hood.
○ Nazca Plate (Oceanic Plate) - South America
Plate (Continental Plate):
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■ Andes Mountains (South America).
■ Peru-Chile Trench.
■ Volcanic Peak:Mount Chimborazo (Ecuador), Mount Cotopaxi(Ecuador), Mount Ojos del Salado
(Chile-Argentina), Mount Aconcagua (Argentina).
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Geography
Ch 01: Geomorphology
Lecture 09: Hotspots
Continent- Continent Collision:
● It is the third stage in collision of plates.
● In this type of collision, as the continental plate is primarily composed ofgranite,itwillnotsubductintothe
denser asthenosphere!
● During the collision, the plate which will have higher velocity would slide beneath the other plate and lift it
upwards.
● When two continentalplatescollide,oneplatewillunderthrustandpartiallyslipbeneaththeother.Thetrapped
marine sediments between these continental plates will be forced upward, forming very high fold mountains.
These marine sediments, includes older oceanic rocks and sediments deposited by rivers, and an accretionary
prism.
● In a continental-continental (C-C) collision, fold mountains exhibit certain features:
○ These mountains are the highest in the world.
○ There are no active volcanoes (since there is no subduction, leading to no magma formation).
○ Trenches are absent.
○ Example:The Himalayas.
Comparison between Continental-Continental (C-C) Collision and
Oceanic-Continental (O-C) Collision:
Continental-Continental (C-C) Collision Oceanic-Continental (O-C) Collision
Himalayan Type of Fold Mountains Andean Type of Fold Mountains
Upliftment of marine sediments and crushed Upliftment of accretionary prism and crushed
continental crust continent crust
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No volcanic eruptions (no subduction) Marked by volcanic eruptions (subduction of oceanic
plate)
Found in the interior parts of continents (not along Found along coastlines, parallel to trenches
coastlines)
Absence of trenches Presence of trenches
Marked by severe earthquakes Occurrence of frequent earthquakes
Note:
● Before the formation of the Himalayas, the Trans-Himalayas were formed. These ranges include the
Karakoram, Ladakh, and Kailash ranges.
● The Karakoram Range lies in Ladakh.
● The largest range of the Himalayas is the Greater Himalaya, also known as Himadri.
● The three major geographical divisions of the Himalayas are the Himadri (Greater Himalaya), the Himachal
(Lesser Himalaya), and the Shivaliks (Outer Himalaya).
● The Trans-Himalayas are formed due to oceanic-continental (O-C) collisions. In O-C collisions, fold
mountains are characterized by volcanic eruptions. In the Trans-Himalayas, Kargil and Drass exhibit evidence
of past volcanic eruptions.
Hotspots:
● Hotspots are local magma chambers located in the mantle, typically at
depths greater than 700 km.
● Theyarestationary,meaningtheydonotmove.Magmarisingfromhotspots,
known as a rising plume, produces basaltic lava, which is mafic in nature.
● Eruptions from hotspots create a linear chain of volcanic islands. These
islands are different from thoseformedbyoceanic-oceaniccollisions,which
usually produce andesitic lava.
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Geography
Ch 01: Geomorphology
Lecture 10: Volcanism
Hotspots:
● Hotspots are generally associated with theformationof a chain of volcanic islands.If the
eruption continues, there is achance of volcanicislands forming. The lithosphere is moving,
but the hotspot remains stationary.
○ Hotspot eruptions typically have multiple divergent arms. One of these arms may
become inactive over time. Initially, hotspot eruptions often occur along divergent
plate boundaries withmid-ocean ridges.
○ As the active arms connect, they formdivergent plateboundaries. However, it is
not necessary for all hotspot eruptions to align with divergent plate boundaries.
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● The Afar Triple Junction (also calledthe Afro-Arabian RiftSystem) is located
along a divergent plate boundary dividing the Nubian, Somali, and Arabian
plates.
Example of Hotspot Eruption:
● Hawaiian Islands:
○ The Hawaiian Islands, located in the Pacific Ocean, are a prime
example of hotspot volcanic activity.
■ Mauna Loais an active volcanic island in this region,along
withMount Kilauea.
■ Hotspot eruptions here are typicallybasaltic in nature,with
lava that isvery fluid.
■ The volcanic islands formed by this activity can rise more than10 kilometers above
the seafloor.
Reunion Hotspot and Deccan Lava Topography:
○ The Deccan Lava Plateau was formed as a result of aneruption
from the Reunion Hotspotaround 60-65 million years ago during
the Cretaceous period.
■ Due to the fluid nature of the lava, it ruptured and spread
over a vast area. The Deccan volcanic plateau developed duringIndia’s northward
migration as it passed over the Reunion Hotspot.
■ The Deccan Lava Plateau isbasaltic in nature.
The disintegration of basalt rocks (mafic rocks)
has led to the formation of black soil, which is
dark in color. This soil, also known as"cotton
soil,"is very good for the cultivation of cotton.
○ Regions formed by the basaltic lava plateau include:
■ Malwa Plateau in Madhya Pradesh
■ Gir/Girnar Range in Gujarat
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■ Gujarat Plain (Surat/Bharuch)
■ Northern Karnataka Plateau
■ Northwestern Telangana
■ Almost the entire state of Maharashtra
Recap:
Hotspot:
● Hotspots are localized volcanic regions extending beyond 700 kilometers.
● Basaltic eruptions occur on both continents and oceans.
● Hotspots are often associated with chains of volcanic islands.
● They can be found within the interior of tectonic plates, not just at plate margins.
● Hotspot eruptions represent intraplate volcanism.
Examples of Volcanic Hotspots Islands:
● Afar Triangle: Djibouti
● Galápagos Islands: Pacific Ocean, Ecuador
● Réunion Island: France
● Yellowstone National Park: USA
● Iceland: Icelandic Hotspot
● Azores Islands: Atlantic Ocean
Volcanism and Volcano:
● Volcanism is aprocess that begins with the generationof magma and leads to its
emplacement,either below the surface or above it.
● Volcanoes are geological landforms,characterizedby vents, cracks, or holesthrough which
magma emerges.
Types of Volcanoes based on Activeness:
● Active Volcanoes:
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○ An active volcano is a vent or crack from which one or more of the following continuously
emerge:
■ Lava (liquid)
■ Solid material
■ Gas and steam
Examples of Active Volcanoes:
● Philippines
○ Mt. Pinatubo
○ Mount Taal
○ Mt. Mayon
○ Mt. Mindanao
● Indonesia:
○ Mt. Merapi
● Antarctica:
○ Mt. Erebus (The only active volcano in Antarctica)
● Ecuador:
○ Cotopaxi (It is in Andes Mountains)
● Argentina:
○ Ojos del Salado (It is in Andes Mountains, the highest active volcanic peak)
● Italy:
○ Mt. Etna
○ Mt. Stromboli: Known as the "Lighthouse of the Mediterranean"
● Mexico:
○ Popocatépetl
○ Paricutin
● USA:
○ Mt. Shasta
○ Mt. St. Helens
● Barren Island:
○ Located to the east of Middle Andaman Island.
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Parts of Andaman Island:
● North Andaman,
● Middle Andaman,
● South Andaman, and
● Little Andaman.
● Mauna Loa and Mt. Kilauea are located in the Hawaiian Islands
Dormant Volcanoes:
● These are volcanoes thathave not experienced eruptionsin the recent past but could
potentially erupt at any time in the future.
● Example:
○ Mt. Vesuvius:Italy
○ Mt. Krakatoa:Indonesia
○ Narcondam:Andaman - Located to the east of NorthAndaman
Extinct Volcanoes:
● These volcanoes havenot experienced eruptions sincehistoric times.Examples include:
○ Mt. Kenya:Kenya
○ Mt. Kilimanjaro:Tanzania - The highest peak in Africa
○ Aconcagua:Andes Mountains, it is in the border ofArgentina-Chile (The highest volcanic
peak)
○ Chimborazo:Ecuador
○ Mt. Fujiyama (Fuji):Japan
○ Koh-Sultan:Pakistan
○ Dem Band:Iran
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Geography
Ch 01: Geomorphology
Lecture 11: Volcanism (Part 02)
Distribution of Volcanoes:
● Constructive Plate Margins:
○ Regions for Mid-Ocean Ridges (MOR)
○ Examples:
■ Atlantic Ocean
■ Indian Ocean
● Destructive Plate Margins:
○ Ocean-Ocean (O-O) Collision
○ Ocean-Continent (O-C) Collision
○ Example: Margins of the Pacific Plate, known as the "Ring of Fire"
● Intra-Plate Volcanism:
○ Hotspot Eruptions
Pacific Ring of Fire:
● It is a convergent type of interaction
of tectonic plates (Ocean-continent
and ocean-ocean plates). Subduction
is happening at trenches which leads
to volcanism.
● The Ring of Fire is a long chain of
volcanoes and other tectonically
active structures that surround the
Pacific Ocean.
● The chain runs up along the western
coast of South and North America,
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1
crosses over the Aleutian Islands in Alaska, and runs down the eastern coast of Asia past New
Zealand and into the northern coast of Antarctica.
● The Ring of Fire is one of the most geologically active areas on Earth and is a site for
frequent earthquakes and powerful volcanic eruptions.
● Many of these volcanoes were created through the tectonic process of subduction whereby
dense oceanic plates collide with and subduct under lighter continental plates.
Note:
Islands formed by the Ocean-Ocean Collision:
● Aleutian island.
● Japan island.
● Philippine island
● Indonesian island
Types of volcanic eruptions on the basis of their location:
● Central Eruption: In regions of plate convergence, such as ocean-ocean (O-O) and
ocean-continent (O-C) collisions, central eruptions are associated with violent explosive
eruptions. Such eruptions are typically violent and explosive, producing andesitic and rhyolitic
lava. The lava is not fluid due to its high silica content, resulting in sticky, highly viscous lava.
● Fissure Eruptions: These occur at divergent boundaries and are characterized by calm and
quiet eruptions. The lava produced is basaltic, which is very fluid.
Type of Volcanoes Based on Eruption:
● Icelandic Type of Eruption:
○ This type is characterized by very quiet eruptions.
○ The lava is mafic, basic, and basaltic, with a very low silica content, making it extremely
fluid.
○ There is minimal gas and steam associated with this type of eruption, and it often occurs
at hotspots.
● Hawaiian-type eruptions:
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2
○ Similar to Icelandic eruptions, Hawaiian eruptions, such as those at Mauna Loa, are also
quiet.
○ However, the lava in Hawaiian eruptions contains a moderate amount of gas and steam.
○ These eruptions are also associated with hotspots.
● Strombolian type:
○ These eruptions are characterized by low to moderate explosiveness.
○ The lava has a higher silica content, making it sticky and moderately viscous, and is
typically andesitic in composition.
○ The lava is not as fluid as basaltic lava.
● Vulcanian Type Eruption:
○ This is one of the most common types of eruptions found at convergent plate boundaries.
○ These eruptions are moderately to highly explosive, often forming craters.
○ The lava has a high silica content, leading to high viscosity, and is associated with a
significant amount of gas and steam.
● Vesuvian type:
○ This type of eruption is characterized by violent explosive activity.
○ The lava has a relatively high silica content, making it very viscous and sticky.
○ The eruption is also associated with a large amount of gas and steam.
○ Example: Mount Vesuvius
● Plinian Type of Eruption:
○ This is a more intense version of the Vesuvian eruption.
● Pelean Type Eruption:
○ An example is Mount Pelée on Martinique in the Caribbean Sea. this type of eruption is
extremely violent. It produces rhyolitic lava with very high gaseous content, resulting in
highly explosive activity.
● Krakatoan Type Eruption:
○ This is the most violent and destructive type of eruption.
○ Krakatoa, a dormant volcano in Indonesia, is a notable example.
○ Krakatoa eruptions, including those similar to Vesuviian, Plinian, and Pelean types, are
known for their formation of dense clouds.
Materials from a Volcanic Eruption:
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3
● Gases and Water Vapour:
○ The materials released during a volcanic eruption include a combination of gases and water
vapor.
○ Water vapor makes up approximately 60%-75% of the expelled material, with the
remaining portion comprising various gases such as carbon dioxide (CO₂), hydrogen (H₂),
hydrogen sulfide (H₂S), sulfur and sulfur oxides, carbon monoxide (CO), methane (CH₄),
and nitrogen (N₂).
● Solid Material from an Eruption:
○ Pyroclastic Material: This includes solid fragments ejected during an eruption.
○ Volcanic Ash: Fine particles that can remain suspended in the atmosphere for extended
periods.
○ Volcanic Dust: Very fine particles, similar to ash, but often with a different composition.
○ Tuff: Solidified volcanic fragments that vary in size from small pieces to several inches.
○ Lapilli: Pebble-sized fragments, ranging from a few millimeters to a few centimeters in
diameter.
○ Volcanic Bombs: Larger, molten, or semi-molten fragments that solidify as they are
ejected.
○ Tephra: A collective term for all types of solid volcanic materials ejected during an
eruption.
● Liquid Material: Lava
○ Convergence:
■ Felsic Lava (Acidic Lava): Found at convergent boundaries, including ocean-ocean
(O-O) and ocean-continent (O-C) collisions. Felsic lava, such as rhyolitic lava,
contains high silica content (about 70%), making it very viscous and sticky. It is
associated with violent eruptions, such as those at Krakatoa and Mount Pelée. Felsic
lava typically forms light-colored rhyolitic rocks.
■ Intermediate Lava: This lava has a silica content of approximately 45%-55% and is
less viscous and sticky compared to felsic lava. It is typically andesitic in composition
and contains moderate amounts of iron and magnesium. Intermediate lava is often
associated with eruptions of moderate explosiveness.
○ Divergent Boundaries:
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■ Mafic Lava: At divergent boundaries, such as mid-ocean ridges, eruptions are typically
characterized by mafic lava. This lava has a silica content of less than 40% and is
rich in magnesium (Mg) and iron (Fe). It is very fluid and forms dark-colored basalt
rocks. Mafic lava also occurs in hotspot eruptions, where it creates features such as
lava plateaus. An example is the Deccan Lava Plateau. This type of lava is associated
with relatively calm and non-explosive eruptions.
■ Ultramafic Lava: This type of lava is rare and komatiitic in nature. It is associated
with hotspots and has a high amount of magnesium (Mg) and iron (Fe). Komatiitic
lava is the most fluid of all lava types. Example: Icelandic Eruption.
Partial Melting:
● Every element on Earth has a unique melting point, which is the temperature at which a
material starts to melt.
○ Peridotite Rocks (Ultra-Mafic Rock): These rocks, with a melting point around 1200°C,
contain minerals such as olivine, silica, iron, magnesium, and pyroxene. At this temperature,
olivine and pyroxene do not fully melt, though silica, iron, and magnesium will start to
melt. It is the partial melting of ultramafic rocks. Partial Melting of peridotite yields mafic
lava.
○ Basalt Rocks (Mafic Rock): Melting occurs between 600°C and 700°C. Partial melting of
these rocks results in basaltic lava, which is ultra-mafic in composition.
○ Andesitic Lava: Forms from partial melting of rocks form andesitic lava. It has the
elements Iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), Silica, and Aluminium. At 600 to 700 temperature
silica and aluminium fully melted but iron and magnesium partially melted and it resulted
in andesitic lava.
Divergence at Mid-Ocean Ridges (MOR) and Hotspot Eruptions:
● Mid-Ocean Ridges (MOR): At divergent boundaries like mid-ocean ridges, the primary lava
type is basaltic. The partial melting of ultramafic rocks, such as peridotite, occurs at
temperatures around 1200°C, leading to the formation of basaltic (mafic) lava.
● Hotspot Eruptions: In hotspot eruptions, similar basaltic lava is produced through the partial
melting of ultramafic rocks.
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Volcanic Landforms:
● Extrusive Landforms: These are volcanic landforms that occur above the Earth's surface.
○ Basaltic Lava Plateaus: These landforms are associated with hotspot eruptions and are
formed by the continuous accumulation of basaltic lava over many years. The lava
spreads extensively, creating huge plateaus. These plateaus are an example of "trappean"
topography, derived from the Spanish word "trapas" meaning "steps" or "stairs."
Trappean Topography:
● In the Earth's interior, where magma forms, temperatures are very
high and the silica content is relatively low. As the magma rises
toward the surface, its temperature decreases, and the silica
content increases.
● This change in conditions leads to the crystallization and
solidification of some minerals that were previously molten.
● These minerals form crystals as they settle out. The remaining
lava that reaches the surface can create step-like landforms known
as trappean topography.
● Trappean topography features waterfalls due to the layered
structure. An example of trappean topography is the Deccan Lava Trap.
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6
Geography
Ch 01: Geomorphology
Lecture 12: Volcanism (Part 03)
Extrusive Volcanic Landforms
Cones
○ Cones are volcaniclandformscreatedbytheaccumulationoflava,characterizedbytheir
sloping sides.
● Types of Cones:
○ Composite Cone:
■ Composite cones, also known as stratovolcanic cones, are
characterized by alternating layers of pyroclastic materials and
lava.
■ They have a moderate to high silica content, resulting in steeper
slopes with an angle of approximately 30 degrees.
■ Examples: Stromboli in Italy
○ Shield Cone:
■ Shieldconesareformedbytheaccumulationofbasalticlavaandare
typically associated withhotspot eruptions.
■ They have gentler slopes with an angle of less than 30 degrees.
■ Example: Mauna Loa of Hawaiian Island.
○ Cinder Cone:
■ Cinder cones are temporary and easily erodible volcanic structures, often forming
irregular mounds.
■ They aresmall conescreated by theaccumulation of pyroclastic materials.
■ Many times, these cones are parasitic in nature.
○ Parasite Cone:
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■ Parasite cones develop on the slopes of an already existing
volcanic coneand are generallysmaller in size.
■ These are found in composite cones where the magma is very
viscousandhencecouldnotreachthevent.Thusthemagma
follows or creates a crack and erupts from the slope of their composite cone,
forming a parasitic cone.
■ Example: Mount Shasta in USA
Caldera and Crater
● When magma is felsic, ithasahighgascontentandincreased
pressure. Due to its high viscosity, themagmaisstickyandless
fluid,leadingtothepotentialblockageofthevent.Ifthepressure
continuestobuild,theventmayblastopen,causinganexplosion.
Thisexplosioncanwidenthecrater,resultingintheformationofa
caldera.
● Ifthemagmachambermigrates,itaffectsthesupportofthevolcanic
conefrombelow.Themigrationofthechambercanleadtothecollapse
ofthevolcaniccone.Asaresult,thecratermayexpandandevolveinto
a large caldera.
● Nested calderas arefoundinregionswithcomplexvolcanicactivity.A
nestedcalderaischaracterizedbyalargecalderacontainingmultiple
craterswithin it.
● A caldera filled with waterisknownasacraterlake. Example:Ojos
del Salado lake of Argentina is the highest lakeoftheworldand
TiticacalakeintheborderofBoliviaandPeruwhichisthehighest
navigable lake in the world.
(N
ote: Aquifers are spaces below the surface that are filled with water.)
Pseudo-Crater Lake
● A pseudo-crater lake, also known as a meteorite craterlake,forms
when a meteorite impacts the Earth's surface, creating a depression.
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● Thisdepressioncanresembleacalderaorcraterandmayeventuallyfillwithwater,appearing
like a crater lake. An example of such a formation is Lonar Lake in Buldhana district,
Maharashtra.
Mud Volcano
● Amudvolcanoisapseudo-volcanicfeaturecharacterizedbyanopeningfromwhichmud,gas,
and water are expelled.
● An example is theBaratang Mud Volcano in the Andaman Islands.
● Whilemudvolcanoesprimarilyreleasemudandgases,gaseruptionsareoftenassociatedwith
magma heating.
Volcanic Neck or Volcanic Plug
● Avolcanicneck,alsoknownasavolcanicplugisaverticalpipe,formswhen
magma solidifies within a volcanic vent.
● Over time, the surrounding softer rocks(basaltandesite)erodeaway,leaving
behind the more resistant, hard igneous rock that once filled the vent.
PW Web/App:[Link]
Geography
Ch 01: Geomorphology
Lecture 13: Endogenic and Exogenic Forces
Hot Springs and Geysers:
● Rocks are generally poor conductors of heat, meaning that the transfer of heat through
them is slow. However, the presence of magma beneath the Earth's surface can gradually
heat the surrounding rocks.
● As magma heats the rocks, this heat is slowly transferred to the groundwater stored in
porous rocks and aquifers. Over time, the groundwater warms up, and with sufficient heat,
it can turn into steam.
● The heated groundwater, now turned into steam due to the high temperature, is subjected
to increased pressure. This pressurized steam seeks an escape route and begins to rise
through cracks, fissures, and other openings in the Earth's crust.
● Eventually, the steam and hot water reach the Earth's surface through these cracks, vents,
or openings, resulting in the formation of hot springs or geysers.
● Hot Springs are natural pools of geothermally heated water that emerge at the
surface.
● Geysers are a specific type of hot spring that periodically erupts, sending columns of
steam and hot water into the air due to the buildup of pressure underground.
● Examples of Hot Springs in India:
○ Manikaran Hot Springs: Located in Himachal Pradesh, known for its religious
significance and natural geothermal activity.
○ Tattapani Hot Springs: Also in Himachal Pradesh, famous for its therapeutic
properties.
○ Puga Valley Hot Springs: Situated in Ladakh, known for its geothermal energy
potential and scenic beauty.
Geysers:
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1
● Geysers are geological features that periodically erupt, releasing hot water and steam
into the air. These eruptions occur at regular intervals due to the buildup of pressure in
the geothermal system.
● Geysers form in areas with significant geothermal activity. They consist of a plumbing
system of underground chambers and channels that fill with water. Heat from magma or
hot rocks warms the water. As the water heats up, it turns into steam, creating pressure.
When the pressure exceeds the strength of the overlying rock, the water is ejected through
the surface opening in a fountain-like eruption.
● After an eruption, the pressure in the geyser's plumbing system decreases as the steam
and hot water are expelled. It takes time for the pressure to build up again, allowing the
geyser to erupt periodically.
○ Example: Old Faithful Geyser: Located in Yellowstone National Park, USA, Old
Faithful is one of the most famous and well-studied geysers. It erupts
approximately every 90 minutes, ejecting a predictable column of hot water and
steam, making it a reliable and notable example of a geyser.
Fumaroles:
● Fumaroles are geological features consisting of openings or vents in the Earth's crust
through which gasses and steam are emitted. They are indicative of volcanic or geothermal
activity but generally signal a phase where active volcanic eruptions are no longer occurring.
● Fumaroles often form in areas where magma production has ceased, and the magma is
in the process of cooling down. As magma cools and solidifies, it releases trapped gasses
through these vents. This gas release continues until the magma has completely cooled and
solidified.
● The gasses typically emitted from fumaroles include sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide,
hydrogen sulfide, nitrogen, boric acid, and other volatile compounds. These gasses can
contribute to the distinct smell and appearance of fumarole fields.
● A specific type of fumarole that emits a higher concentration of sulfur gasses is known as
a solfatara. Solfataras are characterized by their strong sulfur smell and often have
sulfur deposits around them.
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2
● Example: The Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes in Alaska, USA, is a notable example of an
area with numerous fumaroles. It was formed by the eruption of the Novarupta volcano in
1912, and the fumaroles there continue to emit gasses from the cooling volcanic deposits.
Rocks:
● Aggregates of minerals are known as rocks. These are found in the lithosphere and are also
known as the Rockosphere.
Classification of rocks:
● On the basis of its formation process:
○ Igneous rocks
○ Sedimentary rocks
○ Metamorphic rocks
Igneous rocks:
● It is derived from the word ‘Ignis’ meaning ‘fire’.
● They are formed by the cooling, solidification and crystallization of magma or lava.
Characteristics of Igneous Rocks:
● These are known as primary rocks because the initial crust is made up of igneous rocks. It
is also known as parent rock.
● In this rock no fossils are found.
● These are very hard rocks and resistant rocks and are not easily erodible.
● Igneous rocks are not made of strata or layers in it.
● They are marked up by the presence of crystals.
● The size of the crystals depends upon
the rate of cooling of magma or lava.
Size of the crystals are inversely
proportional to the rate of cooling of
magma.
○ Slow rate of cooling results into bigger size of crystal
○ Fast rate of cooling results into smaller size crystal or absence of crystal
○ Granite rocks are made up of larger grains and crystals.
○ Basalt rocks are made up of smaller grains and crystals.
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3
● The hardness of rocks are inversely proportional to the number and size of crystals
present in the rock.
● Igneous rocks are compact. The rainwater can penetrate therefore it will not break down
easily. Granite rocks are hard and compact rock.
● Igneous rocks are associated with volcanic activities.
● Basalt rock is formed from the lava on the earth.
Classification of Igneous Rocks:
Igneous Rocks are sub classified based on the percentage of silica as follows:
Felsic rocks Intermediate Mafic rocks Ultra - Mafic
rocks rocks
Percentage of More than 70% 60-70% 50% Less than 40%
Silica
Extrusive Rhyolite rocks Andesite Rocks Basalt Rocks Komatiite Rocks
Rocks ● Dark in
color
(Lava)
● Forms
Black soil
Intrusive Granite rocks Diorite Rocks Gabbro Rocks Peridotite Rocks
Igneous Rocks ● Acidic
● Contains
(Magma)
Feldspar
and Silica
● Light in
color
● Forms
Red-Yellow
soil
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Classification based on the Location of the Formation:
● Extrusive Rocks:
○ These are rocks formed by lava above the surface.
● Intrusive Igneous Rocks:
○ They are formed below the earth's surface
○ Intrusive rocks further can be divided into two types:
■ Hypabyssal rocks: They reside below the earth’s surface but the depth is
very less (near the earth surface). They are exposed to Earth’s surface.
Examples include: Batholith, Dyke, Sill, Locolith, Phacolith, Lopolith
■ Plutonic Igneous rocks: These landforms are formed by the cooling of the
magma at a very great depth. Therefore, the location of these landforms are
very deep. It is so deep that it will never be exposed to the surface.
Hypabyssal Rocks and Associated Landforms:
Batholith:
● They are the biggest and most massive of all.
● They are very deep seated, only the above portion gets exposed to the earth's surface.
● They are hard structures and mostly found beneath the fold mountains.
● Dome shaped structure with very steep slopes.
● It will be visible only through upliftment due to compression and convergence of plates
● These landforms are found below Dharwian rocks in Karnataka. These landforms are also
found below shields. Ranchi plateau is also an example of Batholith landform.
Laccolith:
● Top is arch shaped whereas the bottom is flat. With due to course of time, the upper layer
will be eroded and laccolith will appear on the surface
● Due to gas and steam, the pressure exerted on the sediment layer is very high. The layers
will bend upwards and would create a hollow space. This space would be filled by the
intruding magma.
Phacolith:
● It is a wavy mass of intrusive rocks that can be found at the bottom of the syncline or
the top of the anticline in folded igneous surfaces.
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● These landforms consist of granites.
Lopolith:
● Here Lopas means Bowl.
● This landform
looks like a
bowl shape,
hence the name
Lopolith.
● For example,
Transvaal
lopolith, South
Africa.
Dyke:
● Dyke is a form of intrusive landform.
● When the lava makes its way through cracks, it solidifies almost perpendicular to the
ground. It gets cooled in the same position and develops a wall-like structure. Such
structures are called dykes.
Sill:
● It is a sheet line structure normally found between the layers of sedimentary rocks.
● It is formed due to the cooling and solidification of Magma.
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6
Geography
Ch 01: Geomorphology
Lecture 14: Endogenic and Exogenic Forces (Part 2)
Sedimentary Rocks:
● The word ‘sedimentary’ is derived from the Latin word sedimentum, which means to
settle down. The sedimentary rocks are formed by the deposition, compaction, and
cementation of sediments.
● Unlikeigneousrocks,layersare
a common feature of
sedimentary rocks.
○ Therefore these are
calledstratified rocks.
○ Thefossilsarefoundin
this rock because
sedimentary rocks are
derived from sediments
and the remains of
plants and animals.
● Therewillbeanabsenceofcrystalsintheserocks.Thesearerelativelyweakerrocksand
do not make massive structures like the igneous rocks. These rocks are permeable and
thuspercolation of water is easy.
Types of Sedimentary Rocks:
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● Mechanically Formed: Mechanical processeslikepressure,compaction,andcementation
of sediments are involved in the formation of a sedimentary rock. This process of
compaction and cementation of sediments to form sedimentary rocks is calledlithification.
○ These are of two types:
○ Arenaceous rocks contain larger particles, such as yellow sandstone and
red sandstone (used in Red Fort in Delhi and the Agra Fort), and
conglomerate in which rock fragments are of different sizes.
○ Argillaceousrocksconsistoffinerparticles,suchasshaleandclay(made
up of fine sediments and the particles are very closely attached).
● Organically Formed:These are oftwo types:
○ Calcareous Rocks: This is formed by the skeleton and bonesofanimalsburied
under the sediments for a longperiod.Thesearecalcium-richrocksandarealso
known asCarbonate rocks. Example: Limestones, chalkand dolomite.
○ Carbonaceous Rocks: These are formed by burying plants/vegetation under
sediments for a longer period. Such rocks are rich in carbon.
➢ Examples: Peat coal (inferior quality coal), Lignite coal (inferior quality
coal), Bituminous coal (70-90% of carbon content; found in India),
Anthracite coal(best quality coal having 90-95% ofcarbon content).
❖ Petroleum will be formed if the dead plants/vegetation get buried
under marine sediments for a long period.
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● Chemically Formed: These rocks areformedwhenthewaterreactswiththe minerals
of the rocks forming a solution. This chemical solution deposits and water from it
eventually evaporates leaving the minerals behind.
○ Thesemineraldepositscompactandcementtoformarock.Forexample,theriver
water flowing in its course extracts minerals from the rocks in its bed.
○ Now when the water starts evaporating from where the sediments have been
deposited, only the minerals and the sediments are left behind.
○ After a definite period, such sediments get dried upandfinallyformsarockThen
the rvier water slowly deposits its sediments and the minerals.
○ Chemical minerals get settled and dried to form chemical bonds. Example:
Rocksalt, Gypsum, etc.
Significance of sedimentary rocks:
● Conglomerate and red sandstone used in constriction purposes.
● Limestone is used in cement manufacturing along with being used in Nuclear Energy
Plants.
● Gypsum, Dolomite, and limestone are used in Pharmaceutical industries.
● Rock salt is used in cooking
● Coal is used as fuel in most of the industries
● Limestone, talcum and chalk is used in talcum industries.
Significance of hotsprings:
USA+Italy=Thegasesejectedoutinhostpringsisusedintheproductionofelectricityalso
used as fuel. It is also used as Fuel and in the production of Boric Acid
Metamorphic Rocks:
● Theserocksareformedthroughaprocessofmetamorphism.Metamorphismisaprocessin
which the chemicalorphysicalorboththepropertiesofrockschangeifitisexposed
to extreme heat or pressure. The change in rocks iswithout disintegratingthem.
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○ Thus when there is a change in the physical and chemical properties of rocks
without disintegrating, under theimpactofachangeintemperatureandpressure,
metamorphic rocks are formed.
● The metamorphic rocks can also be exposed to the process of metamorphism called
Re-metamorphism. Example: Schist converted to Serpentine.
○ Crystals are found in some of the metamorphic rocks. These are generallyhard
rocks and are impermeable in nature.
○ Becauseofhightemperatureandpressureconditions,themetamorphicrocksalso
do not have the presence of fossils.
● There aretwo types of metamorphism:
○ ThermalorContactMetamorphism:Inthistypeofmetamorphism,temperatureis
the agent. The
sedimentary in general
comes in contact with
magma, andduetothis
it gets heated.
➢ This heating
changes the
physical or
chemical
composition of
both of the previous rocks and converts them into metamorphic rocks as
their is rise in temperature.
➢ Example: Marble. under extremely high temperature, limestone gets
converted into marble.
○ Dynamic or Regional metamorphism: This is common at the places where
compressed forces are active as pressure os the agnet. So, the region which
witnesses high pressure due to compression also witnesses change in the form.
➢ The anticline and syncline of a fold mountain would witness extreme
pressure (due to extreme compression) and thus the property of that
region would change.
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➢ For example., under high pressure, sandstone and conglomerate gets
transformed into quartzite.
Igneous/Sedimentary Rocks Metamorphic Rocks
● Granite (igneous) ● Gneiss
● Sandstone, Conglomerate ● Quartzite
● Shale ● Slate (from slate we get serpentinethrough
re-metamorphism)
● Limestone (sedimentary rock) ● Marble
● Bituminous Coal (sedimentary ● Graphite or Diamond
rock)
● Basalt (igneous) ● Schist
Rock Cycle:
● Rocksdonotremainintheiroriginalformforlongbutmaytransform.Therockcycleisa
series of processes thatcreate and transform thetypes of rocks in the earth’s crust.
● Igneous rocks are primary rocks and are
formedwhenmoltenhotmaterialcoolsand
solidifies.
● Disintegration of igneous rocks and their
deposition and compaction lead to
sedimentary rocks.
● Sedimentary rocks are formed from pieces
of other existing rock or organic material
Sedimentary rocks, in turn, melt to form
igneous rocks.
○ The sedimentary rocks, under heat
and pressure, transform into
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metamorphic rocks. 75% oftheearth'stotalsurfaceiscoveredwithsedimentary
rocks.
○ Overall on earth’scrust,thesedimentaryrockaccountsforabout5%ofthetotal
composition.
● Metamorphicrocksdisintegrate,anddeposition,compaction,andcementationtakeplaceto
form sedimentary rocks. When metamorphic rock melts, it forms igneous rocks. Igneous
rocks, under heat and pressure, turn into metamorphic rocks.
Geomorphic Processes (Forces Acting on the Earth Crust):
Endogenetic/ Endogenic Force:
● "Endo" means inside the earth, and "genic" comes from "genesis," which means origin.
Endogeneticforceisgeneratedinsidetheearth,primarilythroughmagmaactivity(for
example, convection current or the rising magma).
● Thisforcecreateslandformsontheearthorareresponsibleforreliefformation.Arelief
is acocunetd to be any alndforma bove the surface of the earth.
Exogenetic/ Exogenic Force:
● "Exo"referstooutsideorovertheearth'ssurfacesandgenesismeansorigin.So,theforce
whichoriginates and acts upon the earth’s surfaceare referred to as exogenic forces.
○ This force is responsible for both aggradation and degradation, leading to the
flattening of the earth's surface over time.
○ Alltheexogenicforcesthatflattenedtheearth'ssurfaceareknownasDenudation.
It includesWeathering (Mass Movement), Erosion, andDeposition.
PW Web/App:[Link]
Geography
Ch 01: Geomorphology
Lecture 15: Endogenic and Exogenic Force (Part 03)
Endogenetic Forces
● Sudden Forces:
○ Very fast-moving forces, such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
○ These are also known asCatastrophic Forces.
● Diastrophic Movements/Forces:These are very slowmovements and can be categorized as follows:
○ Epeirogenic Forces:
■ Verticalmovements, either upward or downward.
■ These are also known asContinent-Building Forces.
■ They cause the upliftment or subsidence of land.
○ Orogenic Forces:
■ Horizontalmovements, including compressional andtensional forces.
■ These are also known asMountain-Building Forces.
Epeirogenic Forces:
● Upward Movement:There are two conditions:
○ Upliftment: When analreadyexistinglandmassispushedupward,itisreferredto
asUpliftment.Example: Ozark Plateau of USA.
○ Emergence:WhenasubmergedpartoftheEarth'scrustispushedupwardtosuch
an extent that it rises above sea level, the resulting land is known as Emerged
Land, and the process is calledEmergence. Example:Eastern coast of India.
● Downward Movement:
○ Subsidence ofLand:Apartorportionofalreadyexistinglandgetssubsided.This
subsidence occurs due to the shifting of a magma chamber.
○ Submergence: A part of the land gets submerged under seawater due to vertical downward movement.
This often occurs when a magma chamber becomes hollow,leadingtothesinkingofthelandaboveit.
Example:Atoll Islands.
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Orogenic Forces:
● The term "Oro" means mountains.
● Compressional Forces:These forcespushlandmassestowards each other.
○ Warp:
■ Warps are upward bends found on the Earth's crust due tomoderate compressive forces.
■ They have avery gentle slope,generally less than5°.
■ Warps are extensive in nature. It is an initial phase of mountain building.
■ Example:South African warp.
○ Fold:
■ Folds are wave-like bends in the crustal rocks formed due to
horizontal forces.
■ Ifthecompressionisveryhigh,theserockswillbeupliftedand
folded to form a mountain range.
Types of fold:
● Anticline:
○ The crest of afold(peakofafoldMountainuplifted,sedimentary
part)
● Syncline:
○ These are the trough or depressed part of a fold. These folds form
valleys.
Note:
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● Anticlinorium:Inthecaseofextremecompressiveforces,theanticlinalregionmaybreakandgetcrushed.
These crushed particles can then fold again, forming new anticlines and synclines within the original
anticlinal region. This process is knownasanAnticlinorium.Example:TheMiddleHimalayasofIndiaand
Nepal.
● Synclinorium: A syncline that contains both anticlinesand synclines is known as a Synclinorium.
● Symmetrical Folds:
○ Inthistypeoffold,bothlimbsofthefoldsaresymmetrical.Theslopeangle
of the limbs on the axis is the same.
○ This is the result of equalintensity of compressionfrom both sides.
○ Example: Jura Mountain of Switzerland
● Asymmetrical Fold:
○ Thelimbsofthefoldareofdifferentlengths;onelimbislargerthanthe
other.
○ The angle formed by the limbs on the axis isnot equal.
○ This occurs when compressive forces fromboth sidesare not equal.
○ Example:The Pennine Mountains of Great Britain.
● Monoclinal Folds:
○ One limb of the fold is perpendicular to the Earth's surface
and is shorter in length.
○ This occurs due to morecompression from one end.
○ Example:The Great Dividing Range in Australia.
● Isoclinal Folds:
○ These folds result fromcontinuous horizontal compressiveforces.
○ ThelimbsofthefoldaretiltedtowardstheEarth'ssurface,andboth
limbs become parallel to each other.
○ Isoclinal folds are commonly found in the Middle Himalayas of
Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh.
● Recumbent Folds:
○ In recumbent folds, both limbs become horizontal to the
Earth's surface and are parallel to each other.
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○ These folds result from extreme compressive forces from bothends thatare unequal.
○ Examples:The Garhwal and Kumaon Himalayas.
● Overturned Fold:
○ This type of fold is a result of continuousextremecompressive
forces.
○ It is an example ofuneven force distribution.
○ In an overturned fold, the upper horizontal limb of a recumbent
fold tilts beyond the vertical.
○ Although these types of folds are uncommon, they can be observed in various ranges of the Middle
Himalayas.
Note:
Middle Himalayas also known as:
● Pir Panjal Rangein Jammu and Kashmir
● Dhauladhar Rangein Himachal Pradesh
● Mussoorie Rangein Uttarakhand
● Mahabharat Rangein Nepal
● Darjeeling Rangein West Bengal
● Nappe:
○ When the limb of an overturned fold breaks due to strong compressive forces, it shifts alongwiththe
direction of these forces. After traveling about 2 to 5 kilometers, the broken limb ends up on top of
different rock layers.
○ This type of geological structure is called a "nappe." Nappes can be seen in places like the Kashmir
Himalayas and Garhwal.
PW Web/App:[Link]
Geography
Ch 01: Geomorphology
Lecture 16: Aeolian Landforms
Types of Folds:
● OpenFold:Iftheanglebetweentwofoldsisgreaterthan90°(obtuseangle),thenthefolds
are said to beopen folds. Example:Shiwalik.
● Closed Fold: If the angle betweentwofoldsislessthan90°,thenthefoldsaresaidtobe
closed folds.
● Fan Folds: These folds resemble a fan in appearance. Essentially, they are a type of
anticline.
Tensile Force (Tensional):
Tensile forces lead to the development of fractures in the Earth's crust.
There are two main types of tensile fractures:
● Joint: A joint is a fracture or crack on the Earth's crustal block along
which there is no movement of the blocks.
● Fault: A fault is also afractureintheEarth'scrust,butunlikeajoint,
the blocks or crustal rocks move along the fracture or crack.
Types of Faults:
● Normal Fault: Horizontal tensile forces are responsible fornormalfaults.Inanormalfault,
the hanging wall moves downward relative to the footwall, leading to subsidence of the
continental crust.Asaresult,thehangingwallcanformariftvalley,whilethefootwallcan
create a block mountain.
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● Step Faults:Stepfaultsarecausedbyhorizontaltensileforces.Thefaultingprocessoccurs
atintervals,creatingaseriesofsteppedfaultlines.Asaresult,numerousstep-likefeatures,
such aswaterfalls, can be found along these faults..
● ReverseFaults:Reversefaultsarecausedbyhorizontalcompressionalforces.Inthistypeof
fault, the hanging wall moves upward relative to the footwall. Reverse faults are commonly
found infold mountains.
● Strike-Slip Fault: Strike-slip faults form along transform fault boundaries or conservative
plate margins. Inthesefaults,crustalblocksslippasteachotheralongthefracture.These
faults are often associated with theoccurrence ofearthquakes.
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Note:
Hanging Wall and Footwall:
● The rock above the fault zone is called the hanging wall.
● The rock below the fault zone is called the footwall.
Exogenic Forces:
Exogenic forces include various denudation agents responsible for both degradation and aggradation:
● Weathering
● Mass Wasting
● Erosional Process
● Depositional Process
The work of various agents leads to different landforms:
● Wind:Aeolian landforms
● Sea Waves:Coastal landforms
● Glaciers:Glaciated landforms
● Groundwater:Karst topography
● Rivers:Fluvial landforms
Work of Wind (Aeolian Landforms):
Wind is a major agent of erosion and deposition in arid and semi-arid regions.
● Arid Regions:Receive less than 25 cm of annual rainfall.
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● Semi-Arid Regions:Receive between 25-50/60 cm of annual rainfall.
Arid regions are commonly referred to as deserts and can be categorized into different types:
● Polar Deserts:
○ Example: Antarctica (ice-covered regions)
● Mountain Deserts:
○ Example: Ladakh (annual rainfall <25 cm)
● Plain Deserts:
○ Example: Thar Desert
● Plateau Deserts:
○ Example: Patagonia (desert plateau)
In drier regions, especially hot desert areas, the amount of sand is generally higher, which
facilitates more aeolian action. The factors affecting wind erosion include:
● Speed/ Velocity of Wind: Higher wind speeds increase the capacity for erosion.
● CompositionofRocks:Thetypeofrockanditsweatherabilityinfluencehoweasilyitcanbe
erodedbywind.Example:Hardrocksexperiencelesserosion,whilesoftrocksareerodedmore
easily.
● Temperature Variation: The diurnal range of temperature (daily temperature fluctuations)
affects the rate of weathering and erosion. The diurnal range of temperature affects
weathering by causing rock expansion and contraction. Frequent temperaturefluctuationscan
lead to mechanical weathering, where rocks fracture and break apart more easily.
Mechanism of Erosion:
● Abrasion: Also known as "s andblasting," abrasion occurs when sand carried by the wind
strikesthesurfaceofrocks.Thisprocesscausestherocktoerode,withthewindandsand
particles acting likesandpaper. As a result, theeroded surface becomespolished and smooth.
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● Attrition: Attrition occurs when sand particles blown by the wind collide with each other,
causing them to break and become finer. This process results in the gradual reduction of
particle sizedue to repeated collisions.
● Surface Creep: Surface creep involves thewindpushingheavierparticlesalongtheground.
As these particles roll,frictionfromthesurfacecausesthemtobreakapartandbecome
smaller.
● Saltation:Saltationistheprocessinwhichsandparticlesbounceandjumpalongthesurface
as they arelifted and carried by the wind.
● Deflation: Deflation is the removal offinersedimentsor
particlesbyhigh-velocitywinds.Thisprocesscanleadto
the formation of desert pavement, where only larger
particles remain on the surface.
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Geography
Ch 01: Geomorphology
Lecture 17: Aeolian Landforms (Part 02)
Desert Landforms (Erosional Landforms):
● Blowouts:
These are shallow depressions formed by deflation, which is
the removal of sand particles by the wind. Deepening of
blowouts can result in the formation of an "oasis." An oasis
is a fertile area in a desert where water is available,
allowing plants and vegetation to grow.
● Deflation Basins:
○ The finersediments are light and easily removedby high-speed
winds. This removal results in the formation of a depressed basin
known as aDeflation Basin.
○ Examples include the Qattara Depression in Egypt and Buffalo
Wallows in the USA—local names for deflation basins.
● Mushroom Rocks:
○ These are formed by multidirectional erosion caused by winds, with sandblasting being the
primary process. The top of the rock is broad, while the base is narrower. The eroded rock
resembles an umbrella and is also called a pedestal or "gara/gaur" in the Sahara Desert of
North Africa.
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● Zeugen:
○ It is an erosional feature which of shaped like an ink pot.
Differential rates of wind erosionwill form this type of
structure.
○ The formation of Zeugen begins with the mechanical
weathering of the hard top rock layer, which acts as a cap
over a softer underlying layer. The hard rock, often limestone, can dissolve when
exposed to rainwater (H₂CO₃),
converting into a calcium
carbonate (CaCO₃) solution.
○ Once the weathering reaches
the soft rock layer (i.e shale),
it gets exposed to wind
erosion. As a result, ridges and furrows are formed, and the landform is known as
Zeugen. There are horizontal alternate layers inZeugen.
○ They are alsoassociated with furrows and ridges.The furrows are not flat. Furrows
are the regions between ridges, formed by the differential rate of erosion caused by
winds.
● Yardang/Cockscomb
○ It is formed when
alternate bands of
hard and soft rocks
are placed vertically and
get exposed to the
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wind. They are also formed due to a differential rate of erosion. The differential
rate of erosion means that hard rocks are more resistant and do not erode as
quickly as soft rocks. As a result, landforms associated with ridges and corridors are
developed.
○ The soft rock gets eroded faster developing a flat corridor (it is a flat smooth
surface in between two ridges.
● Inselbergs
○ Inselbergs aresmall dome-like structures that are the result of fluvial and wind
erosion and are found in drier regions.
○ These are hard and resistant rocks that were not
easily eroded.
○ Mostly it is granitic, or it is made up of hard
metamorphic rocks like gneiss.
○ These are also known asIsland mountains in German
language. Some inselbergs also called bornhardt.
○
● Demoiselles:These are hard, resistant rock structures with needle-shaped, spiky features.
It forms as a result of a differential rate of wind erosion.
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● Window Rocks and Bridges: Window rocks and rock bridges are
formed due to wind erosion, creating hollow openings in the rocks.
The overlying structure above the opening is known as a window
bridge.
● Ventifact/Dreikanter:These are eroded rocks with multiple faces, formed as a result of
multi-directional wind erosion. They are not structures.
Depositional Features:
● Sand Dunes:Sand dunes are formed by the deposition and accumulation of sand around
obstacles, creating mounds of sand. As sand particles settle due to these obstacles, dunes
are formed. Mobile sand dunes in the Sahara Desert are known as "ergs."
● Loess Plains/Plateaus:Deposition occurs when windvelocity decreases. The source of the
deposited sand, or the area of erosion, is located at a larger distance from the deposition
site. Winds carry yellow sands from the Gobi Desert, located on the Mongolia-China border,
to the Loess Plateau in China. The Yellow River flows through the Loess Plateau, carrying
sediment that imparts its characteristic yellow color to the river's waters. Examples include
the Potwar Plateau in Pakistan, the Rub' al Khali and Al Nafud deserts in Arabia, and the
Dasht-e Kavir and Dasht-e Lut deserts in Iran.
Types of Sand Dunes:
● Barchans
○ Barchans are crescent-shaped sand dunes formed by wind blowing predominantly from one
direction.
○ On the windward side, they have a convex shape, while the leeward side, or slip side,
features a concave slope. When viewed from above, Barchans resemble a crescent.
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● Parabolic Sand Dunes:Parabolic sand dunes are the opposite of barchans. Viewed from above,
they have a crescent shape but with the tips pointing away from the wind. They are typically
smaller than barchans and feature a concave shape on the windward side. The lee-side
slipfaces are on the convex sides of the dunes.
● Seif Dunes (Longitudinal Dunes):Seif dunes are elongated sand
mounds formed by winds that flow parallel to the direction of the
accumulated sand.
● Star-shaped Dunes:These dunes result from multidirectional
deposition by winds.
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Geography
Chapter 01: Geomorphology
Lecture 18: Fluvial Landforms
Fluvial Landforms
● Fluvial originates from the Latin word "Fluvius", meaning flowing or moving river.
● Fluvial landforms means landforms developed by the action of river.
● Fluvial landforms are shaped by two primary mechani[Link]
● Erosional Landforms: Erosional landforms are shaped by thehighvelocityofrivers,especiallyinareaswith
steeper slopes. Key features include:
○ V-Shaped Valleys (Includes gorges and canyons).
○ Waterfalls and Rapids
○ Meanders and Oxbow Lakes (These features result from both erosion and deposition).
○ River Terraces
○ Structural Benches
● Depositional Landforms:Key features of Depositional Landforms include:
○ Alluvial Fans and Cones
○ Alluvial Floodplains
○ Natural Levees
○ Deltas
Erosional Landforms
● Valleys:
○ Most valleys are formed by rivers through erosionalprocesses.Valleyformationisprimarilytheresultof
two types of erosion:
■ Vertical Downcutting: This process is responsible for the
deepeningofvalleys.Theriverbediserodedbythesediments
carried along by the river, leading to the gradual deepening of the valley due to vertical erosion
(vertical downcutting).
■ Lateral Cutting/Erosion:
● ChemicalAction:Theriver'swatercanreactwithmineralsinthesurroundingrocks,leadingtothe
weakening of the river channel walls.
● Mechanical Action: Sediments traveling along with theriverflowstrikeanderodetheweakened
wallsoftheriverchannel.Thiscontinuouslateralerosioncausestherivervalleytowidenfromthe
sides, making the valley broader.
As the lateral erosion continues, the unsupported portions of the valley walls may collapse, further
contributing to the widening of the valley. Lateral erosion is,therefore,primarilyresponsibleforthe
broadening of valleys.
Note:
"Base Level" of Erosion
● The base level of erosion is the lowest point (or a maximum limit) to which a river can erode its bed.
Erosionbeyondthispointisnotpossible.However,ifthebaselevelfalls,suchasduetoadropinsealevel,
the river will erode further down to reach the new base level.
Fall in Sea Level and Base Level
● A fall in sea level results in a corresponding fall in the base level of erosion. This can occur due to
emergence of the continental shelf or upliftment of land and glaciation.
Emergence of the continental shelf:
Upliftment of Land:
● During glaciation, the formation of glaciers leads to a decrease in sea level. Snowfall, caused by the
condensation of evaporated water into clouds, accumulates and remains frozen in glaciers rather than
returning to the ocean as meltwater. This results in a net reduction in sea level.
Gorges:
● Agorgeisanarrow,V-shapedvalleyformedprimarilythroughverticaldowncuttingbyariver.Theslopesofa
gorge are typically very steep and convex in nature.
● Examples:
○ Shipki La Gorge (Sutlej Gorge): Located in Himachal Pradesh, India.
○ Three Gorges: A famous gorge on the Yangtze River in China.
Canyons:
● Canyons are longer and deeper versions of gorges. They are characterized by
their I-shaped valleys with steep, straight sides.
● Example: The Grand Canyon in the USA, carved by the Colorado River.
Waterfalls:
A waterfall occurs when a stream or river abruptly falls from a distinct height.
Types of Waterfalls:
● Cap-RockFalls:Formedwhenerosionofsoftrocksbeneathahardrockcapleadstoasuddendrop.Chemical
reactions and mechanical pressure from water contribute to the erosion.
○ PlungePool:Adepressionatthebaseofthewaterfall,formedbytheimpactoffallingwatererodingthe
underlying rock. Over time, continuous erosion weakensthesoftrock,reducingsupportforthehardrock
cap, which eventually collapses, creating a new plunge pool.
○ Example:NiagaraFalls(USA-Canadaborder),wheretherecessionofthewaterfallhascreatedgorgesand
canyons over time.
○ Recession of waterfall leads to the formation of Gorges and Canyon.
● Hanging River Valley Fall: When a river from a hanging valleymeetsthe
mainriver,itcancreateahangingrivervalleyfall.Forexample,theBhera
River cascades into the Damodar River, resulting in the formation of Rajrappa Falls.
● PlateauFalls(EscarpmentFalls):Waterfallsthatoccuralongthesteep,almost
straightslopesofaplateau(Escarpmentslope),knownasescarpments,arecalled
plateau falls. Many such waterfalls are found along the fall line of plateaus.
Examples:
○ Sivasamudram Falls: Located on the Cauvery River in Mandya District,
Karnataka.
○ Gersoppa Falls: Also known as Jog Falls, locatedontheSharavathiRiverin
Shimoga District, Karnataka.
Geography
Ch 01: Geomorphology
Lecture 19: Karst Topography
Erosional Landforms of River:
● Rapids: Rapids are smaller versions of waterfalls, found on
undulating surfaces. They form due to differential rates of
erosion, where sections of a river with fast-flowing water
tumble over a shallow, rocky riverbed. In these areas, softer
rocksinthestreambederodemorequicklythanharderrocks,
creating the characteristic turbulent flow of rapids.
● River Terraces: River terraces are examples of rejuvenation, formed due to changesinthebaselevel,often
associatedwithafallinsealevel.Theseterracesarecreatedbytheverticaldowncuttingactionsofrivers,
where the rivercutsintoitsownformerfloodplain,leavingbehindstep-likefeaturesoneithersideofthe
valley.
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● KnickPointFalls:Aknickpointisapointintheriverwhereitexperiencesrejuvenation,oftenmarkedby
asuddenchangeingradient,suchasawaterfall.Aknickpointfallisawaterfallorothersharpchangein
the slope of a river channel bed that occurs at a knickpoint.
Structural Benches: Structural benches are fluvial erosional landforms
created as a result of differential rates of erosion. They consist of
horizontally placed, alternating layers of hard and soft rocks. The
softer rocks erode more quickly, while the harder rocks resist erosion,
leading to the formation of bench-like or stair-like features on the
landscape.
Depositional Landforms of River
● Alluvial Fan and Alluvial Cone: Alluvial fans and cones are formed by sediment
carried down by rivers.
○ An alluvial fan is a fan-shaped deposit of alluvial sediment, typically not as
steep. Whentheamountofwaterisgreaterthantheamountofsediment,
the sediment spreads over a greater distance, forming a broad, fan-shaped
deposit.
○ Incontrast,analluvialconeformswhentheriver'scarryingcapacitydecreases
atthefoothills,leadingtotheaccumulationofheaviersediments.Thisresults
in a steeper, more conical shape. In this case, the amount of water is less
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relative to the amount of sediment,sothesedimentsdonottravelfarandaredepositedclosertothe
upper part of the foothills.
● Natural Levees:
○ Natural levees are temporary natural dam-like structures that form as elongated ridges along
riverbanksduetosedimentaccumulation.Theseleveesdevelopfromthedepositionofsedimentsleft
behind by retreating floodwaters. Heavier sediments settle and build up along the banks, creating
these ridge-like features.
○ As the speed of the retreating floodwaters decreases, sediment begins to accumulate along the
riverbanks, forming floodplains. The Hwang Hoisparticularlynotoriousforbreakingitsnaturallevees,
earning the title "Sorrow of China" due to the frequent and devastating floods.
Note:
Estuary: An estuary is an inward cut of coastal land where a river meets the sea,
creating a zone where freshwater from the river mixes with incoming seawater. This
area is characterizedbybrackishwater—waterthatisneitherasfreshasriverwaternor
assaltyasseawater.ExamplesincludetheNarmadaandTapirivers,whichformestuaries
intheGulfofKhambhat.Theriverhereistidalandwhenthesearetreatsthevolume
ofthewaterintheestuaryisreduced.Whenthereislesswater,theriverdepositssilt
to form mudflats which are an important habitat for wildlife.
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Geography
Ch 01: Geomorphology
Lecture 20: Karst Topography (Part 02)
Karst Topography:
● Karst topography refers to a landscape that is primarily underlain by limestone and is shaped by the
process of dissolution, also known aschemical weathering.
● It was a region in erstwhile Yugoslavia, located to the north of the Adriatic Sea, encompassing areas in
countries such as Serbia, Croatia, Montenegro, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Albania, Kosovo, North Macedonia,
Romania, Bulgaria, and Slovenia.
● Conditions for the Development of Karst Topography:
○ Moderate Rainfall:Neither excessive rainfall norextreme dryness.
○ Perennial Water Source:A continuous supply of water.
○ Thick Limestone Bed:A substantial layer of limestonerock.
Delta
● A delta is formed by rivers when they reach their senile stage (old stage). At this point, the carrying
capacityof the river is at itsminimum, leading tothedeposition of sediments at the river's mouth.
● The delta is thelast depositional feature of a river,beyond whichno further deposition occurs.
● Deltas are responsible for the formation of distributaries and typically grow towards the sea.
● Types of Deltas:
○ Arcuate Delta:Here an arc formed towards the sea.Example: the Nile River Delta in Egypt.
○ Bird's Foot Delta:It is finger like Delta. An exampleis the Mississippi River Delta in the United States.
○ Cuspate Delta: A cuspate delta is found along a coastline and is characterized by its pointed,
toothbrush-shaped form.Example:The Tiber River Deltain Italy.
○ LacustrineDelta:Alacustrinedeltaisformedbyriversthatflowintoalake.Example:RiverUralforming
Delta in Caspian Sea.
○ Abandoned Delta: These deltas no longer receive any river outflow because the river has changed its
course, leaving the delta behind.Example:The westerndeltas of the Sundarbans.
○ TruncatedDelta:Abandoneddeltasareoftenerodedbyseawaves,leadingtotheirsignificanterosionand
dissection. These highly eroded and dissected deltas are known as truncated deltas.
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River Stages:
● Youth Stage:
○ Rivers flow throughmountainsand steep slopes.
○ The river'serosion capacityis at itsmaximum.
○ The river'svelocity and carrying capacityare alsoat their highest.
○ Formation Features:V-shaped valleys, gorges, canyons,waterfalls, and rapids.
● Mature Stage:
○ Rivers flow throughflat regions.
○ Depositionprocessesbegin to dominate.
○ Formation Features:Alluvial fans/cones, flood plains,natural levees, meanders, and ox-bow lakes.
● Old Stage:
○ It is a meeting point of river and sea.
○ The river reaches a point where theslope gradientis extremely low,often in acompletely flat area.
○ The river's carrying capacity isminimal.
○ Deposition is dominant, leading to delta formations.
○ Formation Features: Extensive deposition occurs, leading to theformationofdeltasandothersediment
accumulations.
● Rejuvenation Stage:
○ Occurs due to a fall in sea level or a drop in the base level.
○ Formation Features:Knick points fall, and river terracesmay develop.
Distributaries and Tributaries:
● Tributaries: Tributaries are rivers orstreamsthatflowintoamainriver,contributingtoitsflow.Examples:
Ganges tributaries:
○ Gomti
○ Ghaghara
○ Kosi
○ Mahananda
○ Yamuna
○ Son
● Distributaries:
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○ When a main river splits into two or more streams, these
branchingstreamsareknownasdistributaries.Example:The
HooghlyandBhagirathiaredistributariesoftheGangaRiver
which split at Farakka. In Bangladesh, theGangaisknown
as the Padma, while the Brahmaputra is known as the
Jamuna.TheGanga,flowingfurther,meetstheBrahmaputra
(Jamuna).TheBarakRiver,aftersplittingintotheSurma
andKushiyara,eventuallymergeswiththeMeghna,which
laterjoinsthePadma."Adeltaislandisalandmassformed
by sediment deposition at the mouth of a river where it
meets a body of water
Note:
Originally, the Tista River flowed southward into the upper Padma River (Ganges [Ganga] River). However,
around1787,itshifteditscourseeastward,crossingtheRangpurregionofBangladesh.ItnowjoinstheJamuna
River near Chilmari, covering a total distance of approximately 200 miles (320 km).
Meanders
● It is formed due toerosion and deposition.
● Meanders are curved paths of rivers found inplainareaswith alluvial soil or soft rocks.
● They typically form whenrivers are in their maturestage.
● In meandering rivers, erosion occurs on theconcaveside,creatingasteepcliffslope,whiledeposition
occurs on theconvex side, forming a gentleslip-offslope.
Ox-Bow Lake
● An ox-bow lake results from extreme meandering of a river.
● The meandering becomes so pronounced that one loop of the river becomes cut off from the main channel.
● The separated water body then forms a crescent-shaped lake.
Note:
Groundwaterreferstothewaterthat'sfoundunderground,whileaquifersaretheundergroundlayersofrockor
sediment that hold and transmit that water.
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Carbonation
Carbonation is the process in which weak carbonic acid reacts with calcium-rich rocks, resulting in the
formation of a calcium carbonate solution. Carbonic acid is primarily formed when rainwater absorbs carbon
dioxide (CO₂). This process also occurs with groundwater and streams that contain dissolved CO₂.
Erosional Features of Karst Topography:
● Solution Holes:
○ The chemically active rainwater
(atmospheric CO2) dissolves
the limestone or carbonate
rocks along the joints. Thus,
solution holes are formed.
○ Small, round, shallow
depressions with flat bottoms.
○ Diameter ranges from 1 meter
to a few meters.
● Sinkholes:
○ These are formed due to theremoval of limestone ordolomite-rich minerals from a particular area.
○ It starts with a small depression, but continuous erosion forms a hole that is larger and deep in size.
○ These are larger and deeper versions of solution holes.
● Swallow Hole:
○ A swallow hole forms when adjoining sinkholes merge, creating a larger, more significant depression.
● Doline:
○ Adolineformswhentwoormoreswallowholesmerge,resultinginadeeperandlargerdepression.Dolines
are elongated structures and are typically deeper than individual swallow holes.
● Uvala:
○ An uvala forms when multiple dolines merge together, creating an even larger depression. Uvalas are
extensive depressions with hills on either side and a relatively flat surface.
● Polje:
○ Apoljeisalargedepressionformedbythemergingofmultipleuvalasanddolines.Itischaracterizedby
its flat surface and surrounding hills.
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Note:Uvalasanddolinesaremajorkarstlandformsformedprimarilythroughtheprocessesofcarbonationand
mechanical collapse.
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Geography
Chapter 01: Geomorphology
Lecture 21: Coastal Landforms
Karst Landforms:
● Lapies and karren:
○ They are pinnacles and ridges found on limestone pavements, formed primarily through the process of
carbonation.Lapieshaveanirregularsurface.Aregionwithflattopographyonlimestoneistypicallywhere
these features are found.
● Cavern Cave:
○ Cavern caves are sub-surface erosional landforms found in regions where thick limestone beds are
present.ExamplesincludetheMammothCaveinKentucky,USA,whichisthelongestcavesysteminthe
world, and Gupta Dham, the longest cave in Bihar.
○ The formation of these caves begins with percolation water reacting with limestone to form acalcium
carbonate solution. This solution moves through cracks and holes below the surface, creating cavities.
Over time, these cavities expand and evolve into large cave systems.
● Blind Valley:
○ Ablindvalleyisavalleywhereariverdisappearsthroughsinkingholesorcracksintheground.Itisa
feature of a karst landscape, where the river may vanish into underground channels or cavities.
(Note: Karst topography/landforms will typically be found above the water table.)
Depositional Landform of Karst Topography:
● Stalagmite: These are limestone deposits thatformonthegroundorfloorofacavern.Theyarisefrom
thedrippingofmineral-richwater,whichleavesbehindcalciteafterevaporation.Theyaremound-shaped
and grow upward from the ground.
● Stalactite: These are calcium-rich deposits that hang from the ceiling of a cave. Stalactites grow
downward.
● Drapes:Needle-shaped formations that hang from theceiling of a cave.
● Column/Cave Pillar:When stalactites and stalagmites join together, they form a column or cave pillar.
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(Note: Collectively, these depositional features found in a cavern are known as speleothems.)
Coastal Landform:
● It is the result of the erosional and depositional workof sea waves.
Erosional Features:
● Cha[Link]
leading to the formation of chasms.
● WaveCutPlatform: Theseflatcoastalareasformedduetotheerosionofseacliffs.Whenaseacliff
collapsesandtheundertowcurrent(undertowcurrentreferstoasubsurfacewaterflowthatmovesin
the opposite direction to the visible, surface-bound waves) removes thedebristhentheflatsurface
emerges and it is known as awave cut platform.
● Sea Cliff: Due to the action of high andlowwaves,theseawaveshitthenotchlineoftheshoreline.
Overtime,thiserosionprocesscreatesaseacliff.Itisasteep,verticalshorelineresemblingascarp-like
escarpment.
● Cove: A cove is a small, semi-circular indentationin the shore, often with steep cliffs.
● Cave:Cavesareformedbythedifferentialerosionofrockduetoseawaves.Softrocksarescoopedout
bythewaves,creatingacave.Asseawavescontinuetointrudeintotheseformations,theyareknownas
sea caves.
● Blowholes:Theseareholesontheroofofseacavesthroughwhichwaterandairareejected.Theejection
of water creates a peculiar noise. As sea waves compress the air and water, the pressurized water is
forced out through these blowholes.
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Geography
Ch 01: Geomorphology
Lecture 22: Glaciated Landforms
Sea Arches:
● Seaarchesarepassage-likestructuresthatdeveloponheadlandsextendingintothe
sea.
● They form as sea waves strike the walls of the headland from both sides.
● Initially,cavesarecreated,butwithcontinuouspressurefromthewaves,thesecaves
eventually merge, resulting in the formation of a sea arch.
Stack and Stump:
● Astackisapillar-likestructurelocatedinthesea,formedwhenaseaarchcollapses.Itisthe
remaining part of the original headland.
● A stump is formed when a stack erodes and becomes smaller over time.
Depositional Landforms:
● Beach: A beach forms when sea waves hitthenotchline,andthe
backshore current deposits sediments, known as rock debris.Itisa
temporary covering of rock debris that extends along the wave-cut
platform.Examples of Indian Beaches:
○ Marina Beach in Chennai
○ Golden Beach in Puri
○ Baga and Candolim Beaches in Goa
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○ Juhu and Aksa Beaches in Mumbai
○ Havelock Beach of Andaman
● Bar:Abarisadepositionalfeaturethatisgenerallysubmergedunderseawater.Itisparallel
to the coastline and located some distance away from it. A bar is a mound or ridge-like
landform created by the accumulation of sediments deposited by sea waves and oceanic
currents.
● Barrier:Abarrierisanelongateddepositionallandformthatistheelevatedcounterpartofa
bar,risingabovesealevel.Itisanexampleof"emergence”.Emergencemeansthesubmerged
land or floor comes above the sea level. This can occur due to the uplift of submerged
continental shelves and coastal areas or a fall in sea level caused by glaciation.
● Lagoon: Alagoonisashallowlakefoundalongthecoast,separatedfromtheseabybarriers
such as sandbars or coral reefs. Lagoons are features of emergent coasts.
○ Examples of Lagoons in India:
■ Chilika Lagoon: It is the largest brackish water lagoon in Asia which is located in
Odisha in India. It is also an important wetland area. In 1981, Chilika Lake was
designated as the first Indian wetland ofinternationalimportanceundertheRamsar
Convention.
■ Pulicat Lagoon: Situated on the border between Andhra Pradesh (90%) and Tamil
Nadu (10%).
■ Ashtamudi Lake: Located in Kerala, it is one of thelongest lakes in India.
■ Vembanad Lake: The longest lake in India, also locatedin Kerala.
○ Barrier Islands and Related Locations:
■ SriharikotaIsland:Itisabarrierisland.ItisthehometotheSatishDhawanSpace
Centre (ISRO), where satellite and rocket launches are conducted.
■ WheelerIsland:AsiteformissiletestingbyDRDO.ItisalsoknownasAbdulKalam
Island.
(Note:TheEasterncoastofIndia,especiallyitssouth-easternpart(TamilNaducoast),appearsto
be a coast of emergence. The western coast of India, ontheotherhand,isbothemergentand
submergent. The northern portion of the coast is submerged duetofaulting,whilethesouthern
portion, which includes the Kerala coast, is an example of an emergent coast.)
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Note:
Char Dham:
● Badrinath- Uttarakhand (North)
● Rameswaram- Tamil Nadu (South)
● Dwarka- Gujarat (West)
● Jagannath Puri- Odisha (East)
Submergence in India:
● Submergenceisobservedalongmostofthewesterncoastof
India. However, there are exceptions, such as parts of the
Kathiawar Peninsula and the Kerala coast (Malabar).
● The majority of the western coast is an example of
submergence.
● Spit: A spit is formed similarly to a barrier or bar through the accumulation of sediments.
However, unlike a bar, one end of the spit is attached tothemainland,whiletheother
end extends freely into the sea.
● Sea Waves:Sea waves can shape spits into hook-likeor curved formations.
● Tombolo:Atomboloisanarrow,elongateddepositionallandformcreatedbyseawaves,which
connects two islands or an island to the mainland.
Coastlines
● Emergent Coastline: Formed by a fall in sea level.
● Submergent Coastline: Formed by a rise insealevel,leadingtothesubmergenceofland,
due to the melting of glaciers.
● Ria Coastline: It is found where a system of dissected mountain ridges and valleys are
submerged under seawater. After submergence, the valleys are filled with seawater,andonly
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theridgesremainabovesealevel,appearingasislandsorelevatedlandforms.Examplesinclude
Greece, the western coast of India particularly Goa, and southern Maharashtra.
Types of Erosion:
● SplashErosion:Raindropletsimpactthesoilsurface,causingittobecomeloose.Thisprocess
primarily affects the upper layer of the soil.
● Rill Erosion: Rills are small channels formed by erosion caused by rainwater or seasonal
streams.
● SheetErosion:Athinlayerofsoilisremovedbyrainwater.Thisoccurswhentheintensityof
rainfall exceeds the soil's absorption capacity.
● GullyErosion:Gullyerosionisawidespreadandoftendramaticformofsoilerosioncausedby
flowing surface water.
● Ravine Erosional: When a gully bed undergoes further erosion due to headward erosion, it
gradually deepens and flattens, eventually forming a ravine.
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Geography
Ch 01: Geomorphology
Lecture 23: Glaciated Landforms (Part 02)
Dalmatian Coast:
○ Dalmatian coast is the result of submergence of
mountain ridges withalternative crests and
troughswhich runs parallel to the sea coast.
○ Example:Coast in Croatia
Fjord Coast:
● These coasts areformed by the action of glaciersand
changes in sea level.During the Ice Age (Pleistocene
Epoch), glaciers carved out deep, U-shaped valleys with
steep, vertical slopes.
● After the Ice Age, as the glaciersmelted, the risingsea
levelscaused the sea to encroach on these glacialtrough
valleys. This resulted in theformation of submerged
coasts known as Fjord Coasts.
● Examples:Fjord Coasts are commonly found in Norway(Norwegian Coast) and part of Norway these coasts
are found in:
○ Alaska
○ Greenland
○ New Zealand
○ Antarctica
Glacier:
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● A glacier is a mass of ice found in glaciated regions. It is generally a slow-moving body of ice, with movement
typically ranging from afew centimeters to 5 metersper year.
● Glaciers are usually long and tongue-shaped. The movement of a glacier resembles a tongue because the sides
are obstructed by valley walls, causing the middle part of the glacier tomove faster than the sides.
Major Types of Glaciers:
● Alpine Glaciers:These are also known asmountain or valley glaciers.They are found inhigh-elevation
mountainous regionsand valleys. Examples include glaciers in the Rocky Mountains, the Atlas Mountains, the
Himalayas, the Andes, and the Alps Mountains.
● Ice Sheets:Ice sheets are currently found inAntarctica and Greenland. These are thick sheets of ice with a
little elevation at their central regions,from whichthe ice flows outward. Frozen seawater that is attached
to the coast is called an ice shelf. Icebergs are the broken ice shelfs.
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Erosional Glacier landforms:
● Cirque
○ It is anarmchair-shaped glaciated topography.
○ The slopes aredepressing and very steep.
○ It isformed by the process of abrasion and
plucking by moving glacial ice during summer.
○ Cirque is also calledCWM in Wales, Corrie in
Scotland, Kar in Germany, and Botn in Norway.
○ Cirque iscommonly found in the regions of Sweden, and
Finland.
○ Apart from this, it is also found in the higher altitudes of the Himalayas, Alps, Rockies, and Andes.
● Tarn:
○ A tarn is asmall mountain lake or pool that forms in a cirque or corrie, which is a hollow or
depression carved out by a glacier.
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○ This is also known as Cirque Lake.
Note:
Bergschrund:A bergschrund is a deep crevasse foundat the upper part of a glacier. It can be as deep as 100
meters and typically forms between two ice masses.
Randkluft (German) / Rimaye (French):This term refersto a crevasse found between a rock wall and a
glacier.
Plucking: Plucking is a glacial erosion process thatoccurs when glaciers scrape along the ground and pull away
pieces of rock
● Arete:
○ An arete is a very narrow, steep ridge that separates two cirques or corries.
● Horns:
○ A horn is a pointed peak formed when three or more cirques converge. The summitofthispeakis
known as a horn.Example: The Matterhorn in Switzerland.
● Col:
○ A colisamountainpassorgapformedinanaretethatconnectstwocirques. Example:IndiraCol
(the northernmost point of India)
● U-shaped valley:
○ These arevalleys with steep slopes of concave nature.Valley floors are flat.
○ Most geographers believe these valleys are modifications of pre-existing V-shaped valleys, created by
the erosive action of glaciers.
● Hanging Valleys:
○ Hanging valleys are tributary valleys that are not as deep as the main glacial valley. As a result, they
appear to hang above the main valleyat their meetingpoint.
○ The main glacial valley isdeeperbecause it wassubjectedto more extensive erosion due to a larger
glacier.
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Geography
Chapter 01: Geomorphology
Lecture 24: Mass Wasting
Depositional Glaciated Landforms:
● Moraines:
○ Moraines are depositional landforms consisting of rock debris that accumulate in glacial valleys. These rock
fragments are transported by glaciers as they move. There are different types of moraines based on their
location within the valley:
■ Lateral Moraine:These moraines are foundalong thesides of the valley, on the walls of the valley.
■ Terminal Moraine:This type of moraine is foundwherethe glacier begins to melt,marking the
furthest advance of the glacier.
■ Medial Moraine:Medial moraines are located in themiddle part of the glacial valley,formed when
two glaciers merge, and their lateral moraines combine.
● Outwash Plains:Areas where glaciers reach their lowestpoint and begin to melt are regions where meltwater
deposits rock debris such as sand, gravel, and boulders. These regions are known as outwash plains.
● Eskers
○ It is a depositionallandform in the glacial valley.
○ These are elongated sinuous ridges, which at times form braids.
○ Theseareverylowinheightandareformedduetotheaccumulationofsand&gravelbroughtonbythe
glaciers.
● Drumlins:
○ Drumlins are invertedboat-shaped depositional featuresfound in outwash plains.
○ Theseoval-shaped landforms often appear in groups,creating a landscape known as"basket of eggs
topography." Drumlins provide valuable insight into the movement of glaciers in the past.
● Kettles
○ These aresmall depressions formed by the pressureof large blocks of glaciers.
○ These are found in the outwash basins.
○ Large kettles are surrounded by some depositional mounds known as hummocks.
● Kames:These are irregular depositional hills and smaller landforms found in the till plains.
Specific Erosional Landforms:
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● Soft rocks are eroded away, resulting in a plucked slope. The "stoss side" features a vertical, wall-like scarp
known as a "crag." The tail has a gradual slope, such as the Edinburgh Palace of Europe.
● Roche moutonnée are relatively small landforms that resemble a sheep lying down. They are also known as
"sheep-back rocks."The stoss side features a gradualslope, while the lee side is steep due to erosion caused
by ice movement.
Note:
Glacial landforms can be found in areas where no current glaciation is occurring.
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Geography
Ch 01: Geomorphology
Lecture 25: Mass Wasting (Part 02)
Weathering:
● Weathering refers to thebreaking down of rocks, soils,and minerals in theiroriginal place (in-situ). It
involves the disintegration of these materials without any movement.
● The movement ofweathered material down a slope underthe influence of gravityis called mass wasting or
mass movement.
● Erosional agents, such as rivers, wind, glaciers, and sea waves, remove weathered material from its original
place:
Significance of Weathering:
● Weathering is the firststep in the formation of soil.
● Itenriches the soilwith minerals and nutrients.
● It facilitatesmass wasting and erosionunder theinfluence of gravity.
● Weathering marks theinitial phase of the processof denudation.
Types of Weathering:
● Mechanical Weathering / Physical Weathering:
This type of weathering is caused by physical agents such as temperature, pressure and load, and Frost.
○ Exfoliationoccurs due to pressure release and unloading:
■ A glacier exerts significant weight and pressure on the underlying rocks.
■ After the glacier melts or moves (unloading),thepressure on the rocks is reduced.
■ The reduction in pressure allows the previously compressed rocks to expand.
■ This expansion causes the rocks to fracture.
■ As a result, the rocks break intoparallel sheets,a process known asexfoliation.
○ Exfoliation due to Temperature Variation:
■ Conditions:
★ Compact rocks
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★ Round or circular shape
★ No cracks or joints
■ Note:Solar rays can penetrate rocks to a maximumdepth of about 13 feet.
★ During the day, the upper layer of the rock expandsdue to heat.
★ During the night, the upper layer either returns toits original position or contracts, depending on
the temperature change.
■ If this cycle of expansion and contraction continues over an extended period, the outer layer of the
rock will eventually break down.
■ This process is called"onion peeling weathering"orexfoliation.
○ Granular Disintegration:
■ Dark-colored grains absorb moresolar heat and expandduring the day.
■ At night, these grains contract due to cooling.
■ This continuousexpansion and contractionweakensthe grains, eventually causing them to
disintegrate.
○ Shattering:
■ Shattering occurs whencold rainwater falls on a hot
surface,which can also happen in frozen areas.
■ The sudden temperature change, especially in hot deserts,
causes therock's surface to cool rapidly.
■ This abrupt change in temperature leads to theformationof
cracks in the rock,eventually causing it to breakapart.
○ Frost Weathering
■ Occurs incool temperate regions.
■ During the day, thawing takes place as temperatures rise.
■ At night, water in thecracks freezes,causing thewater to expand in volume.
■ This expansion exerts pressure on the rock, leading to thegradual widening of cracks and eventual
breakdown of the rock over time.
● Chemical Weathering:Involves the breaking down, disintegration,and decomposition of rocks due to chemical
reactions.
➢ Carbonation
■ Carbonation occurs whenweak carbonic acid (from rainwater or groundwater) reacts with calcium
carbonate ( the limestone).
■ This reactionforms a bicarbonate solution.
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■ This process occurs inlimestone-rich topographies.
○ Oxidation
■ Oxidation occurs whenatmospheric oxygen reacts withiron in rocks,forming ferric oxide, commonly
known as rust. These are very weak part of rocks.
■ Rust formation appears as a brownish, reddish, or orangish color.
○ Hydration
■ Hydration is a chemical process that involves theabsorption of water by certain mineralsin rocks.
■ When these minerals absorb water, they swell and their volume increases.
■ The expansion of these mineralsexerts pressure onneighboring regions, resulting in the formation of
cracks.
■ Over time, these cracks widen, causing the rock to break apart.
○ Hydrolysis
■ Hydrolysis involves the reaction of water with certain minerals in rocks,leading to the extraction of
those minerals from the rock.
○ Chelation
■ Chelation is associated with chelating agents, which are chemicalsthat react and extract metal ions
from rocks.
■ In cool regions likeSiberia and elevated parts ofhigh mountain areas with coniferous forests, such
as pine trees (e.g., chir, deodar, juniper, spruce, fir), these chelating chemicals are prevalent.
■ Fallen leaves (litter) from these trees contribute to the release of these chelating agents, facilitating
the extraction of metal ions from rocks.
● Biological Weathering
○ Burrowing Animals:Rodents and other burrowing animalscontribute to biological weathering by disturbing
the soil and rock layers.
○ Trees:Trees with long roots can break rocks apartas the roots grow and expand.
○ Human Activities:Activities such as road construction,mining, soil drilling, and tunneling accelerate
weathering by physically disrupting the rocks and soil.
○ Micro-organisms
■ Lichens, Algae, Bacteria, and Fungi: Secrete chemicalsthat extract minerals from rocks.
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Ch 01: Geomorphology
Lecture 26: Mass Wasting (Part 03)
Mass Movement:
● It is the movement of the weathered rock debris down the slope under the direct influence
of gravity. The movements of mass can range from slow to rapid, affecting shallow to deep
columns of material, and includecreep, flow, slide,and fall.
● Gravity exerts its force on all matter, includingbedrock and weathering products.
Therefore,weathering is not a prerequisite for massmovement, although it facilitates
such movements.Mass movements are more active onweathered slopes than on
unweathered material.
● The rate of movement depends on several factors, such as:
● Water: It acts as a lubricant, reducing friction andcohesiveness between rock
debris or particles.
● Slope angle: Steeper slopes experience more mass movement.
● Earthquakes: The shaking of the ground increases rockmovement and causes
instability.
● Lack of vegetation: The absence of plant cover orindiscriminate removal of natural
vegetation reduces slope stability.
● Basal sapping: This is the removal of debris from the foothills.
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Types of Mass Wasting:
● Falls:Instantaneous falls of weathered rock materials, including large blocks from steep
hillslopes under the influence of gravity, are calledfalls. This type of movement involves
thevertical displacement of materials without theinvolvement of water.
○ The velocity of a fall is the greatest among all types of mass movements. Based on
the materials involved, falls are subdivided intorock fall(fall of Bigger Blocks of
rock),debris fall(Mixture of small rock particleslike sand, pebbles, boulders etc),
andearthfall(fall of finer materials than thosein debris falls).
● Slides:Slides, often referred to as landslides. Slidesinvolve the downslope displacement of
both weathered rock materials and soils. Slides in rock or soil are characterised by
movement along a sharply defined shear plane. The similar movement like landslide in snow
covered area known as avalanche i.e. sliding of ice particles.
● Slumping:A land piece or debris rotates backwardand slides. It involves
intermittent sliding of rock fragments or soil downslope along a curved plane caused
by rotational movement.
● Soil Creep: Soil creep is thevery slow movement ofsoil particles.It can be observed
when fences or electric poles start to lean downhill, indicating that the soil is gradually
shifting. This process mostly occurs on moderate or gentle slopes.
● Solifluction: Solifluction is a wetter version of soil creep, mostly found in periglacial regions.
It involves the slow movement
of saturated soil or lubricated
soil with water. Periglacial
regions have a frozen layer
that melts, causing the soil
above to move.
○ This process is quite
common in moist
temperate areas, where
surface melting of
deeply frozen ground and prolonged rain occur frequently. When the upper layers
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become saturated and the lower layers are impervious to water percolation, the flow
occurs in the upper layers.
● Flow: It involves the rapid downslope movement of rock debris or soils that are saturated
with water, behaving like a viscous fluid. Flow is associated with water and typically occurs
in humid regions that have sufficient moisture in the air. The size of particles decreases
from debris flow to mud flow.
● Debris Flow: Debris flow contains larger particlesand is saturated with water. It
has a viscous flow, with heavy and large particles. The movement is slower than
that of earth and mud flows.
● Earth Flow: Earth flow is faster than debris flow,and the size of the particles is
smaller than in debris flow.
● Mud Flow: Mud flow is the fastest of all flow types.The soil particles involved are
very fine, like clay and silt.
● Volcanic Flow/Lahar: Lahar is the flow of volcanicdust and lava mixed with
rainwater, typically occurring on volcanic mountains.
Climatology - Atmosphere:
● Air: Air is amixture of gases, solid particles, andmoisturein liquid form.
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● Atmosphere: The atmosphereis a gaseous envelope thatsurrounds the Earthfrom all
sides and is held in place by the Earth's gravitational pull.
Weather and Climate
● Weather:Weatherrefers to theshort-term atmosphericconditions in a specific place
at a specific time. It includes elements like temperature, humidity, precipitation, wind
speed, and visibility,which can change over hours or days.
● Climate: Climaterefers to the long-term average of weather patterns in a particular
region, typically measured over 30 years or more. It encompasses trends in temperature,
precipitation, and other atmospheric conditions that characterize a region’s typical
weather.
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Geography
Ch 02: Climatology
Lecture 01: Atmosphere
Composition of the Atmosphere:
● The atmosphere is composed of gases, liquids (such as moisture and water vapor), and aerosols.
● Gases in the Atmosphere:
○ Constant Gases:
Some gasesmaintain a constant proportion or percentagein the atmosphere up to a height of 80-99
km. These gases are calledconstant gases.Examples:
■ Nitrogen (N₂)
■ Argon (Ar)
○ Variable Gases:
The proportion or percentage of these gasesvariesdepending on location, time, and altitude.Examples:
■ Water vapor (H₂O)
■ Carbon dioxide (CO₂)
■ Ozone (O₃)
Vertical Distribution of Gases:
● As height increases, the amount of gas decreases. Theconcentration and density of gasesare highest at
the Earth's surface, particularly atsea level. Therefore,themaximum air pressureis also found at sea level,
where the gases are most densely packed.
Nitrogen Gas:
● Nitrogen is generally aninert gas, meaning it isnot chemically reactive under normal conditions. Its presence
helps roprevent spontaneous combustion of oxygen.
● Nitrogen is very important for the growth of plants, animals, and humans. It is essential for the development
of amino acids, which are the building blocks of proteins.
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Note:
Nitrogen gas (N₂) diffuses into the soil from the atmosphere, where certain bacteria convert it into ammonium
ions (NH₄⁺), which plants can use. Humans cannot utilize nitrogen directly through respiration but can obtain it
by consuming plants or animals that have ingested nitrogen-rich vegetation and also from animals.
Carbon Dioxide (Co2):
● It acts as a blanket of earth which meansit trapsthe heat and makes the earth warmer.
● Carbon dioxide (CO₂) constitutes approximately 0.032-0.047% of the Earth's atmosphere. It is an efficient
absorber of heat and is often referred to as the "blanket of the Earth." CO₂ is essential for plants, as they
use it during photosynthesis to produce their food and also release oxygen.
● Carbon dioxide is also known as a greenhouse gas, contributing to global warming by trapping heat in the
atmosphere. The increase in average global temperatures is a consequence of this warming effect.
● The average temperature of the lower atmosphere is approximately 15.5°C.
Greenhouse Effect:
● In Siberia, Russia (Asia), where temperatures are extremely cold, greenhouses are used to create a warmer
environment.
● A glass house acts as atransparent medium for solar radiation, allowing sunlight to enter and warm the
interior. It also acts as an opaque barrier for infrared radiation, trapping the heat inside.
● As a result, the temperature within the glass house increases, creating a suitable environment for vegetation
to thrive. Hence, these glass house looks green from far known as greenhouse.
Greenhouse Gases (GHGs):
● Any gas that contributes to the greenhouse effect is known as agreenhouse gas (GHG).
● Incoming Solar Radiation:The Sun emits short-wave radiation that reaches the earth's surface. Carbon
dioxide act like a transparent body allowing this solar radiation to pass through.
● This trapped radiation increases the temperature of the lower atmosphere. Consequently, the Earth's
surface becomes warmer.
● After the Earth's surface absorbs solar energy, it emits long-wave radiation (terrestrial radiation) back
towards space. Carbon dioxide, however, absorb and re-radiate this outgoing long-wave radiation. Hence,
Carbon dioxide is acts as a blanket of the earth.
Note:
● According to Wien's Displacement Law, the wavelength of the radiation emitted by a body is inversely
proportional to its temperature.
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● High Temperature:For bodies with high temperatures,such as the Sun (around 6000 K), the radiation
emitted is in shorter wavelengths, known as short-wave solar radiation.
● Low Temperature:For bodies with lower temperatures,such as the Earth's surface (around 300 K), the
radiation emitted is in longer wavelengths, known as long-wave terrestrial radiation.
● Wavelength can be defined as the distance between two successive crests or troughs of a wave.
Water Vapor (H₂O) and Its Role as a Greenhouse Gas:
● Water vapor acts as a greenhouse gas and plays a significant role in various weather phenomena. Its key
processes include:
○ Condensation:Condensationoccurs when water vapor (steam) cools and turns into liquid water droplets.
This process leads to the formation of clouds and fog.
○ Precipitation:Precipitation is the process by whichwater vapor in the atmosphere condenses and falls to
the Earth's surface under the influence of gravity. which includes:
■ Rain
■ Snowfall
■ Hail Storms
● Additionally, water vapor influences severe weather events such as cyclones, tornadoes, and thunderstorms.
● Constant Gases:
○ Nitrogen (N₂):~78%
○ Oxygen (O₂):~21%
○ Argon (Ar):~0.93%
● These gases have no significant role in weather phenomena.
Vertical Distribution of Water Vapor (H₂O):
● Water vapour (moisture)decreases with altitude in the atmosphere. The concentration of water vapour
increases as you approach the Earth's surface.
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Horizontal Distribution of Water Vapor (H₂O):
The amount of water vapor decreases as we move from the equator towards the poles.
● Equator:Higher concentration of water vapor.
● Poles:Lower concentration of water vapor.
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Geography
Ch 02: Climatology
Lecture 02: Atmosphere and Insolation
Aerosols:
● Aerosols are tinysolid particles suspended in theair.
● Sources of aerosols include:
○ Volcanic eruptions (volcanic dust)
○ Meteor dust
○ Combustion of wood and coal
○ Pollination
○ Winds/storms carrying dust particles
○ Sea water splashing salt particles into the air
○ Burning of stubble
○ Twisters/tornadoes
○ Combustion of cow dung patties
○ Combustion of wood and coal
○ Industrial pollution
○ Burning of Stubble
Significance of Aerosols:
● Aerosols play a significant role as"hygroscopic nuclei,"meaning theyattract moisture from
the atmosphere.
● Some aerosols, particularly those with salt particles, havea high affinity for water, enabling
them to attract water vapor around them. This processleads to theformation of water
droplets, which are essential for cloud formation. Once clouds are formed, they eventually
result in precipitation.
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● Some aerosols canabsorb solar radiation, such asblack carbon (soot).Black carbon
enters the atmosphere as a pollutant, released through theburning of fossil fuels, wood,
and stubble.It is primarily found in thetroposphere.As black carbonabsorbs more solar
radiation, it leads to anincrease in temperature,contributing to global warming.
● Some light-colored aerosolsor those rich in sulfurreflect solar radiation back into
space.This reflection canlead to a cooling effect,reducing global temperatures.
Structure of the Atmosphere:
● The atmosphere is dividedinto four distinct layersbased on temperature, each separated
by boundaries known as the tropopause, stratopause, mesopause.The four layers are
troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere
● In the troposphere,temperature decreases with altitude.In the stratosphere, temperature
increases with altitude. In the mesosphere, temperature again decreases with altitude. Finally,
in the thermosphere, temperature increases with altitude. Thermosphere further divided ito two
layers such as inosphere (up to 640 Km) and Exosphere and magnetosphere.
Troposphere:
● It is derived from the word Tropos which means Turbulence or Mixing of gases.
● It is the lowermost layer of the atmosphere.
● All theweather phenomenon takes placein this layeronly.
● All phenomena like Thunderstorm, Cyclones, Precipitation, Condensation, tornado etc take place
in this layer.
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● It is significant layer for living being.
● The word troposphere originates from theGreek word‘Tropos’,which meansmixingor
turbulence. Therefore,e it is a zone ofmixing ofgasses and turbulencedue to vertical
winds, which leads to the formation of cyclones and other weather phenomena.
● It is the atmospheric layer between the earth’s surface and an altitude ofup to 6-8 km at
the Poles and 16-18 km at the Equator.
● Sunlight falls perpendicularly at the equator, making it a warm region. The air in contact with
the surface becomes heated and rises due to its lower density. This rising warm air is called
convective air, and the process is known as convection. As a result of these convection
currents, the height of the troposphere is greater at the equator.
● At the poles, sunlight is slanting, and this region receives less solar energy, making it very cold.
The colder air becomes heavier and denser, causing it to sink.
● Normal lapse rate is a term which is used to describe thereduction of temperature by 6.5
degree celsius for every 1 km increase in altitude.
● The tropopause is theupper boundary of the troposphere.Beyond this point,no weather
phenomena occur.It is a layer about 2 kilometersthick and acts like a lid, preventing weather
systems from rising into higher atmospheric layers.
Stratosphere:
● The Stratosphere extends up to 50 kms above tropopause.
● Thetemperature increases with increasing altitude(height).
● This is due to the absorption of UV rays (Which are hot) by
the ozone layer.
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● Thetemperatureinthislayerremainsconstantforsomedistancebutthenrisestoreacha
level of 0°C (Stratopause) at 50 km altitude.
● Jets and airplanes fly in the stratosphere since there is no turbulence.
● Cirrus clouds are found in this layer. Cirrus Clouds are also known as Stratospheric or
Nacreous Clouds, or Mother of Pearl Clouds. These clouds are high-altitude clouds that
generally do not produce rainfall.
Ozone (O₃):Ozone is made up of three oxygen atoms(O₃) and is found in two main layers of the
atmosphere:
● Good Ozone:Found in the stratosphere, ozone playsa beneficial role by absorbing harmful UV
rays, protecting life on Earth. It occurs naturally in this layer.
● Bad Ozone:Found in the troposphere, ozone here isconsidered harmful as it is produced as a
secondary pollutant. It forms due to reactions between volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and
nitrogen oxides (NOx), which are primary pollutants. This ozone acts as a greenhouse gas
(GHG) and can mix with fog and smog (smoke + fog), which is harmful to respiratory health.
Stratopause:
The stratopause marks the upper limit of the stratosphere. Beyond this layer, there isno ozone,
and thusno selective absorption of UV rays.Thislayer is about2 kilometers thick.
Mesosphere:
● This layer stretches from50 kms-80 kms.
● Temperature againreduces with increasing height.
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● At around 80 km, the temperature drops to approximately -100°C. Most meteors burn up in
this layer due to the friction caused by the gases present.
Note:Noctilucent cloudsare rare high-altitude clouds visible only under certain conditions. They
form during the summer months and appear after sunset.
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Geography
Ch 02: Climatology
Lecture 03: Insolation And Temperature
Ionosphere:
● The Ionosphere lies above the mesopause.
● It marks the upper limit of the mesosphere,beyondwhich there is no decrease in
temperature with height.
● This layer is made up of electrically charged particles called ions.
● These ions are charged particles of oxygen and nitrogen atoms.
● This layer reflects radio signals released by Earth. There are four major layers within the
ionosphere:
○ D-layer (D-region):Located between 80-99 km, it reflectslow-frequency radio waves.It
is the lowermost layer of the ionosphere.
○ E-layer (E-region): Found at 99-140 km, also knownas the Heaviside layer,it reflects
low and medium-frequency radio waves.
○ F-layer (F-region): Extending from 140-380/400 km,also known as the Appleton layer, it
reflectsmedium and high-frequency radio waves.
○ G-layer:Situated at 400-640 km,it reflects all high-frequencyradio waves.
Note:
Radio Wave:
Radio waves have different wavelengths, and their frequencies vary accordingly. If the
wavelength is short, the frequency is high, and vice versa.
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● When electromagnetic solar radiation enters the ionosphere, a reaction occurs between the
electrically charged particles (ions) and the solar radiation. As a result,a spark of light is
produced.This light is known as anAurora, whichoccurs only above the poles:
○ At the Northern Pole, it is calledAurora Borealisor Northern Lights.
○ At the Southern Pole, it is calledAurora Australis.
○ In the ionosphere, the temperature increases with altitude due to theselective absorption
of gamma rays and X-rays by nitrogen and oxygen.
Exosphere:
● We have limited information about the exosphere, and the data available is minimal. The
density of the exosphere is negligible, and it is unclear at what exact height it transitions into
outer space. The primary gases in this layer are hydrogen and helium.
● Atmospheric Layers (based on chemical composition and positioning):
○ Homosphere:Located below 80 km, gases are mixed uniformly without distinct layers. In
this region, gases like nitrogen, oxygen, and others are blended together.
○ Heterosphere:Above 80 km, gases start to separateinto distinct layers due to differences
in their molecular weights. This region includes gases such as nitrogen, oxygen, and
hydrogen are found in separate layers.
Insolation:
● Insolation refers to incoming solar radiation or solar energy. This energy is received by the
Earth from the Sun.
● The photosphere is the visible surface of the Sun. Nuclear fusion occurs in the core of the Sun,
where hydrogen atoms collide and form helium, releasing energy in the process. This energy
flows from the core through the radiative zone to the photosphere and is emitted as solar
radiation.
● Thechromosphereis the layer of the Sun's atmosphereabove the photosphere. The outer part
of the chromosphere is known as thecorona, whichis visible during a solar eclipse.
● Energy from the Sun's core travels through space and enters the Earth's atmosphere. The
exosphere is the outermost limit of the Earth's atmosphere. The energy received at this outer
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limit is referred to as insolation. The insolation received at the outer limit of the atmosphere is
constant and is known as the solar constant. It is approximately 1.94 gm cal/cm²/min, but it is
often rounded to 2 gm cal/cm²/min.
● Solar radiation consists of short waves, where each wave carries energy in discrete packets
known as photons. The spectrum of solar radiation includes various types of waves based on
their wavelength.
○ The shortest wavelengths are ultraviolet rays, gamma rays, and X-rays.
○ The medium wavelengths, which include visible light. Visible light is composed of a range of
colors such as violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red.
○ The longest wavelengths belong to microwave, radio, and radar waves.
Distribution of Insolation:
● The amount of insolation received on the Earth's surface is not [Link] mount of
insolation decreases as one moves poleward from the equator.
Factors affecting the distribution of insolation on the earth’s surface:
● Length of Day and Night:
➔ During summer ( Longer Day), insolation would be more, because more sun rays are falling
and there are longer days during summer.
➔ During winter ( Shorter days) there are shorter days and longer nights so less sun rays are
falling means less insolation.
➔ Insolation is affected by the sun.
● Distance between the Sun and Earth:
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○ The average distance between the Sun and Earth is approximately 149 million kilometers.
The term "aphelion" is derived from two Greek words:"ap", meaning "farthest," and"helios",
meaning "sun."
○ Aphelion refers to the point at which Earth is farthest from the Sun, which occurs at
about 152 million kilometers.
○ On July 4th, during aphelion, Earth is at its greatest distance from the Sun, resulting in
lower insolation.
○ Perihelion, derived from the Greek words "peri" (nearest) and "helios" (sun), is the point
when Earth is closest to the Sun, resulting in maximum insolation.
● Angle of sun rays:
○ Whenthesun'sraysstrikeEarth'ssurfacenear
the equator, the incoming solar radiation is
more direct(nearlyperpendicularorclosertoa
90˚ angle). Therefore, the solar radiation is
concentrated over a smaller surface area,
causing warmer temperatures.
○ Whereas the poles receive the slanting rays
andhence,theamountofinsolationisless.Therefore,thetemperatureismoreatthe
tropics and less at the poles.
Note:Maximum insolation is not received at equator.
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Geography
h 02: Climatology
C
ecture 04: Insolation And Temperature (Part 02)
L
Factors affecting the distribution of insolation on the earth’s surface:
● Slope Aspect:If the mountain range in the Northern Hemisphere is oriented in an east-west
direction, the southern slope will receive more insolation. In the Himalayas, the southern slopes
have more vegetation, human settlements, and a higher population due to the warmer
temperatures. In contrast, the northern slopes are barren, with fewer human settlements, lower
population density, and lower temperatures because they receive less insolation.
● Effect of the Atmosphere and the Earth Surface:
○ Albedo:
■ Albedo is a measure of the amount of solar radiation reflected by a surface, expressed
as a percentage. A higher albedo indicates that more solar radiation is reflected and
less is absorbed, leading to lower insolation.
■ The sun's rays are reflected by the clouds as well as by snow. Thus, the presence of
clouds reduces the insolation, thereby reducing the temperature. The sun rays also
reflected by the fresh snow.
■ The albedo value of different components is given below:
○ Earth: 30-35% of solar radiation is reflected back into space.
○ Mercury: 11%.
○ Fresh snow: 90-95%.
○ Thick clouds: 70-80%.
○ Old snow: 50-60%.
○ Thin clouds: 20-30%.
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○ Light soil: 25-30%.
○ Dry soil: 20-25%.
○ Black soil: 5-10%.
○ Evergreen Pine Forest: 5-10%.
○ Deciduous Forest: 15-20%.
■ Albedo is inversely proportional to the absorption of solar radiation.
■ Higher albedo means lower insolation.
○ Absorption:Solar radiation is absorbed by variousgases and aerosols in the atmosphere.
Ozone (O₃) absorbs UV rays, nitrogen (N₂) absorbs gamma and X-rays, and water vapor
(moisture) absorbs a portion of solar infrared rays.
○ Reflection:Certain dust particles, especially thoserich in sulfur or light-colored aerosols,
reflect a significant amount of solar radiation.
Note:
Reflection:When the diameter of an aerosol is largerthan the wavelength of solar radiation, it
reflects a significant amount of solar radiation.
Scattering:When the wavelength of solar radiationis greater than the diameter of an aerosol,
scattering occurs. Maximum scattering happens for blue light, which is why the sky appears blue.
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During sunrise and sunset, sunlight travels through a larger portion of the atmosphere. Red light
scatters the least and thus reaches our eyes more effectively, while other components scatter
away. This results in the sky appearing reddish-orange during these times.
○ Diffused Daylight:Diffused daylight refers to thescattered lightthat Earth's surface
receivesbefore sunrise and after sunset.This lightcomes from thescattering of
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sunlight by the atmosphere,providing illumination even when thesun is below the
horizon.
Heat Budget:
● The heat budget represents the equilibrium between incomingsolarradiationandoutgoing
terrestrial radiation.
● Incoming solar radiation is considered 100% on the outer limit of the atmosphere.
○ Loss of solar radiation due to reflection:
■ Cloud cover: 29%
■ Dust particles: 3%
■ Earth's surface reflection: 2%
■ Total loss due to reflection:
35%
○ Thus, the remaining solar
radiationis 65%.
○ Absorption by theatmosphere:
14%
○ Solar radiation received byEarth's surface:51%
■ Direct solar radiation: 34%
■ Diffused daylight: 17%
Outgoing Terrestrial Radiation:
● Heat loss through evaporation = 19%
● Heat loss through conduction = 9%
● Heat loss through terrestrial radiation = 23%
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● Total heat loss is equal to 51%.
Note:Outofthe23%ofterrestrialradiationemittedbytheEarth,6%istrappedbygreenhouse
gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere, while the remaining 17% is radiated back into space.
How solar radiation and heat are absorbed and retained by the
atmosphere:
● Absorption of solar radiation by the atmosphere = 14%
● Heat retained from evaporation = 19%
● Heat retained through conduction = 9%
● Trapping of terrestrial radiation = 6%
● Total heat retained through absorption = 48%
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Geography
Ch 02: Climatology
Lecture 05: Temperature
Heat balance is maintained by the atmosphere. Daily 48 percent/units absorbed by the
atmosphere
● The atmosphere absorbs solar radiation through various gasses, including ozone (O₃),
oxygen (O₂), and water vapor (H₂O) → 14 percent
● Greenhouse gasses (Terrestrial Radiation) → 6 percent
● Evaporation → 19 percent
● Convection and conduction → 9 percent
Slant Rays: The area covered by slant rays is more than that of verticalrays.SlantingRays
have less insolation than vertical Rays.
Temperature
● It means the temperature of the atmosphere.
● Heat vs Temperature:
○ Heat is a formofenergywhichisgenerallymeasuredincalories.Heatrepresents
or explains the status of activeness of molecules in a substance.Heatisdirectly
proportionaltoactivenessofmolecules.Inotherwords,moreheatwouldmeanmore
active molecules and less heat would mean less active molecules
○ Temperatureis a measure of (or degree of) hotnessor coldness of a substance.
Mechanism of Heating of Air
Conduction
● WhatisConduction?:Itisaprocessinwhichtwobodiesofdifferenttemperaturecomein
contactthenthroughmoleculestheheatistransferred.Thistransferofheatwillcontinue
till the temperature of both the bodies are equal.
● UnderstandingThroughanExperiment:Let’sassumetherearetwoobjects.Oneofthem
ishot(labeledA)andtheotheronecold(labeledB).Whenthesetwoobjectscomeinto
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contact,heatwilltransferfromthehotterobjecttothecolderone(AtoB).Thisprocess
continues until both objects reach the same temperature or are separated.
○ In other words, Conduction will occur and the faster-moving (more active)
moleculesinthehotobject(A)transferenergytotheslower-moving(lessactive)
molecules in the cold object (B). This transfer ofenergycontinuesuntilthermal
equilibrium is reached, meaning both objects have the same temperature.
● ConductioninEarth’sSurface:Duringtheday,solarradiation(fromthesun)heatsthe
Earth’s surface, which in turn heats the airdirectlyaboveit(orairincontactwiththe
Earth’s warm surface) via conduction.
○ IsAiraGoodorBadConductorofHeat?:Airisabadconductorofheat.Airdoes
nottransfertheheateasily.TheairincontactwiththewarmEarth’ssurfacegets
warmbutdoesnottransfertheheat.Inotherwords,throughconductiononlythe
lower layer of the atmosphere becomes warm.
Convection
● Characteristic of Warm Air: It is light air or ascending air (gravitational pull does not
work well)
○ Have low density
○ It expands more
○ It has more moisture trapping capability
● NormalLapseRate:With1kmofaltitude,thetemperaturedecreaseby6.5°C(Forevery
165 meter rise in altitude, the temperature decreases by 1°C)
● WhatisConvection:Itisaprocessinwhichheatistransferredverticallyalongwiththe
rising mass of air.
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● Convection in Earth’s Atmosphere: Through conduction, the air in contact with the
Earth’s surface gets warm. This warm air, being less dense, ascends (characteristic of
warmair).Asitmovesupward,itexpandsduetotheloweratmosphericpressure(nearthe
Earth’s surface the air pressure was high). This aircontinuestocoolasitrises(dueto
the normal lapse rate), transferring heat vertically.
○ Weknowthatcoldairisdenserandtendstosink.Thiscoldairwillthendescend
to the Earth’s surface and will once again warm up.
ig: Convection is the transfer of heat by the movement of a gas or liquid from one position to
F
another. The basic premise behind convection is that heated matter becomes more buoyant and
"rises", while cooler material "sinks."
Advection
● What is Advection?:Transfer of heat by horizontallymoving ari is advection.
○ Example:Loo in northern part of India
● Advection in Earth: The horizontal movement of warm air masses fromawarmsurface
(like a tropical place) to cooler regions (like Tundra region). This warm air (containing
heat) will increase the temperature of the cooler region.
Radiation
● What is Radiation?:Transfer of heat by a warm bodywithout any medium.
● UnderstandingThroughanExperiment:Let’sassumeametalpotcontainingwaterisona
stove.Youareholdingthepotwithyourhand.Theheatfromthestoveisheatingupthe
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pot. This heatistransferredthroughthemetal(viamolecules)tothehandleofthepot,
warming your hand as well. This is conduction.
○ The waterbeingheatedbythestovegetswarm.Thewateratthebottomofthe
pot (in contact with the pot) heats up first. This warmwater,beinglessdense,
rises,whilethecoolerwateratthesurfacesinkstothebottomtobeheated.This
cycle continues, distributing heat throughout the water. This process is called
convection.
○ The heat from the stove canalsodirectlywarmyourhandswithoutanymedium.
This is radiation.
● Radiation in Earth’s Atmosphere: Earth’s surface becomes warm due to absorption of
solar radiation.
○ Lower Atmosphere: Solar radiation is not heating the lower atmosphere directly.
Because of the trapping of terrestrial radiations by greenhouse gasses the lower
atmosphere is heated.
Horizontal Distribution of Temperature
● Generally the temperature reduces polewards (moving towards poles). This is because
temperature is largely affected by the position of the latitude.
● Is the Equator the Warmest Region?: Based on the above fact we might think the
equator is the hottest region on the Earth. However that is not the case.
○ In fact 20 - 30° latitudes are the warmest place on the Earth’s surface.
● Equator:Sunraysattheequatorarealmostperpendicularthroughouttheyear.Thismakes
the surface warm. Warm air is like water vapor as it contains moisture.
○ We already know the hot air (also called convective/ascending air) will move
upwards (due to convection) and willgetcolder(normallapserate).Thecoldair
will form water droplets (condensation) and along with the presence of aerosol
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(small particles suspended in the atmosphere) clouds formation will take place.
This is taking place at around 12 to 3 pm.
○ PresenceofClouds:Ifcloudsarethicktheiralbedois70-80percent.Ifalbedois
hightheninsolationwouldbelowthusheatreceivedandtemperaturewouldalsobe
low.
○ 4 o’ Clock: Rainfall would take place at 4 pm. In equatorial regions convectional
rainoccursalmostdailyintheafternoons.Itgenerallyoccursat4pm,that'swhyit
isknownas4o'clockrain.ThiswillreducethetemperatureoftheEarth’ssurface
and of the lower atmosphere.
Remember:If the air is warmer than its surroundingatmosphere then the air will rise.
● Factors Affecting Horizontal Distribution of Temperature:
○ Latitude: This is the most important factor. But there are certainfactorswhich
affect the impact of latitudes.
○ Altitude:Introphere,generallythetemperaturereduceswithheight.(NormalLapse
rate)
■ Two places at the same latitude could have different temperatures. That
would be because of the difference in theiraltitude.ImaginetwocitiesX
andYareat20°latitude.X’sattitudeis200metersandY’saltitudeis3
km. Y will be colder than X.
■ Example: Nilgiri hills (Ooty) is in the heat surplus zone but due tohigh
altitude it has low temperature.
■ Example: Mount Kilimanjaro (Tanzania) is located intheequatorialregion
(torridzone)yetduetohighaltitudeithaslowtemperature.Infactitisa
snow covered peak.
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Torrid zone(heat surplus) is the region near theequator and sun rays fall perpendicularly.
Temperature zoneis the region above and below theequator.
Frigidzone,alsocalledthepolarzone(heatdeficit),istheregionatthepolesofearthwhich
has a freezing or cold climate.
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Geography
Ch 02: Climatology
Lecture 06: Temperature (Part 02)
Factors of Horizontal Distribution of Temperature:
● Nature of Land and Water: Compared to land, the sea gets heated slowly and loses heat slowly. Land
heats up and cools down quickly; therefore, the variation in temperature over the sea islesscomparedto
land.
○ The reason land heats up faster than water are:
■ Land isstatic, and water is mobile(with sea waterexperiencing waves, tides, and currents).
■ The penetration of solar radiation on land is only 3 feet.
■ The penetration oftheofsolarradiationintowater/seaisapproximately200meters.Thisiswhyit
requires longer time for it to heat up.
■ The albedo of water is higher than the land, leading to less absorption ofsolarradiation,which
results in lower temperatures.
○ The reason land cools down more quickly than water are:
■ Solar radiation penetrates onlyuptoabout
3 feet into the land. This limited
penetration means that the land heats up
quickly and also releases heat quickly, as
the heat is concentrated in a relatively
shallow layer.
■ Incontrast,solarradiationpenetrateswater
up to approximately 200 meters. This
deeper penetration allows water to absorb and distribute heat over a much larger volume.
Consequently, water takes longer to heat up and also longer toreleaseheat,astheheatisspread
throughout a greater depth.
■ High evaporation in water leads to increased water vapour in the atmosphere,whichcontributesto
significantcloudformation.Watervapouractsasagreenhousegas,absorbingterrestrialradiationand
trapping heat. As a result, the area remains warm because the heat does not escape easily.
○ During the summer and the daytime: The temperatureof land is high than the sea water/ocean.
○ During Winter and night time:Here land will be coolerthan the ocean/sea water.
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(Note: Land and ocean water exhibit differential rates of heating and cooling.)
● Effect of Sea and Land breeze (Distance from the sea shore):
○ During the day the land heats up faster and becomes
warmer than the sea. Therefore, over land the air rises
giving rise to a low pressure area, whereas the sea is
relativelycoolandthepressureoverseaisrelativelyhigh.
Thus, pressure gradient from sea to land is created and
the wind blows from the sea to the land as the sea
breeze. Because of the sea breeze, the temperature of
land will not increase much.
○ At night, the reverse happens. The land loses heat fasterandiscoolerthanthesea.Thepressure
gradient is from the land to the sea and hence land breeze
results. Duetothecoollandbreezemovingawayfromthecoast
towards the temperature of coastal land will not decrease much.
○ Regions near the sea experience a marine moderate climate,
characterized by milder temperature variations.
○ Regions far from the sea are influenced by the continentality
effect, leading to more extreme climates. In these areas, summers can be very hot and winters very cold.
● Wind: Clouds have high albedo, meaning they reflect a significant amount of solarradiation.Thisreflection
reduces the amount of insolation reaching the Earth's surface, leading to lower temperatures. Additionally,
clouds can bring rain, which further contributes to cooler temperatures.
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Geography
Ch 02: Climatology
Lecture 07: Temperature Inversion
Temperature - Horizontal Distribution:
● The Equator is not necessarily the hottest place on Earth. Maximum temperatures are often
recorded between 20° and 30° latitudes.
Vertical Distribution of Temperature:
● We are primarily concerned with the Troposphere. Generally, with increasing altitude, the
temperature decreases. This is known as theNormalLapse Rate,where for every 1 km
increase in altitude, the temperature decreases by approximately 6.5°C.
Reasons for Normal Lapse Rate:
● The atmosphere in the Troposphere is heated from below:Air is a poor conductor of heat,
so the transfer of heat by air is not very efficient. Solar radiation heats up the Earth's surface.
The air that comes into contact with the warm surface heats up as a result.
● Adiabatic Heating or Cooling:Gases near the Earth'ssurfaceexperience maximum air
pressure,where molecules are closely spaced. Whenatmospheric pressure is high,frequent
collisions between gas molecules create more friction, generating more heat, which results in
higher temperatures near the surface. In contrast,at higher altitudes, molecularcollisions
are minimal,and friction is negligible, leading tomuch lower temperatures.At these
altitudes,gas density decreases as molecules movefarther apart, resulting inlower
atmospheric pressure and reduced heat generation.
● Reduction in the concentration of greenhouse gases (GHGs) with height:The concentration
of greenhouse gases (GHGs) decreases with height, and consequently, their ability to trap
terrestrial radiation also reduces with increasing altitude.
Lapse Rate:
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● Normal Lapse Rate:
○ In normal lapserate,aswegoup,temperaturedecreases.Whenarelativelycolderair
layer overlies the air layer below (warm air), then the situation isNormal Lapse Rate.
● Reverse Lapse Rate:
○ Reverse or negative lapse rate occurs when temperature increases with altitude.
○
Temperature Inversion:
● A temperature inversion is a layer of the atmosphere where the temperature increases with
height, instead of decreasing as it normally does.
● This happens when a layer of warmer air traps cooler air near the ground.
Types of Temperature Inversion:
● Advectional inversion of temperature:
○ Horizontal movement of air along the surface is responsible for inversion.
○ Types include Valley Inversion and Frontal or Cyclonic Inversion.
● Non Advectional inversion of temperature:
○ Vertical movement of air should be minimal.
○ Examples include Ground Inversion or Radiation Inversion.
Ground Inversion:
● For the ground inversion, certain conditions are required:
○ Occurs in subtropical (warm temperate and cool temperate regions).
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○ During winter nights, maximum terrestrial radiation can emit.
○ Clear, cloudless skies are essential.
○ Mixing of air should be negligible.
● During winter, under clear skies, when there is surplus terrestrial radiation emission, the
Earth'ssurfacecoolsrapidly.Sinceairisapoorconductorofheat,theatmospherenearthe
surface becomesmuch colder, while the upper atmosphereremains relatively warmer.
● This rise in temperature with height is known as temperature inversion, a reversal of the
normal temperature pattern, where relatively warm air overlies a cold air layer near the surface.
Note: When warm, moist air comes into contact withcooler air or a cold surface, the temperature
of the warm air can drop to its dew point, leading to condensation. This condensation forms tiny
water droplets, which can create fog.
Valley Inversion:
● Valley inversion, commonly observed in temperate
and subtropical regions, occurs during winter
nights due to differential heat loss through
terrestrial radiation.
● At night, the upper slopes of the valley and
mountain peaks cool rapidly as they lose heat
through radiation, causing the air in direct
contact with these surfaces to become cold and
dense.
● Meanwhile, the valley floor retains more heat
because terrestrial radiation struggles to escape
due to the presence of surrounding slopes.
● As the colder, denser air from the higher slopes descends, it settles at the valley bottom,
displacing the relatively warmer air upwards.
● This process creates an inversion, where the normal temperature gradient is reversed, and
the valley floor becomes colder than the surrounding higher elevations.
● This phenomenon often leads to the formation of frost at the valley bottom, as
temperatures drop below freezing.
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Frontal or Cyclonic Inversion:
● Interaction of two different masses of air (warm air and cold air) is called front.
● Frontal inversion occurs around latitudes 60-65
when cold polar air masses collide with warm
subtropical air masses.
● A warm air mass is light, humid, less dense, and
characterized by high temperatures. In contrast, a
coldairmassisheavier,denser,drier,andhaslower
temperatures.Warmaircontainsmorewatervapour.
Clouds may be present above it.
● Frontalinversionisalsoknownascyclonicinversionbecauseinversiontakesplaceattheplace
of a temperate cyclone.
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Geography
Chapter 02: Climatology
Lecture 08: Pressure
Atmospheric Pressure
● Atmospheric pressure refers to the weight of the column of air exerted on a unit area at sea
level.
● Due to Earth's gravitational pull, gases concentrate near the surface, resulting in maximum
pressure at ground level.
● As altitude increases, both the air density and atmospheric pressure decrease.
● At sea level, the standard atmospheric pressure is approximately1013.25 millibars (mb) When
expressed in grams per square centimeter (g/cm²), it's approximately 1034 g/cm².
● Millibar is the unit of air pressure in the metric system.
Low Pressure System:
● Ascending Air (Rising Air):In a low-pressure system,warm air rises. As it ascends, it
cools and may lead to cloud formation and precipitation.
● Summer Season (Generally):Air pressure tends to belowest during the summer when
temperatures are highest. Warm air expands, becomes less dense, and rises more easily,
contributing to the formation of low-pressure systems.
● Wet Climate:Low-pressure systems often bring humid,wet weather conditions due to the
rising air and condensation of water vapor.
● Cyclonic Conditions:These systems are associatedwith cyclonic activity, resulting in
atmospheric instability and adverse weather such as storms, heavy rain, or strong winds.
High Pressure System
● High-pressure systems are characterized by sinking air (descending), subsiding air.
● These systems are more common during the winter.
● In this region, cold air is heavier and denser, causing it to sink towards the surface, creating
high pressure at ground level. The air near the surface is relatively warmer than the air above.
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This warmer air absorbs moisture from the surroundings, increasing dryness, as its
humidity-holding capacity is higher.
● High pressure leads to clear skies due to the lack of cloud formation.
● There is generally no precipitation as the air is dry.
● The air in high-pressure regions is dry, often leading to arid or semi-arid conditions.
● Generally, deserts are found in high-pressure zones due to the dry conditions.
● High pressure is associated with anticyclonic weather patterns.
● The atmosphere is stable in these regions.
Factors Affecting the Wind System
● Pressure Gradient Force (PGF):
○ Gradient means difference.
○ The difference in atmospheric pressure between two locations (high pressure to low
pressure).
○ It is the force responsible for the generation of winds.
○ A steeper pressure gradient (larger difference in pressure) leads to higher wind speeds.
○ Example:If the pressure difference between two pointsis 1012 mb and 1004 mb, the
pressure gradient is 8 mb. In another case, if the pressure difference is 1000 mb and 990
mb (10 mb), it would result in even faster wind speeds.
Isotherm, Thermal Anomaly:
● Isotherm:
○ An isotherm is an imaginary line connecting places with equal temperature.. It
does not measure the actual temperature; therefore, its practical use
is limited. It is mainly used for map projections. Example:
○ Isotherm: Northern Hemisphere (July - Summer):In
July, during summer in the Northern Hemisphere:
■ Land heats up faster, resulting inhigher temperaturesover
land.
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■ Oceans remain cooler, leading tolower temperaturesover water.
■ As a result, isotherms show anequatorward bendwhen moving from land towards
cooler ocean areas.
■ Conversely, isotherms exhibit apoleward bendwhenmoving from cooler ocean areas
towards warmer land.
● Thermal anomaly:
○ It is adeviation from the average temperature ofa place at a particular
latitude.
○ Every latitude has an average temperature. For example, let's assume that at 10
degrees north latitude, the average
temperature is 25°C. If, at this
latitude, point A has a temperature of
40°C and point B has a temperature
of 5°C, this indicates a strong
deviation from the average, known as athermal anomaly.
■ Point A, with a temperature higher than the average, represents apositive
thermal anomaly.
■ Point B, with a temperature lower than the average, represents anegative
thermal anomaly.
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Geography
Ch 02: Climatology
Lecture 09: Pressure and Wind Belts
Isotherms:
● Isotherms are imaginary lines that connect places with equal temperatures. They are generally
aligned parallel to latitudes.
● In the Northern Hemisphere, dominated by land (Land Hemisphere), isotherms are closely
spaced.
● In the Southern Hemisphere, dominated by water (Water Hemisphere), isotherms are widely
spaced.
● With latitude insolation changes.
Isobars:
● Isobars are imaginary lines joining places withequalatmospheric pressure.They are generally
parallel to latitudes.
● Closely spaced isobars represent asteep pressuregradient(high pressure to low pressure),
indicating strong winds. It is common in winter in the Northern Hemisphere
● Widely spaced isobars represent a gradual pressure gradient. It is more common in the Southern
Hemisphere.
Pressure Gradient Force (PGF):
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● Pressure Gradient Force (PGF) is the wind-generating force, that moves air from high pressure
(HP) to low-pressure (LP) areas.
● PGF always actsperpendicular to the isobars.
Frictional Force:
● Frictional Force isinversely proportional to wind speed. The frictional force decreases with
altitude (i.e., it is strongest at the surface and weaker aloft).
● Over Seas and Oceans,the frictional force is lower,allowing wind speeds to increase as they
move over the seawater.
Coriolis Force/Effect:
● Coriolis Force affects the direction, not the speed, of wind. Air is attached to the Earth due to
gravity..
● Discovered by G.G. Coriolis, this effect occurs because the Earth rotates on its axis, causing
any moving object to deflect. For example, if you throw a ball or fire a ballistic missile, they
deflect due to the Earth's rotation.
● Coriolis Force is apseudo force,representing thedeflection caused by Earth's rotation.
● The Coriolisforce is maximum at the polesandminimumat the equator. As one moves
poleward, the coriolis force increases. Coriolis force does not affect wind speed but only the
direction.
● Higher wind speed results in greater deflection due to Coriolis Force.
● Greater air mass also increases Coriolis Force, leading to more deflection.
● Coriolis force always acts perpendicular to the wind's direction.
Note:
Ferrel's Law on the Coriolis Effect:
● In the Northern Hemisphere, moving objects are deflected
to the right.
● In the Southern Hemisphere, deflection is to the left.
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Buys Ballot's Law:
● If a person stands facing low pressure, they can apply Ferrel's Law to understand the
direction of the moving object based on the pressure system.
● when a person stands with their back to the wind,low pressure will be on their left in
the Northern Hemisphere and on their right in the Southern Hemisphere (according to
the Coriolis effect).
● The Coriolis Force determines the direction of cyclones:
○ In the Northern Hemisphere, it causes right-hand deflection, resulting in an
anti-clockwise rotation of cyclones.
○ In the Southern Hemisphere, it causes left-hand deflection, leading to the
clockwise rotation of cyclones.
● Winds in an anticyclone blow clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and
anti-clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.
Coriolis Force is minimal at the equator and increases toward the poles:
● According to the conservation of angular momentum:
Angular Momentum= Mass × Velocity × Radius
For example:
● If mass = 10 units, velocity = 10 units, and radius = 10 units, the angular momentum
would be:
10 × 10 × 10 = 1000 units.
if the radius decreases, velocity must increase to conserve angular momentum, and vice versa.
For example:
● mass = 10 units, velocity = 20 units, and radius = 5 units, the angular momentum would
be:
PW Web/App:[Link]
10 × 20 × 5 = 1000 units.
This principle explains how rotational speed changes with varying radii, relevant in atmospheric
movements and the Coriolis Effect.
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Geography
Chapter 02: Climatology
Lecture 10: Types of Winds
Pressure Belts and Wind Belts
The distribution of atmospheric pressure across different latitudes is referred to as the global
horizontal pressure distribution. Its key characteristic is the formation of distinct zones, commonly
known as pressure belts.
● Equatorial Low-Pressure Belt (5°N – 5°S):Warm airat the equator rises due to intense
solar heating, creating athermally induced low-pressurebeltat the equator.
○ Heavy Rainfall: The region is marked by significantconvection due to strong solar
heating, leading to the rise of warm, moist air, which cools and condenses, causing
heavy rainfall.
○ Convection: The rising air creates convection currents,forming the basis for global
wind circulation patterns. Warm surface air rises, cools at higher altitudes, and
leads to cloud formation and precipitation.
○ Calm Region: This belt is acalm regionwith weakwinds because trade wind rises
even before reaching the equator. This calm area is often referred to as the
Doldrums.
○ This area is known as theInter-Tropical ConvergenceZone (ITCZ), where trade
winds from both hemispheres meet.
○ The rising air forms theHadley cells, and this circulationis essential for global
wind patterns like thetrade winds.
● Subtropical High-Pressure Belt (30°N – 30°S):Air descending from higher altitudes at
around 30° latitude createshigh pressureareas.
○ This is adynamically induced high-pressure belt.The high-pressure system
develops because of thesubsidence(sinking) of air that occurs as a result of the
rotation of the Earth and theCoriolis Force.
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○ Winds diverge from this region, creating thetrade windstoward the equator and
thewesterliestoward the poles.
○ Weather Characteristics:
■ The sinking air is dry and creates areas withclear(cloudless) skies, little
cloud formation, andlow precipitation. Due to thisseveral major deserts,
like the Sahara and the Arabian deserts, are found in this region.
■
■ Winds in this region are weak because the descending air suppresses
convection. This region is sometimes called theHorseLatitudes, known
historically for weak winds that would stall ships.
○ Influence of High Solar Insolation:
● Due to high solar insolation in these latitudes, the temperature is high, but
the air does not rise due to the dominantsubsidenceof cooler air.
● While temperatures may be warm enough to induce convection, the
rotational effect of the EarthandCoriolis forceoverpower the thermal
effects, leading to the sinking of air and the maintenance of high-pressure
conditions.
● Sub-Polar Low Pressure Belt (60° N and S):This is also adynamically induced
low-pressure belt, where cold polar air meets warmair from the mid-latitudes.
○ Rising air in this region createslow pressure(LP),known as thesub-polar
low-pressure belt.
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○ The clash between warm and cold air masses forms thewesterlies(mid-latitude
winds) in this region. It is created by theconvergenceof two wind systems:
■ Cold Polar Easterlies(winds coming from the polarregions)
■ Warm Westerlies(winds coming from the mid-latitudes)
○ When these air masses meet, thewarm air is pushedupwardby the colder, denser
Polar Easterlies. This upward movement of air leads to alow-pressure zoneat the
surface.
● Polar Regions (High Pressure-HP):At the poles (90°N and S), cold and heavy air sinks,
leading tohigh pressureregions. These arethermallyinducedhigh-pressure areas. It is
the result of thesinking of cold airin these areas.
○ Air moves outward from the polar regions, creating thepolar easterlies.
●
Distribution of the Circulation Cells:
● Hadley Cell (0°-30°): Warm air rises at the equator (low pressure) and descends at
around 30° (high pressure), creating the trade winds.
○ At the equator, intense solar heating causes warm, moist air to rise in a region
known as theITCZ.
○ As the air rises, it cools, leading to condensation and precipitation (heavy rainfall in
tropical regions). The cooler, dry air moves poleward at high altitudes (around 10-15
km above the surface).
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○ At around 30° latitude, this air descends, creating areas of high pressure. The
descending air warms up and becomes dry, leading to the formation of desert
regions (e.g., the Sahara Desert in the Northern Hemisphere).
○ At the surface, the air returns toward the equator, forming thetrade winds. In the
Northern Hemisphere, these winds blow from the northeast, while in the Southern
Hemisphere, they blow from the southeast.
● Ferrel Cell (30°-60°): Air rises at 60° and descendsat 30°, forming the westerlies.
○ Unlike the Hadley and Polar cells, theFerrel cell is not driven by direct thermal
processes but by a balancing mechanism between the other two cells.
○ In this region,surface winds move poleward from the high-pressure zoneat 30°
towards the low-pressure zoneat 60° latitude. These winds are known as the
westerlies, as they blow from the west to the east.
○ Athigher altitudes(in the mid-latitudes),air from the Polar cell moves
equatorward and descends at around 30°, contributing to the overall circulation.
● Polar Cell (60°-90°): Cold air descends at the poles(high pressure) and rises at 60° (low
pressure), driving the polar easterlies.
○ At around 60° latitude,warm air from the Ferrel cell rises and moves poleward.
As itcools, the air descends at the poles,creating areas of high pressure.
○ This cold,dense air then moves equatorward at the surface, completing the
circulation loop.
○ The surface winds in this region are called thepolar easterlies, as they blow from
the east toward the west.
Tropospheric Dynamics:At the top of the troposphere,there is a boundary known as the
tropopausethat acts as a lid, trapping weather phenomenawithin the troposphere.
Upper Tropospheric Wind: Itrefers to the fast-moving air currents found in the upper levels of
the troposphere, typically at altitudes of about 8 to 15 kilometres above the Earth's surface. These
winds generallyblow from west to eastand are influencedby the global atmospheric circulation,
particularly the balance between thePressure GradientForce (PGF)and theCoriolis Force (CF).
Examples of upper tropospheric winds are thejet streams,which are narrow bands of strong
winds.
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● Pressure Gradient Force (PGF): It is the force thatmoves air from regions ofhigh
pressureto regions oflow pressure.
○ The stronger the gradient (the difference between high and low pressure), the
stronger the wind.
● Coriolis Force (CF): It is the deflection of windsdue to the Earth's rotation.
○ In theNorthern Hemisphere (NH), winds are deflectedto theright, and in the
Southern Hemisphere (SH), winds are deflected to theleft.
● Geostrophic Wind: Geostrophic wind occurs when thepressure gradient force (PGF) and
the Coriolis force (CF) balance each other out, creating winds that flowparallel to isobars
(lines of constant pressure).
○ These winds are found high in the troposphere, away from the surface, where
friction is negligible.
●
Understanding the Wind Flow:
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● Winds in the upper troposphere are influenced by the pressure difference between the
equator (low pressure) and the poles (high pressure).
● As air moves from the equator toward the poles, it encounters the Coriolis effect, which
causes the air to rotate, forming thewesterly winds(in the mid-latitudes) andpolar
easterlies.
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Geography
Lecture 11: Types of Winds (Part 02)
Types of Winds:
Geostrophic Winds & Gradient Winds
Geostrophic Winds:Geostrophic winds are upper tropospheric winds that are formed due to the
balance between thePressure Gradient Force (PGF)and theCoriolis Force (CF).
● Coriolis Force: This force is caused by the Earth'srotation and deflects moving air to the
rightin theNorthern Hemisphere (NH)and to theleftin theSouthern Hemisphere
(SH).
● Pressure Gradient Force (PGF): It arises due to differencesin atmospheric pressure,
driving air from high-pressure areas toward low-pressure areas.
● Conditions for Geostrophic Winds: These winds occur when the pressure gradient force
and the Coriolis force are balanced. As a result, the wind moves parallel to the isobars
(lines of constant pressure), rather than from high to low pressure.
●
● GeostrophicWinds flowfrom high pressure to low pressure,but due to the Coriolis force,
they are deflected to the right. Thecontinuous deflectioncaused by the Coriolis force
eventually balances the pressure gradient force (PGF) and the Coriolis force (CF),
resulting in winds blowing parallel to the isobars.
○ Geostrophic winds flowfrom west to eastin both hemispheres (NH and SH).
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○ In the Northern Hemisphere (NH), low pressure (LP) is on theleft, and high
pressure (HP) is on therightof the Geostrophic winds due to the Coriolis effect
deflects winds to the right.
○ In the Southern Hemisphere (SH), low pressure (LP)is on theright, and high
pressure (HP) is on theleftof the Geostrophic winds.
○
● Jetstreams:Jetstreams, fast-flowing narrow air currents in the upper atmosphere,are also
geostrophic in nature.
Gradient Winds
● Gradient winds aresimilar to geostrophic windsbutoccur whenisobars are circular
instead of straight.In this case, the flow of airis influenced by both the Coriolis force
and the centrifugal force due to curvature.
○ While geostrophicwinds blowalong straight isobars,gradient winds blowalong
curved isobars, such as in cyclones and anticyclones.
○ Gradient winds in the Northern Hemisphere are anticlockwise, while in the Southern
Hemisphere they are clockwise due to the effect of the Coriolis force.
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●
Types of Winds
Winds can be categorised into different types based on their origin, direction, and the area they
affect. The major types of winds include Surface and Upper Winds.
Surface Winds: These winds blow near the Earth's surfaceand are affected by friction with the
surface.
● Permanent or Prevailing Winds: These winds blow consistentlyin almost the same
direction throughout the year.Examples:
○ Trade Winds: Blow from the subtropical high-pressurebelts towards the equator.
○ Westerlies: Blow from the subtropical high-pressurebelts towards the subpolar
low-pressure belts.
○ Polar Easterlies: Blow from the polar high-pressureareas towards subpolar
low-pressure areas.
● Seasonal Winds: These winds change their directionaccording to the season. They are
responsible for certain climatic types:
○ Monsoon Type of Climate: Characterised by seasonalreversal of wind direction,
mainly seen in South Asia.
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○ Mediterranean Type of Climate: Features wet winters and dry summers, mainly
found around the Mediterranean Sea.
● Local Winds: Winds that blow in specific areas, ofteninfluenced by local geographical
features. Examples:
■ Sea Breeze & Land Breeze: Coastal winds; sea breezeoccurs during the
day when cool air from the sea moves to land, and land breeze occurs at
night when air from land moves to the sea.
■ Valley Breeze & Mountain Breeze: Valley breeze occursduring the day as
warm air rises up the slopes, and mountain breeze occurs at night as cooler
air descends into the valley.
■ Loo: A hot, dry wind that blows in the summer overnorthern India.
Upper Winds: These winds blow at higher altitudesand are less influenced by the Earth's surface.
● Jet Streams: High-speed winds found in the upper atmosphere,mainly at altitudes of
10-15 km above the Earth's surface.
● Geostrophic Winds: Winds that blow parallel to isobarsdue to the balance between the
pressure gradient force and the Coriolis effect.
● Gradient Winds: Winds that blow at a constant speedalong curved isobars above the
Earth's surface.
Prevailing Winds
● Trade windsare part of the global wind system, blowingfrom thesubtropical
high-pressure belts(around 30° latitude) toward theequator(low-pressure zone).
○ In the tropics, these winds generally blow from thenortheast in the Northern
Hemisphereand from thesoutheast in the SouthernHemisphere.
● Latitudinal Range: Trade winds blow between approximately30° and 5° latitude in both
hemispheres.
● Direction:In theNorthern Hemisphere (NH), tradewinds are known as the Northeast
(NE) Trade Winds,and they blow from the northeastto the southwest. In the Southern
Hemisphere(SH), they are called the Southeast (SE)Trade Winds,blowing from the
southeast to the northwest.
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● Trade winds are generally easterly in nature, meaning they blow from the east towards
the west.
Global Wind Circulation Model:
● Polar High Regions (90°N and 90°S): High-pressureareas located at the poles.
○ Polar Easterliesblow from these high-pressure areastowards the subpolar
low-pressure belts.
● Subpolar Low-Pressure Belts (60°N and 60°S): Locatedbetween 60° to 65° latitude in
both hemispheres.
○ Westerliesblow from the subtropical high-pressurebelts towards the subpolar
low-pressure areas.
● Subtropical High-Pressure Belts (30°N and 30°S): Locatedbetween 30° to 35° latitude
in both hemispheres.
○ Westerliesblow from these belts towards the poles,whileTrade Windsblow
towards the equatorial low-pressure belt.
● Equatorial Low-Pressure Belt (5°N to 5°S): Locatednear the equator; characterised by
low pressure due to intense solar heating.
○ Known as the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), where trade winds from both
hemispheres converge.
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Trade Winds and Associated Weather
Trade Windsplay a significant role in shaping theweather, especially in tropical regions.
● Onshore vs. Offshore Winds:
○ Onshore Winds: These winds blow from the sea towardsthe land and are
responsible for bringing moisture, leading to rainfall, especially on the eastern
coasts of tropical lands.
○ Offshore Winds: These winds blow from the land towardsthe sea and do not bring
rainfall, as they lack moisture.
● Trade Winds and Rainfall Distribution:
○ Eastern Coasts of Tropical Lands: These areas receivesignificant rainfall from
trade winds because the winds pick up moisture from the ocean and blow it
towards the land.
○ Western Coasts of Tropical Lands (5° - 30° Latitudes):These regions do not
receive rainfall from trade winds as the winds here are typically offshore in nature,
carrying air from land to sea, which is dry and does not contribute to precipitation.
○ Ex:Certain tropical areas have dry climates, especiallyalong the western coasts of
continents in the trade wind belt, like theAtacamaDesertin South America or
theNamib Desertin Africa.
○
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● Mechanism of Rainfall: Warm air rises from the sea, carrying moisture upwards where it
cools and condenses to form clouds, leading to rainfall along the windward coasts.
Westerlies: It blows from subtropical high pressurebelt to subpolar low pressure belt. The
westerliesare part of theglobal atmospheric circulationpattern, particularly in theFerrel Cell
(30°-60° latitude).
● Latitudinal Range: Found between35° and 60° latitudein both hemispheres (Northern
and Southern Hemispheres).
● Nature of Westerlies: They arewesterly winds, asthey blow from the west to the east.
● Direction:
○ In theNorthern Hemisphere (NH), they blowfrom southwestto northeast and
are called south westerlies.
○ In theSouthern Hemisphere (SH), they blowfrom northwestto southeastand
are called north westerlies.
● Dominance of Sea: In the Southern Hemisphere, between35°S and 60°S, there is more
sea area and less land.As a result, the frictionalforce on the winds is reduced,making
the westerlies stronger. In SH, they are also known as-
○ Roaring Forties (40°S): Flows along 40°S latitudeand is known for their strength
and speed in this latitude.
○ Furious Fifties (50°S): Flows along 50°S latitudeand becomes even stronger.
○ Shrieking Sixties (60°S): Flows along 60°S latitudeand winds are extremely
powerful and contribute to intense storms.
○ Screaming Seventies (70°S): Flows along 70°S latitudeand these winds are mostly
found closer to the Antarctic region.
● Westerlies Impact on Precipitation:
○ Onshore Westerlies: These winds bring rainfall inthewestern parts of temperate
lands. This is due to the fact that they blow fromthe ocean toward the land,
carrying moisture that results in precipitation when they hit the land.
○ Offshore Westerlies: In the Eastern regions (awayfrom the oceans), westerlies
are usually offshore. However, these regions may still receive rainfall due to
cyclones and monsoonsin some cases.
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■ The strength and location of the westerlies can shift with the seasons. For
instance, during the winter, westerlies may move closer to the equator,
while in the summer, they shift poleward. This shift influences the climatic
conditions of regions under the influence of these winds.
●
Polar Easterlies:These are dry, cold prevailing windsthat blow from the polar highs (areas of
high pressure) toward the low-pressure areas at around 60° latitude.
● Location:Polar Easterlies occur betweenpoles (90°latitude)and around65° latitude.
● Direction:The direction of Polar Easterlies issimilarto that of trade winds, meaning
they blow from the east to the west.
● Temperature and Characteristics:They carrycold airfrom the poles.
○ At65° latitude, temperatures can drop to around-15°Cdue to the cold polar air.
○ Polar Easterlies contribute to the cold conditions in higher latitudes.
● Formation of Fronts: Frontsare formed wherecoldPolar Easterliesmeet thewarmer
Westerliesfrom lower latitudes (approximately 30°–35°).
○ This interaction creates a boundary, known as afront,which is essential for
weather systems like temperate cyclones to develop.
○ The mixing ofcold polar airandwarm airfrom themid-latitudes can lead to the
formation oftemperate cyclones.
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○ These cyclones are responsible for a variety of weather conditions, including storms
and precipitation, in the mid-latitude regions.
● Temperate Cyclones (Mid-latitude Cyclones):Theseare large-scale low-pressure
systems that occur in the middle latitudes (30°–60°) and are driven by the
interaction between polar and tropical air masses.
Local Winds:Local winds are primarily driven by temperaturedifferences between land, water,
valleys, and mountains due to the sun's heat.
● Permanent Local Winds:
Sea Breeze and Land Breeze
○
○ Valley Breeze and Mountain Breeze
Temporary Local Winds
●
○ Warm Local Winds
○ Cold Local Winds
Sea Breeze and Land Breeze (Permanent Local Winds)
These are winds influenced by the differential heating of land and water bodies.
● Sea Breeze: Occurs during the day. The land heatsup faster than water, leading to lower
pressure on land and higher pressure over water. As a result, cool air from the sea moves
toward the land to replace the rising warm air.
● Land Breeze: Occurs at night. The land cools downfaster than the sea, causing the air
over the land to become cooler and denser (higher pressure) while the air over the sea
remains warmer (lower pressure). Hence, air from the land flows toward the sea.
Valley and Mountain Breeze
These are winds related to mountainous regions:
● Valley Breeze (During Daytime):Sunlight heats thevalley during the day.
○ Warm air rises along the slopes of the valley, creating a low-pressure region in the
valley, drawing cooler air from below. This is known as theValley Breeze.
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○ The upper slopes or mountain peaks receive more solar radiation and heat up faster,
leading to rising warm air, creatinglow pressure(L)over the mountains.
● Mountain Breeze (During Night):At night, coolingoccurs due toterrestrial radiation.
○ The mountain slopes lose heat quickly and the cooler, denser air moves downslope,
forming aMountain Breeze.
○ Cold air from the upper slopes sinks toward the valley (because it's heavier),
creatinghigh pressure (H)in the valley.
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Geography
Chapter 02: Climatology
Lecture 12: Local Winds and Mediterranean Climate
Warm Local Winds:
● Chinook:
○ Chinook is a warm and dry wind that flows on theeasternside of the Rocky Mountains
in the USA and Canada.
○ Chinook on theleeward side of the Rocky Mountain,the air descends and warms up, due
to adiabatic heating.
○ It is also known as the "Snow Eater" because it rapidly melts snow and increases the
temperature during winters.
○ During winter, grazing fields are often covered with snow, but due to the temperature
increase from Chinook winds, the snow melts rapidly, so known as"Snow Eater."
○ It is beneficial for grazing animals.
● Foehn Winds:
○ These are dry and warm winds towards the northern slope of theAlps mountains in
Switzerland.Because of this wind,pleasant weatheris foundin the Alps even in winter.
Hence, Switzerland is known as a climatic oasis.
○ As the air descends the leeward slope, it undergoesadiabatic heating, becoming warmer
and drier.
● Zonda Winds:
○ Zonda winds occur on theeastern slopes of the Andes Mountainsin South America.
● Santa Ana Winds:
○ Santa Ana winds arewarm and very dry local windsin theCalifornia Valley, USA.
○ These winds are famous forforest fires.
● Harmattan Winds:
○ Harmattan is adry and warm windthat blows from theSahara Desertto theGulf of
Guineaduring the winter months.
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○ It absorbs excess moisture from the air, making it dry.
○ Known as the"Doctor Wind", it helps alleviate skindiseases for people living in the
coastal areas of theGulf of Guinea, where high moisturelevels often lead to skin issues.
○ Negative Aspect of Harmattan:
■ TheHarmattanis adust-laden, high-velocity windthat reduces visibility, causing
problems in nevigation and general daily activities.
■ Its strong winds can uproot trees and damage houses.
○ Similar Winds:
■ Central America: Temporal
■ New Zealand: Nor'wester.
■ Sudan: Haboob
■ USA: Black Roller
■ Australia: Brickfielder
■ Japan: Yamo
● Sirocco Winds
○ Sirocco is ahot, dry windthat originates in theSahara Desert.
○ These winds travel across theMediterranean SeatowardsItalyand carry very fine red
sand from the Sahara.
○ The Sirocco winds also pick up moisture from theMediterraneanSea.
○ This phenomenon is often described as the"Blood Rain"when the red sand mixes with
rain.
○ However, the Sirocco is not beneficial for agriculture.
○ Citrus cultivationcan be destroyed.
○ Similar Winds
■ Loo: North India
■ Karaburan: Central Asian Deserts
■ Spain: Levante
■ Egypt: Khamsin
■ Libya: Ghibli
■ Tunisia: Chili
■ Arabian Peninsula: Simoom
■ Mesopotamia (Iraq): Shamal
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Cold Local Winds:
● Mistral:
○ The Mistral is acold and dry windthat blows from the southern slopes of theAlps
towards theMediterranean SeainFrance.
○ Due to thefunneling effect,the speed of the Mistralcan reach high velocities, typically
between60-70 km/h, but it can sometimes exceed125km/h.Due to the Rhone River rift
valley, a funneling effect happened.
○ As a result of the Mistral, there are typically no north-facing houses in the region to
minimize exposure to these strong winds.
● Bora:
○ The Bora is acold local windin Italy that flowsfrom the southern slopes of theAlps
towards theMediterranean Sea.
○ These winds pick up moisture from theAdriatic Sea,bringing rainfall to the eastern coast
of Italy.
○ The Bora is typicallywet and humidduring the winter months.
● Joran:
○ The Joran is a very cold wind that originates from theJura Mountainsof Switzerland and
flows towardsLake Geneva.
○ It is especially notable during winter nights.
● Blizzard:
○ A blizzard is characterized by very cold winds and powdery ice particles.
○ The wind speeds are also very high, typically associated with polar winds.
○ Blizzards occur in the tundra regions of the Northern Hemisphere.
○ In Siberia, these winds are known as"Buran"whilein Russia (Europe), they are referred
to as "Purga."
○ Blizzards are common in regions such asCanada, Alaska (USA), and the Scandinavian
Plains.
Other important local winds:
● Pampero: Pampas region in Argentina
● Norte: Blows from the southern part of the USA and Mexico
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● Papagayo: Winds in Mexico
● Levanter: Blows in southern Spain and France
● Gregale: Southern Europe
● Bise: A cold wind in France
● Southerly Buster: A cold wind in New South Wales,Australia
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Geography
Chapter 02: Climatology
Lecture 13: Moisture in Atmosphere
Moisture in the Atmosphere (Humidity):
● Humidity: It refers to the amount of moisture in theair. Humidity levels vary:
■ Day/Summer/Equator: Humidity is higher due to increasedtemperature.
■ Night/Winter/Poles: Humidity is lower as the temperaturedecreases.
○ Moisture ismaximum near the surfaceof the Earthand reduces with altitude.
● Methods to Measure Humidity:
○ Absolute Humidity: It is the mass of moisture presentin a unit volume of air. It is
measured in grams of moisture per cubic metre of air (g/m³).
○ Relative Humidity (RH): Relative Humidity (RH) representsthe ratio of actual
moisture in the air to the maximum moisture the air can hold at a given
temperature. It is expressed as a percentage.
■
● Relation between Temperature and Moisture Holding Capacity is directly proportional.
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○ Higher temperature increasesmoisture-holding capacity(MHC), meaning the air
can hold more moisture.
○ Lower temperature decreases MHC, leading to an increase in relative humidity if
moisture remains constant.
● The relationship between Temperature and RH is inversely proportional,meaning that
as temperature increases, relative humidity decreases, and vice versa.
● Condensation and Dew Point:
○ Condensation: The process where water vapour turnsinto liquid droplets, forming
clouds. This occurs when the air cools to itsdewpoint(the temperature at which
air becomes saturated with moisture).
○ Dew Point: The temperature at which air becomes saturatedwith moisture. It
varies with altitude and temperature.
○
■ Example (as per the table):
■ At 0 km, 30°C: RH = 50%
■ At 1 km, 20°C: RH = 66.6%
■ At 2 km, 10°C: RH = 100% (saturation point).
● Specific Heat: The amount of heat required to raisethe temperature of1 gramof a
substance by 1°C.
○ This concept helps explain how different materials (air, water, land) absorb heat
differently, influencing weather patterns.
● Latent Heat:
PW Web/App:[Link]
○ Latent Heat of Vaporisation: The heat absorbed by water as it changes from a
liquid to a vapour (gas) without a change in temperature. For example, water
vapour absorbs heat from the surroundingair duringevaporation.
○ Latent Heat of Condensation: The heat released bywater vapour when it
condenses into liquid droplets (clouds, rain). Thisprocess releases heat into the
air,affecting atmospheric conditions.
○
● Rule of Air Rising Based on Temperature:Air willalways ascend (rise) if its temperature
is more than its surroundings.
● Example:
○ If in different cities like Prayagraj, Delhi, Amritsar, and Dharamshala, temperatures
vary (e.g., 32°C, 35°C, 27°C, and 25°C), the air in Delhi, having the highest
temperature, will rise since warmer air is lighter.
○ This rising warm air cools as it ascends, contributing to weather phenomena like
cloud formation.
● Adiabatic Lapse Rate (ALR):Adiabatic lapse rate refersto the rate at which the
temperature of a parcel of air changes as it moves up or down in the atmosphere, without
exchanging heat with its surroundings. ItsTwo Typesare:
○ Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR): The rate at whichthe temperature of a parcel
of dry air (unsaturated air) decreases as the parcelis lifted in the atmosphere.
■ Rate: 1°C per 100 meters or 10°C per 1000 meters.
○ Wet Adiabatic Lapse Rate (WALR): The rate at whichthe temperature of a
parcel of saturated air decreases as the parcel is lifted in the atmosphere. This
applies tosaturated air, where condensation occurs.
■ The Wet adiabatic lapse rate is not a constant like the dry adiabatic lapse
rate but is dependent on parcel temperature and pressure.
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■ Once air becomes saturated (100% relative humidity), it cools more slowly
than DALR due to the release of latent heat from condensation.
● Condensation and Cloud Formation:
○ As air rises and cools, it eventually reaches thedew point, where condensation
begins.
○ Latent heatis released during this process, warmingthe air slightly and causing
the formation of clouds.
○ The diagram illustrates this with various layers of the atmosphere and how
temperature changes (e.g., 30°C at 0 km, -20°C at 5 km).
● Adiabatic Cooling: Adiabatic coolinghappens whenair rises and expands in a lower
pressure environment, causing it to cool.
○ Thelatent heat of condensationis released when theair reaches condensation
level, further contributing to cloud formation.
● Adiabatic Heating: Adiabatic heatingoccurs when airdescends and compresses, causing
it to warm.
● The table (given below) on adiabatic heating shows how temperature increases as air
descends to lower altitudes. TheRelative Humidity (RH)decreases, as warmer air holds
more moisture.
PW Web/App:[Link]
Geography
Ch 02: Climatology
Lecture 14: Climatic Regions
Seasonal Climate:
● Rotation of the Earthcauses day
and night, while therevolution
around the sunleads to different
seasons due to the Earth's
elliptical orbit.
● On21st June, the Northern
Hemisphere experiences summer as
the sun is directly overhead on the
Tropic of Cancer. This event is
called theSummer Solstice.
● On22nd December, during theWinter Solstice, thesun is directly overhead at theTropic of
Capricorn(23.5° S), resulting in 24 hours of daylightat theSouth Pole. Meanwhile, the
North Pole(the Arctic Circle) experiences 24 hoursof darkness.
● On21st Marchand23rd September, during the equinox,the sun is directly over the equator,
resulting in equal day and night (12 hours each).
Shifting of Pressure and Wind Belt:
● The Earth has different pressure and wind belts, including the Polar Easterlies, Westerlies, and
Trade Winds. These belts shift northward or southward depending on the position of the sun.
● During Equinox:
○ The region between 5-5.5°N and 5-5.5°S experiences the Equatorial Low-Pressure Belt.
From 5-5.5°N/S to 30°N/S, Trade Winds blow. The area between 30-35°N and 30-35°S
experiences the Subtropical High-Pressure Belt, with Westerlies blowing from 30-35°N/S to
60°N/S. Finally, the region between 60-65°N and 60-65°S experiences the Subpolar
Low-Pressure Belt, with Polar Easterlies blowing from 60-65°N/S to 90°N/S.
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● During Summer Solstice:
➢ The region between0-10°Nexperiences theEquatorial Low-Pressure Belt. From10°Nto
35°N and from 0-25°S,Trade Windsblow. The area between35-40°Nand25-30°S
experiences theSubtropical High-Pressure Belt, withWesterliesblowing from40-65°Nto
30-55°S. Finally, the region between65-70°Nand55-60°Sexperiences theSubpolar
Low-Pressure Belt, withPolar Easterliesblowing from70°Nto90°N and 60°Sto90°S.
● During Winter Solstice:
The region between0-10°Sexperiences theEquatorialLow-Pressure Belt. From0°Nto
25°N and from 10-35°S,Trade Windsblow. The areabetween25-30°Nand35-40°S
experiences theSubtropical High-Pressure Belt, withWesterliesblowing from30-55°Nto
40-65°S. Finally, the region between55-60°Nand65-70°Sexperiences theSubpolar
Low-Pressure Belt, withPolar Easterliesblowing from70°Sto90°S and 60°Nto90°N.
Mediterranean Climate:
● Winters are wet while summers are dry.
● In Mediterranean Climate, this climate is typically found between30°-40°to42°-43°latitude,
primarily on the western parts of continents.
● Rainfall during winters is moderate, with annual precipitation ranging from75 cm to 100 cm.
● Winters are not extreme, but summers can be hot.
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● The Mediterranean climate is known for its production of citrus fruits such as:
○ Oranges
○ Lemons
○ Olives
○ Grapes
● DuringSummer, the western part of the continent between35-40°Nexperiences dryness due
to the subtropical high-pressure belt. In the10-35°Nzone, trade winds blow, resulting in
offshore winds on the western part of the continent, which leads to little to no rainfall.
Therefore, in summer, the western part of the continent from30-40°Nexperiences dryness.
● In winter, the subtropical high-pressure belt shifts to25-30°Nin the Northern Hemisphere.
Westerlies prevail above30°N, while trade winds arepresent below25°N. Consequently, the
western part of the continent between30-40°Nreceivesrainfall from the westerlies during
this season.
● The Mediterranean climate is found in
many countries, including:
○ Europe: Spain, France, Italy, Greece,
Turkey, Cyprus, Slovenia, Croatia,
Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro,
Albania, Malta, Monaco, and Gibraltar
○ Africa: Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria
○ Asia: Syria, Lebanon, and Israel
○ Other: Parts of California, Chile,
South Africa, and Western Australia
Indian Climate:
● The Indian climate is predominantly tropical and is generally classified as a monsoon type,
characterized by significant variations across different regions.
PW Web/App:[Link]
Geography
Chapter 02: Climatology
Lecture no 15: Indian Monsoon
Monsoon:
● India hasamonsoon-typeclimate.Monsoonisatypicaltypeoftropicalclimatethatis
associatedwithregionalscaleandreversalofwinds,however,itisnotalocalphenomenon.
Monsoons are seasonal reversals of winds.
● ThewindblowsfromlandtowardstheseaanditisatypicalfeatureofWinters)andthe
wind blowing from sea to land is a typical feature of the summer. Monsoon ismodified
trade winds and it is mostly seen on the eastern coasts.
Location of Monsoon:
● Southern Asia (South Asian Monsoon): It is the best-developed Monsoon and is
experienced in India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, and Bangladesh.
● South-East Asia:Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam
● Africa:Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania, and Mozambique.
● Northern and north-west Australia
○ Note: Southern Asia, South East Asia, and Africa experiences tropical monsoons.
However, a very weak monsoon is seen on the Tropical coast of Brazil.
Temperate Monsoon:
● We also witness the reversalofwindsinthelowlatitudesofTemperateRegione(onthe
Easterncoast).Itisnotacompletereversalofwinds,however,becauseofcyclonesthe
windsreverseforsometime(30°/35°-40°/45°).Theclimatewouldbecoolerbutwillnot
have a perfect dry season.
● The region in between 35°-40° latitude represents atemperatemonsoontypeofclimate.
The reversal is because of cyclones and the shifting of pressure belts.
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● It is experienced in regions of China type of climate i.e. south of Shanghai, south of
Japan, south-east and eastern China, south-east USA (Gulf of Mexico- Gulf type of
Climate), and the southern part of North America.
NOTE:
● Pseudo-monsoonisassociatedmainlywith
the Gulf of Guinea and its western side.
This part is typically on the western part
of the African continent but if seen
typically, it behaves as the eastern coast
ofthecontinentandwitnessesamonsoon
type of climate as it lies in the tropical
region with equator passing nearby.
Tropical Monsoon:
● The climate is warmer and there is a complete reversal of winds. Theperiodofdry
season is also longer (7-8 months) whereas the wet season persisting in summer
accounts for only 4-5 months in a year.
● SouthAsianMonsoon,atropicalmonsoon,isthebest-developedmonsoon.Itisexperienced
in India,Bangladesh, Pakistan and Sri Lanka.
● It is also experienced in South-East Asia, the north-western and northern parts of
Australia.
● Features of Tropical Monsoon (Best developed Monsoon is the South Asian Monsoon
Indian Monsoon):
○ Frequent floods and drought cycles
○ InIndia,thereisadistinctdryseason.70-80%.ofrainisreceivedduringthe"4"
months of June, July, August, and September.
○ The remaining 20-30% of rain is received during8months.Therefore,thereisa
great temporal variation through western disturbances in the northern parts of
India, rainfall on the Coromandel coast, and cyclones.
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○ Sudden Burst of Monsoon: The monsoon arrives suddenly in Kerala, particularly
alongtheMalabarCoast,signalingtheonsetoftherainyseason.Thisinitialburst
of rainfall (around the 1st of June) is followed by a gradual advance of the
monsoon across the rest of India and eventually a gradual retreat.
○ Impact of Western Disturbances: In winter, Northwestern India experiences
rainfall due to western disturbances.
➢ Thesedisturbancestypicallybringlighttomoderateprecipitation,averaging
around 5-6 cm, affecting regions such as northern Rajasthan, Delhi,
Haryana, Punjab, and parts of northwest Uttar Pradesh.
➢ Snowfall may also occur in higher elevations like Jammu& Kashmir,
Himachal Pradesh, andUttarakhandduringthisseason,contributingtothe
overall weather patterns.
○ Rainfall in India also occursasaresultofcyclonesandtropicalstorms,especially
in late summer in September and October.
○ Huge variation in monsoon:
➢ Late Onset of Monsoon: The monsoon may begin later than expected in
certain regions.
➢ Dry Spells During the Monsoon Season: There are often gaps inrainfall,
referredtoas"monsoonbreaks,"wheresomeareasexperiencedryconditions
even while the monsoon is active.
➢ Inter-annual Variability in Rainfall: The amount of rainfall canfluctuate
considerably from year to year.
➢ Different parts of the country receive different amounts of rainfall:
Kerala, Arunachal Pradesh, and the Nicobar Islandsreceivemorethan300
cmofrainfalleachyear,supportinglushvegetationandagriculturewhereas,
Ladakh, Rajasthan, and interior regions like Vidarbha, Rayalscema, and
Telangana typically receive less than 50 cm of rainfall annually.
What is an ITCZ?
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● ITCZ is a low-pressure system having a depression or trough where the trade winds
(north-east trade winds and the south-east trade winds) from both the hemisphere
converges.
● ITCZshiftsaspertheapparentmovementofthesunbutitsnorthwardandsouthward
shift is irregular. ITCZ is one of the main reasons for the origin of the Indian monsoon.
● ITCZ is different from the Doldrum as the latter is situated near the physical equator
(0-degree latitude) whereas the ITCZ migrates along with the apparent northward and
southward movement Sun.
● ITCZ is likeaThermalEquatoranditisnotaisaregularbeltoflowpressure,ratherit
thelow-pressurezonewherethetradewindsconverge.Thebeltcanalsoshiftupto25-30
latitudes in the case of India.
Theories under the Mechanism of Indian Monsoon:
● Classical Concept:
○ The Thermal Concept (oldest concept) of Halley and Hadley:It is a result of
the differential rate of heating and cooling of land and seawater.
○ The concept of Airmass of Flohn:Reversal of windsis associated with the
migration/ northward and southward movement of their associated trade Winds
ITCZ and their associated trade winds. The reversal of winds is associated with the
modification of trade winds as they cross the Equator.
● Modern Theory of Indian Monsoon
Thermal Concept in detail:
Thermal Concept:
● Winters:During winters, near Peshawar and Lake Baikal,high pressure would be
maintained here because of extremely cold temperatures. In comparison to that,the
Indian Ocean is not very cold.
○ So, it willdevelop low pressure. Hence, winds willstart blowing from the high
pressure towards the low-pressure Indian Oceanbutbecause they are coming
from thelandmasses (northeastern side) called theNorth-easterlies, they
will not be able to give rainfall to the entire Indian peninsula.
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● Summer:During summers, the region around Peshawar and Lake Baikal is surrounded by
landmasses entirely so intense heat is generated and a low-pressure zone is developed.
○ During this period, the Indian Ocean is not too heated up so a high pressure zone
would be developed upon that ocean and winds would start blowing from high
pressure to the low pressure region.
○ Now as the winds would be blowing from water bodies towards landmasses, they
would be rich in moisture content.
○ These winds are travelling from the south-west direction and the moisture-laden
winds will bring rainfall to the entire peninsular region. This is how the seasonal
reversal of winds can be considered.
○ These are nothing but themega-level land and seabreeze. In this prospect, we
can explain that because there is too much variation in the land and sea
temperature (day and night temperature) in the coastal areas whichimpacts
the movement of winds(land and sea breeze), we cansurely say that they
cannot predict monsoon properly.
○ The 4 long months of monsoon in the Indian subcontinent with a constant
supply of moisture from the Arabian Sea is not an easy task.
➢ That’s why the Thermal concept was criticized.Itisway too simplistic
and does not answer various questions like why the monsoon burst, the
arrival of the western disturbances, the monsoon, delays in the monsoon,
and the gap in the monsoon.Also, this concept failsto explain the
monsoon season and only focuses on summer and winter.
Shifting of ITCZ:
● Summers:
○ The ITCZ during summers moves northward and settles over Indian Northern
Plains.
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○ Becauseofthis,theSouth-EastTradeWindsblowingintheSouthernHemisphere
wouldgetmodifiedaftercrossingtheequatorandturn/deflecttowardstherightto
become South-West Trade Winds under the impact of coriolis force.
○ These South-West Trade Winds areknownasSouth-WestMonsoonWinds,which
bring rain to the subcontinent of India. These are onshore winds bringing
precipitation to India.
● Winters:
○ The ITCZ shifts southwards because oftheapparentmovementofthesunnear
the Tropic of Capricorn andestablishesoverAustraliathustheNorth-EastTrade
Windsget attracted towards the Southern Hemisphere.
○ It crosses the equator andbecomesNorth-Westerlyundertheinfluenceofthe
coriolis force in nature and gives rainfall to North-Western and Northern
Australia.These areoff-shore windsfor India.
○ During winter, the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) shifts southward and
establishes itself near the Tropic of Capricorn.
○ As a result, the Northeast Monsoon begins to flow over India. Most partsofthe
countrydonotreceivesignificantrainfallduringthisperiod,asthewindsblowfrom
land to sea.
➢ However,theNortheastMonsoonwindsencountertheTamilHills,including
the Tirumalai, Panchmalai, Javadi Hills, and Shevroy Hills.
❖ This orographic uplift leads to increased rainfall along the
Coromandel Coast, particularly in someareasofTamilNadu,where
the topography influences precipitation patterns.
❖ These winds run parallel to the cast of Orissa and Andhra Pradesh.
PW Web/App:[Link]
Geography
Ch 02: Climatology
Lecture 16: Indian Monsoon (Part 02)
Monsoon:
● The monsoon is a complex phenomenon influenced by upper tropospheric winds and jet streams.
The onset and origin of the monsoon, as well as the occurrence of western disturbances, can
only be fully understood by studying upper atmospheric conditions.
Tri-Cellular Model of Atmospheric Circulation:
TheTri-Cellular Modelof atmospheric circulationconsists of three distinct atmospheric cells in
each hemisphere: theHadley Cell,Ferrel Cell, andPolar Cell. These cells interact to drive
large-scale air movements across the globe, each playing a role in heat transfer and weather
patterns.
Hadley Cell:
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○ Near the equator, warm air rises due to intense heating. This rising air reaches an
altitude of approximately 7-10 km and diverges toward the poles.
○ As the air moves poleward in the upper atmosphere, it cools and descends around
30° latitude, creating a region of high pressure known as thesubtropical high.
○ The Hadley Cell features two limbs: therising limbat the equator, where air
ascends due to heat, and thesinking limbat subtropicallatitudes, where air
descends due to cooling.
○ This descending air undergoessubsidence inversion,particularly in regions of high
pressure, leading to dry and stable conditions, such as in deserts.
Subsidence Inversion:
○ In theSubtropical High-Pressure Belt, rising air from near the surface cools at
higher altitudes. At the same time, sinking air from the Hadley Cell descends and
warms throughadiabatic heating.
○ When this warmer descending air meets the cooler rising air, the warmer air
overrides the cooler air, creating an inversion. This is not a regular phenomenon but
is significant in stabilizing weather patterns in certain regions.
Ferrel Cell:
○ Situated between the Hadley and Polar Cells, theFerrel Cellhas a different
structure. Air rises around 60° latitude (theSub-PolarLow-Pressure Belt) and
sinks around 30° latitude (theSubtropical High-PressureBelt).
○ The Ferrel Cell moves air in the opposite direction of Earth's rotation, contributing
to the formation ofprevailing westerlies.
○ The sinking air in the Ferrel Cell moves toward the poles, while the rising air at the
subpolar latitudes results from the convergence of warm subtropical air and cold
polar air.
○ The boundary between the Ferrel and Hadley Cells occurs athorse latitudes, where
the air is generally calm.
Polar Cell:
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○ In the Polar Cell, cold, dense air sinks at the poles, creating ahigh-pressure
systemat the surface.
○ The air then moves toward the equator, where it rises at around 60° latitude in the
Sub-Polar Low-Pressure Belt, driven by the convergenceof cold polar air and
warmer subtropical air.
○ This rising air cools and then sinks again at the poles, completing the circulation.
Key Note:
● Air descending in the Subtropical High-Pressure Belt diverges in two directions: toward the
equator to complete the Hadley Cell and toward the poles to complete the Ferrel Cell.
Jet Streams:
● Upper air winds are geostrophic winds
that move from west to east (westerly
winds).
● They are located at an altitude of about
7 km to 14 km.
● The length of jet streams extends for
thousands of kilometers, with a depth
of 2-3 km and a width of 200-300 km.
Types of Jet Stream:
● Permanent Jet Stream: There are two parment jet streams in each hemisphere,flowing
from west to east direction.
○ Polar front jets at mid-latitudes.
○ Subtropical jets at lower latitudes.
PW Web/App:[Link]
Geography
Chapter 2: Climatology
Lecture 17: Indian Monsoon (Part 03)
Jet Streams:
Origin of Jet Streams:
● Jet streams originate due to thethermal gradient,also known as the thermal wind.
● The formation of jet streams is linked to the temperature contrast between vertical
columns ofaironeithersideoftheSubtropicalHighPressureBeltandtheSubpolarLow
Pressure Belt.
● This temperature contrast creates apressuregradientintheupperatmosphereandasa
result, geostrophic winds begin to blow.
● These winds, which move at high speeds, are known as jet streams.
● The temperature contrast is more significantintheSubpolarLowPressureregion,leading
to stronger jet stream development in this area.
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Types of Jet Streams:
● Permanent Jet Streams:
○ These jet streams are geostrophic in nature.
○ There are two types of permanent jet streams:
■ Polar Front Jet Stream (40°-65° latitude)
● Located between 40° and 60° latitudes.
● Thesearefast-movingjetstreams,withwindspeedsreachingupto
400 km/hour during winter.
● In winter, they meander and can extend as far south as 20°
latitude.
■ Subtropical Westerly Jet Stream (30°-35° latitude)
● Positioned around 30°-35° latitude.
● Thisjetstreamshiftsnorthwardsandsouthwardswiththeapparent
movement of the sun.
● The Subtropical Westerly Jet Stream, along with the Tropical
Easterly Jet Stream and Somali Jet Stream, influences the Indian
monsoon.
● Temporary Jet Streams
○ These jet streams are local and seasonal, differing from permanent jet streams.
○ Their altitude from the surface is generally lower, except for the Polar NightJet
Stream.
○ Types of temporary jet streams include:
■ Tropical Easterly Jet Stream: A temporary jet stream that forms under
specific conditions in tropical regions.
■ SomaliJetStream:Aseasonaljetstreamthatformsinthevicinityofthe
Somali coast, influencing monsoon winds.
■ PolarNightJetStream:Itoccursduringthewinterseasonabovethepolar
regions.Itisfoundinthestratosphericlayer,itcanreachheightsofupto
30 km.
Polar Front Jet Stream (40°-65):
● The path of the Polar Front Jet Stream becomesmorecurvy during the winter months.
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● These jet streams bend both towards the equator and the poles, creating a north-south
undulating pattern.
● ThisbendingisknownasthemeanderingofjetstreamsandisalsoreferredtoasRossby
waves.
● The Polar Front Jet Stream is more well-developed and prominent during the winter season.
● Themeanderingofjetstreamshasasignificantimpactonmodifyingthepressuresystems
on the Earth’s surface
Indian Monsoon - Origin:
● Old Concepts:
○ Thermal Concept by Halley and Hadley: This theory suggests that the Indian
monsoon is driven by thermal differences between land and sea.
○ Air Mass Theory (ITCZ) by Flohn: This concept links the monsoon to the
movement of the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), where different air
masses meet.
● Dynamic Concept:
○ RoleoftheSubtropicalWesterlyJetStream:Thepositionandmovementofthis
jet stream influence the onset and strength of the monsoon.
○ RoleoftheTropicalEasterlyJetStream:Thisjetstreamalsoplaysakeyrolein
shaping the Indian monsoon patterns.
Factors Affecting the Indian Monsoon:
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● El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO): This climate phenomenon cansignificantlyimpact
the strength and timing of the Indian monsoon.
● Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD): Variations in sea surface temperatures in the Indian Ocean
affect monsoonal rainfall patterns.
● Role of Local Jet Streams (SomaliJetStreams):Theselocaljetstreamsinfluencethe
moisture transport and rainfall distribution during the monsoon season.
● Role of the Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO): This oscillation affects the timing and
intensity of monsoon rainfall through its impact on tropical weather systems.
Subtropical westerly jet stream and associated weather phenomenon:
Western Disturbance (Weak Temperate Cyclone)
● Western disturbances are weather phenomena caused by the subtropical westerly jet
stream, which brings disturbances from the west, particularly from regions such as the
Mediterranean Sea, Black Sea, Caspian Sea, and Gulf of Persia.
● These disturbances result in various forms of precipitation, including snowfall,hailstorms,
and rainfall, affecting several areas.
● During winter, western disturbances bring rainfall and snowfall to the regions ofJammu
and Kashmir, Uttarakhand, and Himachal Pradesh.
● Rainfall also occurs in other areas, including Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh,
northern Rajasthan, Delhi, Arunachal Pradesh, and the Assam hills during the winter
months.
● The amount of moisture in the air decreases from east to west, affecting precipitation
levels.
● In winter, the subtropical westerly jet streams pick up moisture from the Mediterranean
Sea, Caspian Sea, and Black Sea, leading to precipitation in northwestern India.
● Thewinterrainfallfromthesedisturbancesisbeneficialforrabicrops,suchasbarleyand
wheat.
Onset of Monsoon:
● The date of the monsoon's arrival is determined by the movement of the Subtropical
Westerly Jet Streams.
● During winter, the Subtropical Westerly Jet Streamsshiftsouthwardduetotheapparent
movement of the sun.
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● When these jet streams reach the Himalayas, they bifurcate into two branches:
○ The stronger, main branch flows to the south of the Himalayas.
○ The weaker branch flows to the north of the Tibetan Plateau.
● ThesouthernbranchoftheSubtropicalWesterlyJetStreamcreatesastronghigh-pressure
system over the Tibetan Plateau.
● This high-pressure system, driven by the upper air Subtropical Westerly Jet Stream,
dominates over surface pressure zones and prevents onshore winds from moving towards
the Indian landmass.
● As long as this high-pressure system is established over Tibet, it blocks the monsoon
winds from entering India.
● InJune,theSubtropicalWesterlyJetStreamshiftsnorthwardwiththeapparentmovement
of the sun, weakening the high-pressure system over Tibet.
● As soon as the jet stream andthehigh-pressuresystemmovenorthward,thesouthwest
monsoon winds reach the Malabar Coast, typically around June 1st.
● Therefore, the onset of the monsoon is directly linked to the northward shift of the
Subtropical Westerly Jet Stream.
PW Web/App:[Link]
Geography
Chapter 02: Climatology
Lecture 18: Indian Monsoon (Part 04)
Tropical Easterly Jet Streams (TEJS):
● Tropical Easterly Jet Streams (TEJS) are connected to the MONEX (Monsoon Experiment),
which was led by Indian meteorologist P.R. Pisharoty and others, including significant
contributions from S.K. Koteshwaram.
● The TEJS played a crucial role in understanding the dynamics of the Indian monsoon. TEJS
helped answer key questions about why the monsoon brings rainfall from June to
September, even when the pressure gradient isn't steep, the land isn't always extremely
hot, and sea surface temperatures aren't significantly cool.
● The TEJS is a key component in driving the monsoon's upper-air circulation and contributes
to sustaining the monsoonal flow over the Indian subcontinent.
TEJS During June (Summer):
● During the summer, the heating of Tibet causes the development of low pressure (LP) at the
surface and high pressure (HP) in the upper atmosphere above it.
● Meanwhile, in the Southern Hemisphere, cold air sinks over the Mascarene High, creating high
pressure near the surface and low pressure in the upper atmosphere.
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● This creates a steep pressure gradient between the upper air of Tibet and Mascarene, leading
to the formation of the Tropical Easterly Jet Stream (TEJS). The TEJS strengthens the
Mascarene high-pressure system, pushing surface winds towards India.
● This movement forms the basis of the Southwest Monsoon winds.
● However the intensity of the monsoon winds is influenced by the intensity of the TEJS and
other factors such as:
○ ENSO (El Niño Southern Oscillation)
○ IOD (Indian Ocean Dipole)
○ Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO)
Normal Condition On Southern Hemisphere (Walker Circulation):
● Trade winds blow from Peru towards Australia near the equator. As these trade winds move,
they drag the surface water westward, causing it to accumulate near Australia. This
accumulated water is warm, and as it warms the air above, itrises and forms clouds,bringing
rainfall to theeastern coast of Australia.
● In contrast, cold water from the depths of the ocean rises to the surface near Peru through a
process knownas upwelling.This upwelling resultsin cooler water along the Peruvian coast,
which in turn cools the air above it. The sinking of this cold air createshigh pressure (HP) in
the region, resulting in dry conditions along the coast of Peru.
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● The high pressure over Peru and the low pressure over Australia generate wind patterns that
flow from the HP area in Peru to the LP area in Australia. As these winds reach the Australian
coast, the warm air rises, creating high pressure in the upper atmosphere above Australia.
Conversely, this action leads to lower pressure in the upper atmosphere over Peru. The
circulation of winds between these two regions forms a large loop, known as the Walker
Circulation.
● The upwelling process of the coast of Peru also brings a surplus of nutrients from the depths
of the ocean to the surface. This nutrient enrichment supports high marine productivity,
leading to large populations of fish. As a result, Peru's economy is heavily dependent on its
fisheries.
Note:La Niña represents a stronger version of thenormal conditions.
EL Nino:
● It is referred to as "Jesus Child" because it occurs aroundChristmas time. El Niño is a
climate phenomenon characterized by weakened trade winds that shift from Australia to Peru.
This represents the opposite condition of the normal Walker Circulation.
● During El Niño, the direction of the Walker Cell reverses, bringing warm water near the coast
of Peru. This leads toincreasedprecipitationand potentialfloodingin Peru, whileAustralia
andSoutheast Asiaexperiencedroughtconditions.
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Note:The change in the direction of the Walker circulationis the part of El Niño-Southern
Oscillation (ENSO).
How La Nina (Normal Condition) Affects the Indian Monsoon:
● During normal conditions, the east coast of Australia experienceslow pressure at the surface
and high pressure in the upper atmosphere. In contrast,the coast of Peru hashigh pressure
at the surface and low pressure in the upper atmosphere.Simultaneously, the Mascarene
Islands exhibit low pressure in the upper atmosphere and high pressureat the surface.
● Winds from the upper atmosphere in Australia blow towards Peru, and some of these winds
also move toward the low-pressure zone in the upper atmosphere over the Mascarene Islands.
Since the surface of the Mascarene already has high pressure, these winds sink, creating
additional high pressure at the surface.
● The increase in high pressure over the Mascarene pushes more surface winds toward the low
pressure over the Indian land, including Tibet. As a result, during La Niña, India experiences
increased rainfall.
How El Nino Affects the Indian Monsoon:
● During El Niño, the east coast of Australia experienceshigh pressure at the surface and low
pressure in the upper
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atmosphere.In contrast, the coast ofPeruhas low pressure at the surface and high
pressure in the upper atmosphere.Simultaneously,the Mascarene High exhibit high pressure
at the surface and low pressure in the upper atmosphere.
● Winds from the upper atmosphere in Peru blow towards Australia and sink towards the
surface. However, there no upper air movement between Australia and the Mascarene Islands
due to low pressure in the upper atmosphere in both regions.
● Consequently, the pressure in the Mascarene Islands is not as high as it is during normal
conditions or La Niña conditions.
PW Web/App:[Link]
Geography
Ch 02: Climatology
Lecture 19: Indian Climate and Climatic
Classification
Indian Ocean Dipole:
● The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) is a climate pattern in the tropical Indian Ocean.
Note: The IOD can overpower the effects of the WalkerCirculation and ENSO. It has a significant
impact on the amount of rainfall.
The IOD can be in one of two states: positive or negative.
● Positive IOD:
○ During a positive IOD, the western Indian Ocean, particularly near the Arabian Sea,
becomes warmer than the eastern Indian Ocean near Australia. . The warming of the
Arabian Sea causes the air above it to rise,creatinglow pressurenear the surface and
high pressure in the upper atmosphere.
○ In contrast, the northwestern part of Australia experiences cooler waters, where the air
cools and becomes heavier, leading to sinking air,creating high pressure at the surface
and low pressure in the upper atmosphere.This pressuredifference causes surface winds
to blow from the east of the Indian Ocean to the west, and due to the Coriolis effect,
these winds are deflected toward India.
○ Positive IOD being responsible for a good amount ofrainfall in India.Australia leads to
drier conditions there, contributing to events like bushfires, such as those witnessed in
2020.
● Negative IOD:
○ During a negative IOD,the western Indian Ocean ismuch cooler than the eastern
Indian Ocean.
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○ During the Indian summer, the ITCZ (Intertropical Convergence Zone) or low-pressure
system is positioned near the Ganga plains, and this zone is also known as the equatorial
trough.
○ At the same time, the waters near Australia become very warm due to the mixing of warm
Pacific Equatorial Water, creating a low-pressure system known as the second equatorial
trough.
○ In contrast, the Arabian Sea remains relatively cooler, with cooler air sinking to create high
pressure. This pressure difference causessurfacewinds to blow from the west of the
Indian Ocean to the east.
○ Likewise, winds from the Mascarene High blow toward Australia, weakening the southwest
monsoon and reducing rainfall in India.
Conditions and Impact ofIODon Rainfall in India:
● Normal Conditions + Positive IOD = Good Rainfall
● La Niña + Positive IOD = Very Good Rainfall
● El Niño + Positive IOD = Decent Amount of Rainfall
● La Niña + Negative IOD = Less Rainfall
● El Niño + Negative IOD = Very Low Rainfall
Note:The IOD (Indian Ocean Dipole) is more impactful.
The Somali Jet Stream:
● The Somali Jet Stream (Somali JS) is a temporary jet stream located 0-1.5 km above sea level.
During summers in the Northern Hemisphere, it affects the Indian monsoon. In winter, high
pressure develops near Madagascar, while in the Ethiopian highlands, due to increased
insolation, the air warms and creates a low-pressure system.
● Winds move from the high-pressure area toward the low-pressure area, but are deflected
toward Somalia, and from there, they are further deflected toward India. This wind pattern,
known as the Somali Jet Stream, drags and pushes the southwest monsoon winds below it,
intensifying rainfall in India.
The Madden Julian Oscillation (MJO):
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● The Madden Julian Oscillation (MJO), discovered in the 1970s, has been observed more
frequently in the last two decades.
● These are localized convective cells that form due to heating in the equatorial region, creating
local low-pressure cells.
● These cells move eastward across the equatorial region, from west to east. They bring intense
heavy rainfall, particularly in the Indian and Pacific Oceans.
● The Madden Julian Oscillation (MJO) is a periodic cycle that lasts between 30 and 90 days,
with a speed of approximately 5,120 km/hr.
● It features strong convective cells that can lead tomore cyclones and increased rainfall. The
occurrence of the MJO has increased recently, possibly due to climate change. For example, in
2019, during an El Niño year, June and July were dry, but in August,the MJO arrived,
superimposing on the El Niño conditions and resulting in heavy rainfall.
Seasons in India:
There are four main seasons:
● Summer:March 15 to May 31
● Rainy Season:June 1 to September 15
● Retreating Monsoon:September 15 to December 15
● Winter:December 16 to March 15
Autumn and spring are characteristic of temperate regions. In India, these seasons are very
localized, meaning that some regions may experience spring or autumn, but their areal extent is
quite small.
Summer Season:
● During the summer season, temperatures in India generally exceed 20-25 degrees Celsius. In
northwestern India, particularly inRajasthan and the interior parts of the Peninsular
Plateau, temperatures can rise above 40 degrees Celsius.
● During this time, a low-pressure system develops over northwestern India and Rajasthan;
however, monsoonrains are often absent due to the presence of high pressure over Tibet
caused by the subtropical jet stream (STJWJS).
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● In northern India,local dry winds, such as the loo, prevail.Some convective rainfall occurs in
the form of pre-monsoon thunderstorms, which have various regional names, such as Bordoisila
in Assam and Kal Baisakhi in West Bengal.
● Additionally, there are pre-monsoon showers with local names, such as mango showers in
Kerala, coffee showers in Karnataka, and cherry blossoms. In Uttar Pradesh and the northern
plains, the winds are referred to as aandhi.
Rainy Season:
● The rainy season begins with the sudden onset of the monsoon, typically occurring from late
May to early June, marked by the northward shift of the subtropical westerly jet stream
(STWJS) from the Northern Plains of India.
● This shift is associated with the advancement of the monsoon, characterized by south-north
(S-N) movement of monsoon winds entering India, along with their various branches.
○ Arabian Sea Branch
○ Bay of Bengal Branch(This branch brings significantlymore rainfall to India.)
● Approximately 60-70% of India's annual rainfall is received during this season due to the
southwest monsoon winds.
Note:
● Western disturbances contribute about 3-5% of rainfall.
● Northwest monsoon winds also contribute approximately 3-5%.
● Convective rainfall accounts for around 5% of the total rainfall.
● Cyclone-related rainfall varies between 5-15%.
Winds Bring Rainfall To The Different Region In India:
PW Web/App:[Link]
Geography
Ch 02: Climatology
Lecture 20: Climatic Classification and Human Settlement
Rainy Season:
● Arabian Sea Branch
○ It hits the Malabar Coast.
○ The Western Ghats act as a barrier, causing heavy orographic rainfall on the western slopes of the Ghats
and decent rainfall in the western coastal plains.
○ The Arabian branch enters India through gaps in the Ghats, contributing to some rainfall.
○ Heavy rainfall occurs in the south, including Kerala, as well as the river valleys of the Mahi, Narmada, and
Tapi.
○ Important mountain passes like Thalghat, Bhor Ghat, and Palghat experience significant rain.
○ Due to the orientation of the Aravallis, the southwest monsoon winds run parallel to it, resulting in
reduced rainfall in the region north of the Aravallis. The southern hills of the Aravallis receive a good
amount of rain.
● Bay of Bengal Branch
○ This branch brings more rainfall to
the Indian mainland.
○ Since the Eastern Ghats are neither
very high nor continuous, the
low-pressure areas in Rajasthan and
Northwest India are able to attract
this branch. As a result, the valleys
of the Godavari, Krishna, and
Mahanadi rivers receive good rainfall.
○ This branch also brings heavy rainfall to Northeast India, area includes Meghalaya Plateau, Tripura, Assam,
Nagaland, Mizoram, Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh.
○ It also gives a good amount of rainfall in the Chhota Nagpur Plateau.
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○ The branch delivers rain from east to west, but the amount of rainfall decreases as it moves westward.
○ It reaches parts of Northwest India and Rajasthan with lesser intensity.
Retreating Monsoon Season (15th
September – 15th December):
● The Southwest Monsoon winds begin
their retreat.
● Kerala experiences heavy rainfall during
this period.
● The onset of the monsoon starts in
Kerala, and the retreating monsoon also
ends in Kerala.
Winter Season (15th December –
15th March):
● During the winter season, temperatures generally range around 20°C, with the Himalayan region experiencing
temperatures below 10°C. In Northwest India, including Rajasthan and the Northern Plains, temperatures drop
to below 15°C.
● This season is mostly dry, though occasional wet spells occur due to western disturbances, which are
temperate cyclones affecting the northwest region.
● Areas like Assam and Arunachal Pradesh experience some rainfall, while hill regions such as Jammu &
Kashmir, Uttarakhand, and Himachal Pradesh witness snowfall.
● The Coromandel Coast receives rainfall from the Northeast Monsoon. As the Northeast Monsoon winds are
blocked by the Eastern Ghats and Tamil Hills, rainfall occurs primarily in the coastal areas of the Coromandel
region.
Rainfall Distribution in India:
● Rainfall (Monsoon Type of Climate):
○ India experiences a monsoon type of climate, characterized by a wet season lasting approximately four
months, during which around 80% of the annual rainfall occurs.
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○ This is followed by a dry season lasting about eight months, resulting in a total annual rainfall of
approximately 20% of the annual rainfall.
● Arabian Sea Branch:
○ The leeward side of the Western Ghats, the interior parts of Peninsular India receives very less rainfall,
experience warmer and drier climate. Heavy rainfall primarily on the western slopes of the Western Ghats
and in the western coastal plains. The Arabian Sea is parallel to Aravallis.
● Bay of Bengal (BoB)Branch:
○ Since the Eastern Ghats are smaller and discontinuous, they allow the Bay of Bengal (BoB) branch to
cover a larger portion of India.
○ Consequently, Central India, Northeast India, and Northern India receive significant rainfall from this
branch.
● Primarily Orographic Rainfall:
○ Orographic rainfall occurs when moist air is lifted over mountainous terrain, leading to precipitation.
○ Key regions that experience orographic rainfall include the Gir Hills, Western Ghats, Aravallis (southern),
NE Hills, Meghalaya Plateau, and the southern slopes of the Himalayas.
● Other Types of Rainfall
○ Convective Rainfall: This type of rainfall occurswhen air rises due to heating, cools as it ascends, and
condenses to form clouds. The resulting precipitation is known as convective rainfall. It is commonly
associated with summer thunderstorms, and regions like the Thar Desert also receive convective rainfall.
○ Tropical Cyclonic Rainfall: This type of rainfalloccurs during the months of September and October when
tropical cyclones form. The eastern coasts of Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu, located between
10° and 20° latitude, receive significant rainfall from the Bay of Bengal during this period. Additionally, the
western coast also experiences some rainfall from the Arabian Sea.
○ Frontal Rainfall (Western Disturbances): This typeof rainfall occurs when cold and warm air masses
meet, leading to precipitation. In northwest India, particularly in Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand, and
Himachal Pradesh, frontal rainfall often results in snowfall during the winter months.
Types of Rainfall:
● Orographic Rainfall: This occurs when moist air isforced to rise over a barrier, such as a mountain range.
● Cyclonic Rainfall: This type of rainfall is associated with Pressure difference.
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● Frontal Rainfall: This occurs when two air masses of different temperatures and densities meet, causing the
warmer, lighter air to rise over the cooler, denser air, resulting in precipitation.
● Convective Rainfall: This type of rainfall occurs when warm air rises due to heating at the surface. It is
commonly seen in equatorial regions, hot deserts, and in India, particularly in northwestern India, northern
plains, Assam, and West Bengal.
● Primary rainfall:Primary rainfall occurs in summer,while winter rainfall is mainly associated with Western
Disturbances (WD).
Regions of India Receiving Very Heavy Rainfall (Above 300 cm):
● Northeast India
○ Meghalaya Plateau
○ Andaman and Nicobar Islands
○ Assam
○ Purvanchal Hills
● South of Wayanad
○ Malabar Coast of Kerala
● Southern regions of Andaman and Nicobar
○ Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Regions of India Receiving Low Rainfall (Less than 60 cm):
● Northwest India
○ Rajasthan:
■ Bikaner
■ Jaisalmer
■ Thar Desert (Northwestern India)
○ Punjab
○ Parts of Haryana (HR)
○ Western Uttar Pradesh
○ Kachchh
● Ladakh Region
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○ Leh receives minimal rainfall due to the rain shadow effect on the leeward side of the Himalayas and
Trans-Himalayas.
● Interior Parts of Peninsular Plateau
○ Vidarbha (Maharashtra)
○ Marathwada (Maharashtra)
○ Rayalaseema (Andhra Pradesh)
○ Northern Karnataka
Human Geography
Human Geography
● Human geography is the study of the interactions between humans and their environment. It is the study of
the Earth as a home of man, where human aspects are more important.
Human Settlements and Urbanisation:
● Human Settlements are clusters of housing units.
● There are two main types of settlements: rural and urban.
● Humans make choices and can control nature to a certain extent, allowing them to modify and regulate their
surroundings, this concept is known as possibilism.
● As active agents, humans influence their environment through various means, including the development of
settlements and urbanization.
Note: Humans can alter nature to a certain extent,but beyond that limit, nature exerts control. This concept is
known asneo-determinism.
Rural Settlements:
● It is the cluster of housing units in rural areas.
● Rural settlements refer to areas where the majority of the population is engaged in primary activities such as:
○ Agriculture
○ Fishing
○ Forestry
○ Mining
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Types of Rural Settlements:
● Compact/Clustered Nucleated:These settlements consistof closely built houses, typically found in fertile
land. They often have distinct geometric shapes. For example, such settlements are found in Rajasthan for
efficient water management and in Bundelkhand for security reasons.
● Semi-Clustered/Fragmented Settlements:These typesof settlements are prevalent in Gujarat and Rajasthan.
They form when people are compelled to move to the outskirts of clustered settlements. In central clustered
or compact settlements, the areas are typically occupied by dominant groups.
● Hamlet:This type of settlement is fragmented intosmaller units based on specific ethnic or social principles.
In India, these smaller units are referred to by various local names, such as Palli, Para, Dhani, Panna, and
Nagra.
● Dispersed Settlements:Dispersed settlements consistof huts or small hamlets that are isolated from each
other. These settlements are commonly found in regions like Kerala and the hilly areas of Meghalaya in the
Himalayas, where the terrain and forested landscapes contribute to their scattered nature.
Factors Influencing Settlements:
● Water Availability:Access to water sources such asrivers, canals, lakes, and groundwater is crucial for
settlement. Water is essential for Irrigation systems, daily use, cooking etc. Rural settlements are near this
type of area.
● Land Type:Villagers try to settle in fertile lands,near pastures, or close to mining areas, as these locations
support primary activities like agriculture and livestock rearing.
● Flood-Prone Areas:Low-lying regions that are proneto flooding.
● Building Materials:The availability of building materialslike wood and stone affects settlement design. Wood
is also often used as a source of fuel.
● Security:Settlements are often established with securityin mind, whether from natural threats or human
conflict.
● Planned Settlements:Government initiatives can leadto planned settlements that provide essential services
such as food, shelter, water, and fuel.
● Physical Conditions:The physical geography of anarea, including its climate and terrain, significantly
influences settlement patterns and sustainability.
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Geography
Ch 02: Climatology
Lecture 21: Climatic Classification and Human Settlement
(Part 02)
Variability in Rainfall:
● Rainfall variability across India is not uniform. It is generally higher inaridandsemi-aridregions,such as
parts ofRajasthanandGujarat(40% variability)
● Eastern India generally has more consistent rainfall, particularly due to the influence of themonsoon.(Just
10% Variability).
● The annual rainfall pattern remains relatively consistent in the eastern part of India, while variability increases
as one moves from east to west.
Note: Isohyets are imaginary lines that connect placesreceiving an equal amount of rainfall.
● Monsoons are very unpredictable. There are two types of variability in rainfall in India:
○ Spatial Variability: Area wise variability.
○ Temporal Variability: Variability with respect to time.
Temporal Variabiity:Interseasonal variability includesperiods of:
● 4 to 5 months of rainfall
● 7 to 8 months of dryness
Intra-Seasonal Variability (Seasonal Variability):
● Rainy seasons often experience dry spells, also known as monsoon breaks or gaps in the monsoon. The reasons
include:
○ Subtropical Westerly Jet Stream (STWJS) Shift: The STWJS reestablishes over the Shiwaliks and Ganga
Plains, shifting southwards during the rainy season. This shift creates a high-pressure system (HP) over
Tibet. Since the Indian Ocean already has HP, wind movement halts, leading to a monsoon gap.
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○ ITCZ Movement: The Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone(ITCZ) over the Ganga Plains migrates towards the
Peninsular Plateau, causing monsoon gaps in northern India.
○ Rajasthan's Low-Pressure System: The weakening ofthe low-pressure system in Rajasthan further
contributes to monsoon gaps.
● Winter Dry Seasons with Wet Spells:
○ Caused by western disturbances.
○ Influenced by the northeast monsoon winds (especially along the Coromandel coast).
● Dry Summer with Wet Spells:
○ Characterized by convective rainfall and thunderstorms.
Note: Variability in rainfall, particularly monsoonbreaks, is a key factor contributing to drought and crop failure.
Climatic Classification and Climatic Regions of the World:
Climate is a complex phenomenon characterized by variability in factors like temperature, rainfall, cyclones, winds,
and pressure systems. To better understand and organize this complexity, climates are classified. Climatic
classification can be:
● Genetic classification:Based on the origin and causesof climatic patterns.
● Empirical classification:Based on observations
Köppen Climate Classification:
● The Köppen Climate Classification is a system developed by Vladimir Köppen, a German meteorologist and
botanist, to categorize climates based on vegetation types. This system uses simple symbols and is based on
both quantitative data and observations.
○ Dry Regions: These areas have high temperatures andare often home to plants like cacti.
○ Cool Climates: Regions with snowfall support coniferoustrees. Examples include Chir, Deodar (Cedar),
Juniper, and Fir.
● Köppen based his classification on a vegetation map created by French botanist De Candolle. He categorized
vegetation as follows:
○ Megatherm: Plants and trees that thrive in areas with high rainfall and high temperatures. For example,
tropical rainforests are dense and lush. Köppen used the symbol ‘A’ to represent this humid tropical
climate.
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○ Microtherm: Vegetation that grows in areas with lowaverage temperatures, experiencing snowfall in winter
and receiving adequate rainfall in summer. This climate is represented by the symbol 'D,' indicating a cold
snow temperate climate.
○ Hekistotherm: Vegetation that survives in very coldconditions, such as in the frigid and polar zones.
Common examples include lichens and mosses. Köppen assigned the symbol 'E' to this polar climate.
○ Xerophytes: These are plants adapted to dry regions,such as cacti. The symbol 'B' represents xerophytes
and indicates a desert climate.
● Köppen identified various vegetation types and their climates, using symbols to define climate boundaries based
on temperature and rainfall:
○ A: Tropical humid (temperature always > 18°C)
○ C: Temperate humid (summer temperatures > 18°C; wintertemperatures not cooler than 3°C)
○ D: Cold snow temperate (summer temperatures > 10°C;winter temperatures > 3°C)
○ E: Polar frigid (temperature never exceeds 10°C)
The E climate is further divided into:
● ET (Tundra Climate): Summer temperatures range from0°C to 10°C; winter temperatures fall below 10°C.
● EF (Permafrost Climate): Temperatures remain at orbelow 0°C throughout the year.
De Candolle's Plant Classification and Köppen's Classification of Climate:
De Candolle's Plant Classification: Köppen's Classification of Climate:
● Megatherm ● A: Tropical humid
● Mesotherm ● C: Temperate humid
● Microtherm ● D: Cold snow temperate
● Hekistotherm ● E: Polar frigid
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● Xerophytes ● B: Desert climate
Köppen refined his climate classifications further based on rainfall patterns (Small
letter):
● f: Rainfall throughout the year
● s: Dry summers
● w: Dry winters
● m:monsoon climate (Short dry season)
In 1918, he added 'm' for monsoon-type climates, indicating a short dry season when rainfall is less than 60 mm
in the driest month.
Symbols Used for Different Climate Types:
● Equatorial Climate: Af
● Tropical Monsoon Climate: Am
● Mediterranean Climate: Cs
● Taiga Climate (Siberia): Df
Köppen further divided theCandDclimates into subcategoriesa,b, andc, withabeing the warmest andc
being the coolest.
B Type of Climate: Dry Climate:
● The B type of climate, known as the dry climate, is classified based on effective rainfall, which is calculated
as evaporation minus precipitation. In this climate, evaporation exceeds precipitation, indicating aridity and
moisture stress.
● Regions with very high evaporation and low rainfall (less than 25 cm) are classified as deserts, referred to as
"W" for desert, derived from the German word ""Wüste"." Regions with a smaller difference between
evaporation and precipitation (25-50/60 cm) are considered grasslands, which are semi-arid. The symbol "S" is
used for grasslands, meaning "steppe."
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● Thus, the classifications are as follows:
○ BS:Climate of grasslands.
○ BW:Climate of deserts.
● Köppen also used lowercase letters to denote temperature variations in dry climates:
○ h:Hot
○ k:Cool
● According to this classification:
○ BSh:Tropical grasslands (e.g., Savannah in Africa,Llanos in Venezuela, Campos in Brazil, Patana in Sri
Lanka).
○ BSk:Temperate grasslands (e.g., Pustas in Hungary,Veld in South Africa, Canterbury in New Zealand,
Downs in Australia, Prairie in the USA-Canada, Pampas in Argentina, and Steppe in the UK-Russia).
○ BWh:Tropical hot deserts (e.g., Sahara, Atacama,Sonoran, Mojave, Gibson, Sandy, Victoria, etc.).
○ BWk:Cool deserts, typically found in mid-continentalregions (e.g., Gobi Desert, Taklamakan, Karakum,
etc.)
Human Settlement:
Geometric Shapes/Patterns of Rural Settlements:
● Linear Settlement:Houses are arranged along a road,river, canal, or railway.
● Rectangular Settlement:Settlements develop arounda crossroad where roads intersect at right angles.
● Circular Settlement:This type features houses arrangedaround lakes, ponds, or places of worship such as
temples, mosques, gurudwaras, and churches. This layout is often designed for cattle protection and communal
activities.
● Star-like Settlement:Formed where multiple roadsconverge at a single point, creating a central hub for
transportation and connectivity.
● Point Shape Settlement:This type can be observedin locations such as capes.
● T-shaped, Y-shaped, Cross-shaped or cruciform settlements:T -shaped settlements develop at
tri-junctions of the roads while Y shaped settlements emerge as the places where two roads converge on the
third one and houses are built along these roads. Cruciform settlements develop on the cross-roads and houses
extend in all the four direction.
● Double Village:This occurs when houses are built along a narrow river on both sides, connected by a narrow
bridge.
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● Radial Pattern:This settlement pattern resemblesspokes radiating from a central point, typically found along
roads in hilly regions.
Urban Settlement: Classification of Towns Based on Evolution:
● Ancient Towns:Most towns emerged as cultural andreligious centers. Notable examples include:
○ Varanasi, known as the "world's oldest continuously inhabited town."
○ Prayagraj
○ Ayodhya
○ Haridwar
○ Ujjain
○ Madurai
○ Dwarka
○ Hampi
● Medieval Towns:These towns served primarily as administrativecenters, government hubs, or forts of regional
importance. Notable examples include:
○ Hyderabad
○ Delhi
○ Jaipur
○ Lucknow
○ Kanpur
○ Agra
○ Bhopal
○ Indore
● Modern Towns:These towns emerged alongside the expansionof the British Empire in India. The development
of towns can be broadly categorized into the following patterns:
○ Trading Ports:Towns such as Daman, Surat, Calicut,Goa, and Puducherry were established as important
trading ports.
○ Consolidation of the British Empire:Development and evolution of administrative units led to the
establishment of significant cities like Mumbai, Kolkata, and Chennai (Madras), where Presidencies were
developed.
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○ Tourist Towns:Popular tourist destinations include Kodaikanal, Darjeeling, Nainital, Mussoorie, and
Dalhousie.
○ Cantonment Towns:Towns such as Bengaluru, Ambala,Barrackpur, and Meerut served as military
cantonments.
○ Industrial Towns:Post-1950, towns like Jamshedpurwere developed as industrial centers.
● Post-Independence Towns:
○ Administrative Capitals:
■ Chandigarh
■ Bhubaneswar
■ Gandhinagar
○ Industrial Centers:
■ Durgapur
■ Bokaro
■ Bhilai
■ Visakhapatnam
○ Satellite Towns:
■ Gurugram (surrounding Delhi)
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GEOGRAPHY
Chapter 02: Climatology
Lecture 22: Cyclone And Urbanisation
Koeppen's Classification
BWh (Hot Desert Climate)
● Regions Covered:Almost all of Rajasthan, some parts of Punjab, and Haryana.
● Specific Areas:Thar Desert, which extends into Rajasthan,Gujarat, and parts of Punjab and Haryana.
● Characteristics:Verylowrainfall,extremelyhightemperaturesduringtheday,andcoolertemperaturesat
night. This region is characterized by arid conditions with sparse vegetation.
BSh (Hot Semi-Arid Climate)
● Regions Covered: Gujarat, Malwa Plateau, Bundelkhand, northwest India, andinteriorpartsofpeninsular
India.
● Characteristics: Low annual rainfall, high temperatures, and dry conditions. The rainfall is mostly
concentrated during the monsoon season.Theseregionshavemorevegetationthandesertareasbutstill
face significant water scarcity issues.
Am (Tropical Monsoon Climate)
● RegionsCovered:WesternGhats,northeasternstates(Assam,Meghalaya),partsofWestBengal,Odisha,
and Bihar.
● Characteristics: High temperatures throughout the year with significant rainfall during the monsoon
season (June to September). The dry season occurs during the winter months.
Aw (Tropical Savanna Climate)
● Regions Covered:Parts of central and southern India.
● Specific Areas:Includes regions like the CoromandelCoast.
● Characteristics:Hightemperatureswithadistinctwetanddryseason.Themajorityoftherainfalloccurs
during the summer monsoon. The dry season is prolonged and can lead to drought conditions.
PW Web/App:[Link]
Cw (Humid Subtropical Climate with Dry Winters)
● RegionsCovered:NorthernplainsincludingpartsofUttarPradesh,Bihar,andregionsalongtheHimalayas'
foothills.
● Characteristics: Hot summers and cool winters with most of the rainfall occurring during the summer
monsoon. Winters are relatively dry.
ET (Tundra Climate)
● Regions Covered: High altitudes of the Himalayas, including parts of Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal
Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh.
● Characteristics:Verycoldtemperatureswithshort,coolsummersandlong,harshwinters.Precipitationis
relatively low and mostly in the form of snow.
EF (Ice Cap Climate)
● Regions Covered:Extremely high altitudes of the Himalayas.
● Characteristics: Permafrost conditions with temperatures always below freezing. Precipitation is in the
form of snow, leading to ice caps and glaciers.
Df (Humid Continental Climate)
● Regions Covered: Not typically found in India but sometimes referenced in higher altitude regions of
North-eastern states with year-round precipitation.
● Characteristics: Moderate to high precipitation throughout the year, with significantsnowfallinwinter.
The temperatures vary widely with hot summers and very cold winters.
PW Web/App:[Link]
Cyclones
Cyclones are large-scale air masses that rotate around a strong center of low atmospheric pressure. They are
characterizedbytheircircularwindpattern,whichcanleadtosignificantweatherdisturbances,includingstorms,
heavy rainfall, and lightning.
Characteristics of Cyclones
● Low Pressure Systems: Cyclonesareessentiallylow-pressuresystemswheretheatmosphericpressureis
significantly lower than the surrounding areas. Air moves inward towards the low-pressurecenter,rising
and cooling, which can lead to cloud formation and precipitation.
● LocalandSmallSystems:Cyclonescanvaryinsizefromsmall,localizedsystemstolarge-scaleweather
phenomena affecting vast regions. In the context of tropical cyclones, they can be several hundred
kilometers in diameter.
● Earth’s Rotation and Upper Air Circulation: Cyclones are influenced by the Coriolis effect, whichisa
result of the Earth’s rotation. This effect causes the wind to rotate around the low-pressure center:
counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.
● Low PressureCells:Cyclonesareformedinareasknownaslow-pressurecells(Notlow-pressurezones),
where the pressure at the surface is lower than the surrounding areas.
● Tertiary Wind Circulation: Cyclones are a part of the tertiary wind circulation,whichincludeslocalized
and temporary weather systems. This is in contrast to primary (global trade winds, westerlies) and
secondary (seasonal monsoons) wind circulations.
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● AtmosphericDisturbances:Cyclonesaresignificantatmosphericdisturbancesthatbringwiththemstrong
winds,heavyrainfall,thunderstorms,andlightning.Theycancauseextensivedamagetolifeandproperty,
especially in coastal regions.
Classification of Cyclones
Cyclones can be broadly classified into tropical cyclones and temperate cyclones based on the location and
characteristics of the low-pressure systems that form them.
Temperate Cyclones
General Characteristics:
● Temperate cyclones, also known as mid-latitudinal depressions, wave cyclones, or traveling depressions,
occur in mid-latitude regions between 50° to 65° latitude.
● These cyclones are generally less powerful compared totropicalcyclonesbutarelargerinsize.Theyare
cold-core systems with relatively low intensity and lower wind velocities.
● The origin of temperate cyclones is related to Earth's rotation and the dynamic nature of Rossby waves.
● Unlike tropical cyclones, temperate cyclones can form overbothlandandwater,andtheyplayacrucial
role in understanding mid-latitudinal and taiga-type climates.
Formation and Dynamics:
● Thedevelopmentoftemperatecyclonesisaresultofairmassinteractionsinfluencedbyuppertroposphere
circulation. The Polar Front Theory, proposed by Bjerknes, explains the origin of these cyclones,
emphasising the interaction between contrasting air masses.
● The formation and behaviour of temperate cyclones aredeterminedbyRossbywavesandpolarfrontjet
streams, with their duration typicallyrangingfrom10to15days,dependingontheindexcycleofthese
waves.
Fronts and Associated Processes:
● A key feature of temperate cyclones is the formationoffronts,whichareboundariesbetweencoldand
warm air masses.
● Frontsarelowsurfacesalongwhichwarmairrises,andtheyarethree-dimensionalslopeswherecoldand
warm air masses mix to exchange latitudinal heat and moisture.
● The height of these fronts can reach 6 to 8 metres, whiletheirlengthcanrangefrom1,600to3,200
kilometres.
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Types of Fronts
● Stationary Fronts: Stationary fronts occur when twocontrastingairmassesliesidebysidebutdonot
converge, slipping past each other due to the Coriolis force.
● Cold Fronts: Cold fronts form when a cold air mass moves and pushes a warm air mass, causing the
lighter warm air to rise quickly. This rapid uplift of warm air creates cumulo-nimbus clouds,knownfor
producing thunderstorms and heavy, short-duration rainfall. Cold frontsaremarkedbysteepslopeswith
slope ratios of 1:50 to 1:100, creating friction at the surface and a bulge in the middle portion.
● WarmFronts:Warmfrontsoccurwhenawarmairmassmovestopushacoldairmass.Sincethecoldair
is heavier, it pushes the warm air upward gradually and slowly.
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● Occlusion Fronts: An occluded front forms when a warm air mass gets caught between two cold air
masses.Asthecoolairmassesconverge,theypushthewarmairupward.Thisprocessoccursbecausethe
warmairislighterandlessdensecomparedtothecoolerairmasses.Asthewarmairrises,thecoolerair
masses meet and create a boundary at the surface.
Stages of Front Development
● First Stage (Frontogenesis): Frontogenesis starts with a stationary front and develops when a
low-pressurecellformsduetoRossbywavesandmeanderingupperaircirculation.Atthisstage,thewarm
and cold fronts begin to rotate around the low-pressure cell.
● Mature Stage:Inthematurestage,thecoldfrontmovesfaster,andthewarmfrontmovesslowlyuntil
the cold front eventually catches up to the warm front.
● Occlusion Stage: Finally, in the occlusion stage, the cold frontmergeswiththewarmfront,liftingthe
warm air from the surface and marking the cyclone's culmination with rainfall.
Tropical Cyclones
● Tropical cyclones occur within the tropics,specificallybetween10°to20°latitude.Neartheequator,the
Coriolis force is minimal, which plays a significant role in the formation and behavior of these cyclones.
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● Unlike temperate cyclones, tropical cyclones are confined to tropical waters and are thermally induced.
● These systems are smaller in size compared to temperate cyclones but possess a warm core and are
significantly more intense and hazardous.
Formation and Dynamics:
● Theoriginoftropicalcyclonesiscloselyassociatedwiththeintenseheatingoftropicalwaters.Thewarm
waters provide the necessary thermal energy to induce and sustain these cyclones.
● Theprocessbeginswiththeevaporationofwarmoceanwater,whichthencondensestoformcloudsand
releases latent heat. This heat further fuels the cyclone, causing it to intensify.
● DuetotheminimalCoriolisforceneartheequator,tropicalcyclonescanonlyformatlatitudeswherethis
force is sufficient to impart the necessary spin to the system.
PW Web/App:[Link]
SANKALP 1/2/3: INTERNAL SECURITY
LECTURE 01: INTRODUCTION
11 Oct 2024
Syllabus
Challenges To Internal Security
● Non-state Actors (Extremism and Terrorism)
● State Actors (Pakistan, Nepal, Myanmar, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka)
● Border Management
Communication Networks
● Cyber issues and basics of cyber security
● Social Media
● Cyber Attacks from outside
Other Crimes
● Economic crimes (Money laundering)
● Narco Crimes (NDPS Act)
Other Topics
● Police reforms
● Defence Reforms
● Security Forces and their mandate
Linkages between Development And Spread of Extremism
● Extremism: Extremism refers to the advocacy of extreme measures or views, often involving violence,
killings, and other radical actions, to achieve socio-political objectives.
● Development: Development encompasses qualitative methods for long-term growth, focusing on holistic
improvement in various aspects of a co
PW Web/App:[Link]
Geography
Ch 02: Climatology
Lecture 23: Cyclone and Urbanization (Part 02)
What is an Urban Place?
● According to the Census 2011:
○ Statutory Town:All places with municipalities, cantonments,notified town area committee.
○ Census Town:The places satisfying the following criteria:
■ Population: At least 5,000.
■ At least 75% of the mail working population engaged in non-agricultural activities.
■ Population density of at least 400 persons per square kilometer.
Note: Suburb:A suburb is an area where people livethat is located outside the central part of a town or city. An
example is Bandra. Suburbs are typically attached to urban areas, providing residents a chance to settle down and
avoid the congestion, pollution, and traffic jams often found in city centers.
Classification of Towns According to Functions:
● Administrative Towns:These towns serve as administrativecenters, such as capitals or district headquarters.
● Judicial Towns:Towns that house either a High Courtor a Bench of the High Court. Examples include:
○ Ranchi:High Court
○ Nainital:High Court
● Production/Industrial Towns:These are industrialareas with good connectivity via rail, road, and waterways.
Examples include:
○ Jamshedpur
○ Ahmedabad
○ Bokaro
○ Bhilai
○ Surat
● Transport Towns:
○ Towns where the railways end, such as Haridwar and Kathgodam.
○ Towns where sea routes end, and river inland transport begins, such as Visakhapatnam, Mumbai, Chennai,
and Kochi. These are basically port areas.
○ Convergence points of rail routes, like Jhansi.
● Commercial Towns: These are commercial hubs or markets, including:
○ Ahmedabad
○ Mumbai
○ Surat
○ Delhi
● Mining Towns:It can be eitherCoal Mining Centersor Iron Ore Mining CentersThese towns are associated
with mining activities, including:
● Bhilai
● Bokaro
● Jamshedpur
● Raniganj (West Bengal)
● Defense Town:These towns may include military basesor air force bases. Examples include:
○ Barrackpore
○ Meerut
○ Pathankot
○ Lucknow
○ Bareilly
○ Ambala in Haryana is also a military base.
● Education Towns:These towns are known for their renowneduniversities and coaching centers. Examples
include:
○ Pune
○ Bangalore
○ Kota
○ Varanasi (Banaras)
○ Prayagraj
○ Kolkata
● Religious and Cultural Towns:These towns are famous for religious sites such as mosques, dargahs, temples,
churches, and gurudwaras. Examples include:
○ Ajmer
○ Ayodhya
○ Goa
○ Puducherry
○ Haridwar
○ Nashik
○ Ujjain
● Tourist Towns: These towns includes:
○ Mumbai
○ Jaipur
○ Rishikesh
○ Jodhpur
● Residential Towns:Examples:
○ Mohali
○ Panchkula
○ Both towns serve as residential hubs for Chandigarh.
Classification of Towns by Population Size (Census 2011):
Class I: Population size more than 100,000
Class II: Population size 50,000 - 99,999
Class III: Population size 20,000 - 49,999
Class IV: Population size 10,000 - 19,999
Class V: Population size 5,000 - 9,999
Class VI: Population size less than 5,000
● As per Census 2011, the urban population in India exceeds 377 million, accounting for more than 31% of the
total population.
● Approximately 70% of the urban population lives in Class I towns.
● There are 53 "Million Plus" cities, with populations exceeding 1 million.
● There are 3 "Mega Cities" with populations exceeding 10 million:
○ Greater Mumbai
○ Delhi
○ Kolkata
Important Terms:
● Urban Outgrowth Centres (OG):These are urban settlements.These are areas contiguous to statutory towns
but do not qualify as independent towns. They have clear, identifiable boundaries but do not fall under the
classification of statutory towns. Example: Railway colony, BHEL industries colony etc. They have all essential
urban infrastructure facilities, including:
○ Well-defined boundaries
○ Bank ATMs
○ Post offices
○ Small healthcare units
○ Educational facilities
○ Road connectivity with the main town
○ Electricity
● Urban Sprawl:It refers to the unplanned and unrestrictedgrowth of a city, expanding into adjacent rural
villages. This growth is characterized by low-density residential housing.
● Urban Agglomeration:It is a cluster of interconnected or cooperative cities located side by side, functioning
as a group of closely linked urban areas. Cities can have connections through their outgrowths. Example:
Greater Mumbai includes 7 municipal corporations, such as:
○ Navi Mumbai
○ Kalyan
○ Thane district
○ Mumbai district
○ Greater Mumbai
● Conurbations:It refers to an urban agglomeration with multiple centers.
These centers are generally connected through inter-urban transport
routes. Examples include Delhi, Mumbai, and Kolkata.
● Urban Village:In an urban village, the people are engaged in non-agriculturalactivities, but the land use is
primarily agricultural in nature. It represents a mix of urban and rural characteristics, serving as a transitional
stage between rural and urban areas.
● City (as per Census of India): In India,any townwith a population size greater than 1 lakh is called city.
This is basically a full-fledged urban agglomeration.
● Metropolitan City:A metropolitan city is definedas having a population size of more than 10 lakh (1
million). The core of the town is highly urbanized and densely populated, with surrounding areas also
exhibiting significant population density
● Megapolis:The term "megapolis" was coined by PatrickGeddes. It refers to a very densely populated area
characterized by a highly complex urbanized landscape. An example of a megalopolis is the northeastern
United States, including regions such as New York and areas in Maryland and Delaware.
● Cosmopolis: It is a large city inhabited by peoplefrom different countries, showcasing a diverse cultural and
ethnic population.
Rural Area Problems Associated with Environmental Degradation:
● Lack of supply of running water and sanitation through sewers.
● Protection and maintenance of open areas.
● Restoration of degraded land.
● Management of forests and groves.
● Silting of ponds, lakes, and water bodies.
● Lack of sustainable approach to control floods.
● Irrigation-related problems, such as scaling, over-irrigation, soil erosion, and waterlogging.
● Soil degradation and soil erosion.
● Pollution of surface and groundwater from heavy application of pesticides, chemical fertilizers, and
insecticides. This water gets contaminated.
● Problems arising from spillovers of urban factories and industries.
● Inefficient waste disposal.
● Air pollution from paddy fields (methane gas emissions) and burning of wood and cow dung patties.
● Due to population growth pressure over exploitation of natural resources.
Problems of Urbanization in India:
● Housing Crisis:Housing is becoming increasingly costly and is often out of reach for the poorer sections of
society.
○ Leads to the development of slums.
○ Results in encroachment on public land.
○ Contributes to the rise of informal settlements.
● Unemployment:There is mass immigration of unskilledand semi-skilled rural populations to urban areas.
● Slums Area:Slums are a common feature of urbanizationand are often a result of rapid urbanization in
developing countries.
● Overcrowding:This leads to traffic jams and congestion.
● High Crime Rate:Urban areas often experience increasedcrime levels.
● Cultural and Religious Conflicts:Rapid urbanizationcan result in tensions between different cultural and
religious groups.
● Pollution:Urban areas face significant pollutionchallenges, including water and air pollution.
● Urban Heat Island Effect:Cities experience highertemperatures due to human activities and infrastructure.
Example: Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata etc.
● Stressed Municipal Services:Urban areas struggle with inadequate drainage systems, sanitation issues, and
the provision of safe drinking water.
Government Schemes:
● HRIDAY Scheme(2015) - Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana: Aims to revitalize and
preserve heritage cities. It was initiated in 2015.
● PM Awas Yojana (Urban): Focuses on providing affordablehousing for the urban poor.
● Swachh Bharat Mission: Aims to promote cleanlinessand sanitation across India.
● Smart Cities Mission: Aims to develop smart citiesthat are sustainable and citizen-friendly.
Geography
Ch 02: Climatology
Lecture 24: Cyclone and Migration
Cyclones (Low-Pressure Systems):
1. Temperate Cyclones
○ Mid-Latitudinal Cyclones
○ Temperate Depressions
○ The weather associated with temperate cyclones is linked to the movement of fronts.
2.Tropical Cyclones
Stages of Temperate Cyclones:
● Stationary Front:
○ The development of a stationary front occurs when two air masses with contrasting temperatures
converge but do not move significantly.
● Frontogenesis:
○ The process begins with the formation of a low-pressure (LP) system due to disturbances such as
Rossby waves in the upper atmosphere.
○ A warm front develops on the eastern side of the LP system, while a cold front forms on the
western side.
○ Both fronts start to rotate around the low-pressure center (referred to as the "Kink").
● Mature Stage:
○ The cold front moves faster than the warm front and gradually catches up, pushing the warm air
upward and intensifying the low-pressure system. This results in the development of elliptical
isobars around the Kink.
○ In the Northern Hemisphere, the air circulates counterclockwise around the low-pressure area along
the isobars due to the Coriolis force.
○ Wind speeds in this stage can reach 60-75 km/h.
● Dissipating Stage (Occlusion Stage):
PW Web/App:[Link]
○ The cold front overtakes the warm front, and the warm air is entirely lifted above the surface,
leading to the merging of the two fronts.
○ The temperate cyclone begins to weaken as there is no longer a significant temperature contrast at
the surface. Cold air prevails at ground level.
○ This stage is known as "Frontolysis," where the fronts decay and the cyclone dissipates.
Additional Notes:
● Temperate cyclones are elliptical in shape, not spiral.
● They can occur year-round but tend to be more intense during the winter season due to stronger
temperature contrasts.
Locations favorable for temperate cyclones:
● The Siberian landmass:It is covered by Taiga evergreen forests, influenced by temperate cyclones.
● British Isles: It includes Republic of Ireland, NorthernIreland, Great Britian (England, Scotland, Wales).
Temperate cyclones bring rain throughout the year, resulting in the British type of climate, which is
characterized by mixed forests.
● Icelandic Low-Pressure (LP) and Aleutian Low-Pressure (LP)
● Near the Great Lakes of North America (USA-Canada)
● Near the North Sea
● Baltic Sea
● Norwegian Sea
● Barents Sea
● Around Lake Baikal (Russia)
Temperate Cyclone & Associated Weather:
● A location positioned to experience the full development and passage of a temperate cyclone will witness the
entire weather phenomena associated with it.
● To observe the entire weather associated with a temperate cyclone, and to track the passage of the temperate
cyclone, a person or observer should be positioned in front of the warm front.
Warm Front (WF) and Associated Weather:
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● Pressure:Pressure will fall steadily as the warmfront approaches.
● Temperature:Temperature will gradually rise as thewarm air replaces the cooler air ahead of the front.
● Precipitation:Precipitation will increase, oftenstarting as light rain or drizzle, becoming more intense as
the front gets closer. Nimbostratus clouds typically indicate steady, continuous rain or snow.
● Clouds:The cloud progression typically starts withcirrus and cirrostratus clouds, followed by altostratus,
and then thickening into nimbostratus clouds as the front approaches.
● After the Front Passes:Longer rain duration can resultin delayed clearing of the sky. Once the front
passes, warmer and more stable air prevails, often leading to clearer conditions.
Cold Front (CF) and Associated Weather:
● Temperature Drop:Temperatures fall sharply as thecold front passes, with cold air replacing the warmer
air ahead of the front.
● Atmospheric Pressure:Pressure rises steadily afterthe passage of the cold front.
● Clouds and Precipitation:Cold fronts are associatedwith the development of cumulonimbus clouds, which
can produce heavy rainfall, thunderstorms, and lightning due to the strong atmospheric instability.
● Short-Duration Rainfall:Rainfall tends to be briefbut intense, often accompanied by gusty winds and
potential hail.
● Post-Front Conditions:After the front passes, skiestypically clear, and the weather becomes cooler and
drier as the cold air settles in.
Tropical Cyclone:
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● In the Northern Hemisphere, tropical cyclones rotate anticlockwise, while in the Southern Hemisphere they
rotate clockwise.
● Tropical cyclones are cyclones that occur in tropical regions, typically developing between 10° to 20° latitudes.
They are not commonly found near the equator due to very low Coriolis force in that area.
● Tropical cyclones are typically found over the eastern tropical waters because the western tropical waters are
cooler due to upwelling.
● However, this is not true for India. Tropical cyclones are primarily associated with thermal heating, resulting in
warmer tropical cyclones.
● The velocity of a cyclone exceeds 100 km/h and can reach up to 150 km/h. Super cyclones are greater than
150 km/h. The size of a cyclone typically ranges from 300 km to 500 km in diameter.
Note: The diameter of temperate cyclones is around 1,500 to 3,000 km, while tropical cyclones are smaller, more
localized, and more intense.
The following tropical conditions are required for the development of tropical
cyclones:
● Continuous Supply of Moisture: Tropical cyclones donot form over land because they lack a continuous supply
of moisture. For the same reason, they weaken and dissipate after hitting coastal land. Due to the latent heat
of vaporization, the air warms and evaporates. As clouds form, they release latent heat through the process of
condensation.
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● Strong Pressure Gradient: A significant pressure gradientwith warm conditions (approximately 27°C) is
necessary for their formation.
● Coriolis Effect: A sufficient Coriolis effect is required,which is typically found between 10° and 20° latitude.
● The low-pressure (LP) system:The low-pressure (LP)system over tropical waters should be accompanied by
upper tropospheric divergence, meaning there should be anticyclonic conditions in the upper atmosphere
(troposphere).
Favorable Time:
● The favorable time for tropical cyclones is late September, October, and early November. This period coincides
with the retreating monsoon season.
Why More Cyclones Develop in the Bay of Bengal?
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● TheBay of Bengalis more enclosed than the Arabian Sea, which allows it to retain more heat from the land.
As a result, the water in the Bay of Bengal is relatively warmer, creating favorable conditions for cyclone
formation.
● The South China Sea witnesses a high number of cyclones each year. Cyclones move westward and enter the
Bay of Bengal. The narrow land passages allow tropical cyclones to enter the Bay of Bengal.
● Many cyclones in the Bay of Bengal are extensions of cyclones originating in the South China Sea. The Bay
witnesses more cyclones per year as many of them move northward and enter the Bay.
● Thenarrow land passagesalong the eastern coast provideentry for tropical cyclones into the Bay of Bengal.
Note:
● Theeastern coast of Indiareceives more cyclonesand cyclonic rainfall.
● Cyclones move from east to west (easterly direction), which is why the eastern coast experiences more
cyclones.
● TheBay of Bengalis a major source for tropical cyclones.
● The upliftment of air is so strong that it also causes the sea water level to rise locally. This rise in sea water
is known as "ocean swells."
Migration:
● The history of mankind is fundamentally shaped by migration. Migration refers to the movement of people
from a source region to a destination.
● It is important to note that migration is not the same as daily commutation, tourist movements, or seasonal
movements (That is more of TRANSHUMANCE).
● Cattle rearers move from mountain grasslands to the valleys in winter and return to the alpine meadows
during the summer. Tribes typically have permanent settlements in the valleys, while their presence in
grasslands is usually temporary.
● In India, we have the following tribes:
○ Gujjars: Primarily associated with Bakarwals.
○ Gaddis: Found in Himachal Pradesh.
○ Bhotia: Located in Uttarakhand.
● Grasslands
○ Jammu & Kashmir (JK):
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■ Marg: Examples include Tanmarg and Sonmarg.
■ Gulmarg: Another notable grassland area.
○ Uttarakhand (UK):
■ Bugyals/Payars: High-altitude grasslands.
Types of Migration:
Immigration (Incoming):
● This process involves migrants moving into a destination region.
● Examples include migrants moving to the USA, Britain, and Western Europe.
Emigration
● The act of leaving one's country or region to settle in another. For example, "Many people emigrate from
Europe each year".
PW Web/App:[Link]
Geography
Ch 02: Climatology
Lecture 25: Condensation, Precipitation, Thunderstorms and
Migration
Tropical Cyclones
● Eye: At the center of the tropical cyclone lies the eye, a calm region with a diameter of 5 to 10 km
(Thoughsometimesitcanbemorewider).Withintheeye,theairiswarmbutdoesnotrisebecauseitis
surrounded by even warmer air. Thiscreatesarelativelyclearandtranquilarea,similartothedoldrums,
where the air remains undisturbed.
● EyeWall:Encirclingtheeyeistheeyewall,whichformsaboundarywithadiameterof1to4km.The
eye wall is characterized by intense spiraling winds and very heavyrainfall.Itcontainswarm,moistair
that rises vigorously, making it the most violent part of the cyclone.
● Inner Cyclone: Beyond theeyewallliestheinnercyclone,anareafilledwithcumulonimbuscloudsthat
produce heavy precipitation. The air here is warm and continues to rise due to the intense convection
within the system.
● Annular Zone: At a height ofaround3to5km,thewarmairfromtheinnercyclonestartstodiverge
andcool,formingtheannularzone.Inthiszone,thecooledairsinks,creatingabarrieragainstincoming
warmer moist air. This cold, sinking air acts as a shield, forcing the warm moist air to rise and form
additional cumulonimbus clouds in the outer cyclone.
● Outer Cyclone: The outer cyclone experiences heavy rainfall as the warm moist air rises and forms
cumulonimbus clouds, due to the barrier created by the cold sinking air from the annular zone.
● Peripheral Zone: Finally, the peripheral zone consists of scattered clouds where rainfall is variable and
mayormaynotoccur.Thiszonemarkstheoutermostpartofthecyclone'sinfluence,withlessorganized
weather patterns compared to the more intense inner regions.
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Stages Of Tropical Cyclones
Tropical cyclones are intense, small-scale low-pressure systems that typically last for about 5 to 7 days.
Stage 1 (Thermal Heating and Low-Pressure Cell Formation)
● Theformationofatropicalcyclonebeginswiththethermalheatingofoceanwaters.Thisheatingleadsto
the development of a low-pressure cell over the water.
● Thewarm,moistairrises,creatingazoneoflowpressureatthesurface,whichistheinitialstageofthe
cyclone.
Stage 2 (Development of the Eye and Eye Wall)
● As the low-pressure cell strengthens, the cyclone starts toorganize,andtheeyeandeyewallbeginto
form.
● The eye isacalm,clearareaatthecenterofthecyclone,whiletheeyewall,whichsurroundstheeye,
contains the most intense weather, including strong winds and heavy rain.
Stage 3 (Mature Stage)
● In the mature stage, the cyclone reaches its peak intensity. The system's spiraling winds become
well-developed, and the clouds exhibit a spiral appearance.
● This stageischaracterizedbymaximumwindspeedsandthemostsevereweatherconditionswithinthe
cyclone.
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Stage 4 (Landfall and Heavy Rain)
● When the cyclone makes landfall, it brings heavy rain and strong winds, typically lasting for 2 to 5 hours.
● This stage can cause significant damage due to theintenseweatherconditionsasthecycloneinteracts
with the land.
Stage 5 (Dissipation)
● The final stage of a tropical cyclone is its dissipation. Once the cyclone moves over land, it loses its
primary moisture source, causing the system to weaken and eventually die out.
● The lack of moisture supply leads to a gradual reduction in wind speeds and rainfall.
Clouds/ Fogs (Condensation) And Precipitation
Cloud formation is a complex process that depends on the rising of warm, moist air, the presence of aerosols
during condensation, and the aggregation of water droplets. Essentially, clouds are floating collections of water
droplets or ice particles suspended in the atmosphere.Theseprocessesofcondensationandtheresultingclouds
are critical for weather patterns and precipitation.
Types of Clouds
Clouds are categorised based on their height, opaqueness, and density, with four main types identified:
● CirrusClouds:Cirruscloudsarefoundathighaltitudes,rangingfrom6to18km.Thesecloudsarealways
white, composed of ice particles, and appear thin and wispy, often detached from each other.
● Nimbus Clouds: Nimbus clouds are typically found at moderate heightsof2to6km,thoughtheycan
sometimesextendveryclosetotheground.Thesecloudsaredarkgrey,highlyopaque,anddense,making
them responsible for most rainfall. They lack a definite shape and are often associated with overcast skies.
● Cumulus Clouds: Cumulus cloudsarecharacterizedbytheirglobular,puffyappearance,resemblingcotton
wool.Theyusuallyhaveaflatbaseandarescatteredacrossthesky,formingprimarilyduetoconvection.
These clouds are generally found at heights of 4 to 7 km.
● Stratus Clouds: Stratus clouds, also known as blanket or overcast clouds, forminastableatmosphere.
These layered clouds cover large portions of the sky and are typically found at lower altitudes.
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High Clouds
High clouds typically formataltitudeswherethetemperatureisbelowfreezing,resultinginthepresenceofice
crystals.
● CirrusClouds:Cirruscloudsarethin,fibrouscloudsthatappearlikehookedfilaments,oftenreferredtoas
Mare'sTail.Thesecloudsindicatebrilliantweatherandexcellentsunlight.Theirdelicate,wispyappearance
is due to the ice crystals that compose them, and they often signal fair weather.
● Cirro-cumulus Clouds:Cirro-cumuluscloudsarewhite,globularmassesthatformintheshapeofripples
andwaves,oftencreatingapatternknownasaMackerelsky.Thesecloudsalsoindicatefairweatherand
are composed of small ice crystals.
● CirrostratusClouds:Cirrostratuscloudsarethin,layeredcloudsthatformacontinuous,semi-transparent
sheetacrossthesky.KnownasIceHaloCloudsorVeilClouds,theyareresponsibleforatmosphericoptical
phenomenasuchassundogsorhaloswhenthesunormoonshinesthroughthem.Thesecloudscreatea
diffuse layer in the sky and can cover large areas, often giving the sky a milky appearance.
Middle Clouds
Middlecloudsformataltitudestypicallybetween2,000to7,000meters(6,500to23,000feet)andarecomposed
of both water droplets and ice crystals. There are two main types of middle clouds: Alto-stratus and
Alto-cumulus.
● Alto-stratusClouds:Alto-stratuscloudsarethin,layeredcloudsthatoftencovertheentiresky,creating
an overcast effect. Theyaregreyincolorandcansometimesmakethesunormoonappearasabright
spotbehindthem,buttheydonotproduceahaloeffect.Thesecloudscanindicateanimpendingstorm
and may bring light precipitation.
● Alto-cumulus Clouds: Alto-cumulus clouds, also known as sheepback clouds, are globular and puffy in
appearance, resembling the fleeceofsheepscatteredacrossthesky.Thesecloudsaretypicallyscattered
and do not cover the sky completely. While they are visually striking, they do not produce rainfall and
generally indicate fair weather.
Low Clouds
Low clouds typically form at altitudes up to 2,000 meters (6,500 feet) and are primarily composed of water
droplets.
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● StratusClouds:Stratuscloudsarewhiteorgreycoloredlayeredcloudsthatoftencovertheentireskylike
a blanket. They indicatedullweatherconditionsandcanbringlightdrizzles.Thesecloudsarehazardous
for aircraft due to their low altitude and dense nature.
● Strato-cumulus Clouds: Strato-cumulus clouds are similar to alto-cumulus clouds but with more
pronounced,largerglobularmasses.Theyappearinpatchesandaretypicallywhiteorgrey.Strato-cumulus
clouds usually indicate fair weather but can sometimes bring light precipitation.
● Nimbo-stratus Clouds: Nimbo-stratus clouds are dark, dense, and layered, often covering the sky
completely.Theyaretheprimaryrainclouds,responsibleforcontinuousandsteadyprecipitation.Theselow
clouds bring most of the prolonged, light to moderate rainfall experienced in various regions.
● Cumulus Clouds: Cumulus clouds have a flat base and a cotton wool, globular appearance, resembling
cauliflower when viewed from above. These clouds are white, vertically developed, and form due to the
convectionofair.Theygenerallyindicatefairweatherbutcangrowintolargerstormcloudsundercertain
conditions.
● Cumulo-nimbus Clouds: Cumulo-nimbus clouds are toweringcloudsthatcanextendfromaslowas500
meterstoheightsof10-12kilometers.Theyareresponsibleforheavydownpours,knownastorrentialrain,
andareoftenassociatedwithcyclonesandthunderstorms.Thesecloudsareverydark,dense,andopaque
to sunlight, indicating severe weather conditions.
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Precipitation
Precipitation is the process by which moisture in the air falls totheEarth'ssurface.Thiscanoccurinvarious
forms, each with unique characteristics and conditions under which they form. Below the clouds, layers of ice
crystals interact with warm or cold air, leading to different types of precipitation.
● Rainfall: Rainfall occurs when ice crystals in the clouds come into prolonged contact with warm air,
melting into water droplets that fall to the surface. This is the most common form of precipitation.
● Sleet: Sleet is a mix of water droplets and ice crystals that fall together. It is typically found in
mid-latitudes during winters and areas with temperature inversion, where a layer of warm air is
sandwiched between layers of cold air.
● Freezing Rain: Freezing rain occurswhenwaterdropletsfallthroughalayerofcoldairandfreezeupon
contact with surfaces. This creates a coating of ice on roads, trees, and power lines, often leading to
hazardous conditions.
● Snowfall: Snowfall involves the descent of cold ice particles or ice flakes. When the air temperature is
below freezing, these ice crystals form flaky pellets that are light in weight due to the air trapped
between them.
● Hailstorm: Hailstorms are associated with thunderstorms, particularlywithcumulonimbuscloudsandthe
convection of warmair.Hailstonesarelargericepelletsthatformwhenupdraftsinthunderstormscarry
raindrops upward into extremely cold areas of the atmosphere. The lack of airbetweentheicecrystals
makes hailstones solid and heavy, and they fall to the ground at high speeds.
● Drizzling:Drizzlingreferstolightrain,wherethesizeoftheraindropsislessthan0.5mm.Theamount
of rainfall in drizzling is minimal compared to heavier rain showers.
● Virga:Virgaoccurswhenraindropsevaporatebeforereachingtheground.Thisphenomenonhappenswhen
thesurfaceandtheairincontactareveryhot,causingtheraindropstoevaporateinmid-air,creatinga
smoky appearance.
Condensation
Condensationistheprocessbywhichwatervapourintheairisconvertedintoliquidwaterorice.Thiscanlead
to the formation of various phenomena such as dew, frost, mist, and fog, each with distinct characteristics.
● Dew:Dewformswhenwatervapourcondensesintowaterdropletsonsurfaceslikegrass,plantleaves,and
roofs.Thistypicallyoccursduringtheearlymorningorlateeveningwhenthetemperaturedropsandthe
air becomes saturated with moisture.
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● Frost: It forms as a result of sublimation, where water vapour directly converts into solid ice particles
without becoming liquid first. The solid particles of ice that form on surfaces are known as frost.
● MistandFog:Bothmistandfogresultfromcondensation,buttheydifferindensityandvisibility.Mist
is less dense than fog and typically allows for visibility ofupto1kilometer.Fogisdenserandreduces
visibility significantly, often to only 100 to 200 meters. Mist and fog usually form in areas with high
humidity and cool temperatures, such as valleys or near bodies of water.
Migration
Migrationreferstothemovementofpeoplefromoneplacetoanother.Itcanbecategorizedintotwomaintypes:
emigration,whereindividualsexittheircurrentplaceofresidence,andimmigration,whereindividualsmoveintoa
new place of residence.
Types of Migration
● InternalMigration:Thistypeofmigrationoccurswithinacountry,whereindividualsmovefromoneregion
toanother.Itcanincludemovementsfromruraltourbanareas,orbetweendifferentstatesorprovinces
within the same country.
● International Migration: This type of migration involves the movement of people from one country to
another. Individuals leave their home country to settle in a foreign country, often seeking better
opportunities or living conditions.
Causes of Migration
Migration is driven by various factors, which can be broadly classified into push and pull factors:
Push Factors:
Push factors are conditions that compel individuals to leave their current place of residence. These factors
typically lead to urban-to-rural migration and include:
● Poverty:Lack of financial resources and economicopportunities.
● Lack of Education:Inadequate access to educationalfacilities and opportunities.
● Low Standard of Living:Poor sanitation, lack of basicneeds, and inadequate living conditions.
● Low Quality of Life:Overall poor living conditionsand lack of amenities.
● Higher Crime Rate:Increased levels of crime and violence.
● War or Conflict:Situations of armed conflict, politicalinstability, and violence.
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● Unemployment:Lack of job opportunities and high levelsof unemployment.
● NaturalDisasters:Eventssuchasearthquakes,volcanicactivity,floods,andtsunamisthatdisruptnormal
living conditions.
● Marriage:Movement due to marital arrangements orfamily reunification.
Pull Factors:
Pull factors are conditions that attract individuals to a new place of residence. These factors often lead to
rural-to-urban migration and include:
● Better Job Opportunities:Availability of employmentand career prospects.
● Better Quality of Life:Improved living standardsand access to amenities.
● Better Education:Access to better educational facilitiesand opportunities for higher education.
● Better Safety:Lower crime rates and safer livingconditions.
● Better Economic Stability:More stable economic environmentand opportunities for financial growth.
● Freedom to Express:Greater freedom of speech and expression.
● Better Status and Dignity:Improved social status and respect in society.
● Better Health Facilities:Access to superior healthcareservices and medical facilities.
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Geography
Ch 02: Climatology
Lecture 26: Climatic Classification and Regions, Migration
Climatic Regions:
● Location:
○ Determined by latitude and geographical position within the continent.
○ Proximity to oceans, mountains, and other topographical features can influence climate patterns.
● Rainfall:
○ The total amount of annual rainfall and its seasonal distribution.
○ The timing of rainfall, such as whether it occurs year-round or during specific wet and dry seasons,
is significant for defining climate.
● Temperature:
○ Includes maximum and minimum temperatures across seasons.
○ Annual temperature range (the difference between the hottest and coldest months).
○ Summer and winter temperatures, and daily temperature range (diurnal variation) which shows
temperature changes between day and night.
● Vegetation:
○ The types of vegetation prevalent in a region reflect its climate.
○ Vegetation types are strongly linked to temperature and rainfall patterns, with certain climates
supporting specific plant species.
● Examples: Real-world regions with similar climaticfeatures, illustrating how the climate affects the
environment and biodiversity.
Equatorial Type of Climate:
● Location:
○ Found between latitudes0°-5°north and south of theequator.
○ Regions near the equator, such asparts of South America, Africa, and Southeast Asia,
experience this type of climate.
● Rainfall:
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○ Receives approximately250 cm of rainfall per year,making it one of the wettest climates on
Earth.
○ Rainfall isconvectivein nature, occurring almostdaily due to intense solar heating, which causes
rapid evaporation and condensation.
○ Heavy rainfall throughout the year, often accompanied bythunderstormsdue to the formation of
toweringcumulonimbus clouds.
● Temperature:
○ Theaverage temperaturehovers around27°Call year,with very little variation.
○ March-AprilandSeptember-Octoberare typically thewarmest months, but the temperature
fluctuation between seasons is minimal.
○ The annual temperature range is very small, and there is no clear winter season, ensuring
consistently warm conditions.
● Vegetation:
○ Evergreen Rainforest: Characterized by dense, multi-layeredvegetation.
■ Tall trees(reaching heights of 50-60 meters).
■ Middle and small trees, forming multiple canopies.
■ The forest is rich inepiphyteslike orchids andclimbers(vines).
■ High biodiversity, with no distinct dry season, which means no period of leaf shedding.
○ These rainforests are home to a variety offlora andfauna, often referred to as biodiversity
hotspots.
● Examples of Biodiversity Hotspots:
○ Amazon Rainforestin South America, the largest tropicalrainforest in the world.
○ Congo Basinin Africa, known for its rich wildlife,including gorillas and elephants.
○ Mekong Basinin Southeast Asia (including Laos, Cambodia,Vietnam, and Thailand).
● Examples of Vegetation in Evergreen Rainforests:
○ Ebony: Valued for its dense, dark wood.
○ Mahogany: Known for its durability and reddish-brownhue.
○ Rosewood: Prized for its fragrance and decorativeuse in furniture.
○ Cinchona: Source of quinine, historically used totreat malaria.
○ Rubber: Extracted from rubber trees, crucial for industrial uses worldwide.
Tropical Monsoon Type Climate:
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● Location:Found between 10°-25° latitude in both hemispheres.
● Winds:Experiences 6 months of onshore winds, leadingto distinct dry and wet seasons.
● Rainfall:In India, this climate is primarily associatedwith the tropical monsoon. Rainfall varies both
temporally (with time) and spatially (across regions).
● Type of Rainfall:Orographic,Convectional and Cyclonictypes of rainfall are common.
● Examples:
○ Indian Subcontinent:
○ Southeast Asia
○ Queensland (Australia)
○ Southern New Guinea
○ Eastern coast of Brazil
○ Guinea Coast of Africa
○ Ethiopia
● Temperature: Summers are hot and dry winters are coldand wet.
Tropical Monsoon Type Vegetation (Types of Vegetation in India Based on Rainfall):
● Tropical Evergreen Forest:
○ This vegetation type is similar to equatorial evergreen forests but is relatively less dense. It consists of
two layers of trees.
○ Flora Species:
■ Mahogany
■ Rosewood
■ Ebony
■ Rubber
○ Rainfall is more than 200 cm.
○ Rainfall:Greater than 200 cm.
○ Temperature:Approximately 27°C (or between 15-30°C).
○ Height of Trees:Can reach up to 60 meters.
○ Additional Vegetation:Includes shrubs and creepers.
○ Leaf Shedding:No shedding of leaves.
○ Dry Season:Not a prolonged dry season.
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○ In India Notable Locations are:
■ Great Nicobar
■ Western slopes of the Western Ghats (south of Wayanad)
■ Northeast India
● Tropical Semi-Evergreen Forest
○ This type of forest is found at the margins of tropical evergreen forests and in certain pockets where
rainfall is little less than that received in evergreen forests.
○ Location:
○ Western slopes of the Western Ghats (north of Wayanad)
○ Andaman Islands
○ Northeast India
○ Density:Not as dense as evergreen forests.
○ Some parts of these forests were converted and replaced by other vegetation during the British period.
■ Theoak forestswere replaced bychir pinetrees inregions like Kumaon and Garhwal.
■ Additionally, tea and coffee were introduced in areas such as Assam, Darjeeling, and the Nilgiri Hills.
■ Other notable species includemalabarandkail.
● Tropical Deciduous Forest:
○ Rainfall: 70-200 cm per year.
○ Characteristics: In deciduous forests, trees shedtheir leaves before and during the dry season. These
forests are not as dense as tropical evergreen forests and semi evergreen forest and are relatively
[Link] are monsoon forests, they represent Indian vegetation.
○ Distribution: Found mainly in India, with trees thathave broad leaves. Deciduous plants shed their leaves
to conserve water and optimize survival during dry weather conditions. They regenerate new foliage during
the next suitable growing season.
○ Two Types of Deciduous Forest:
■ Moist Deciduous Forest: Receives 100-200 cm of rainfallper year.
★ Location: Eastern slopes of the Western Ghats, Odisha(cyclonic rainfall), foothills of the
Himalayas, and mostly in the peninsular parts of India.
★ Dominant Species: Teak is the main tree, along with sal, mahua, sheesham, semul, mango,
banyan, kusum, amla, and sandalwood.
■ Dry Deciduous Forest:
★ Annual Rainfall is between 70-100 cm.
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★ More widespread than Moist Deciduous Forest.
★ Dominant species include Banyan and Neem.
★ Found in drier parts of the Peninsula and the plains of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
★ Sal is the main tree, along with Tendu, Palash, Amla, Bel, Khair, and Peepal.
● Tropical Thorn Forest:
○ Annual Rainfall is between 25-50 cm.
○ Leaves are needle-shaped (pointed leaves).
○ These forests are not dense; found in semi-arid regions.
○ Predominantly located in Punjab and Haryana, Western UP, Northern Rajasthan, some parts of Delhi India.
○ Examples of species include Babool (Acacia), Ber, Amla, and Palash.
○ Rainfall is low and occurs mainly during winters due to Western disturbances.
● Savanna Vegetation:
○ Annual Rainfall is between 25-50 cm.
○ Characterized by thick grasses and shrubs (bushes).
○ These vegetation are found in the interior parts of the Peninsular Plateau, include Rayalaseema, Northern
Karnataka, Marathwada, and Vidarbha.
○ Winters are dry, with rainfall occurring during the summer.
● Desert Type and Vegetation:
○ Thar Desert,a warm desert characterized by extremearidity.
○ Average Rainfall isless than 25 cm per year.
○ Cactus is the primevegetationof the region.
Savannah Type of Climate:
● Location:Between 10° and 15/20° latitude (both hemispheres).Example Sahel region.
● Geographical Features:Found in the interior partsof continents, far from the sea. It is also called as Sudan
Type of climate.
● Climate Characteristics:This climate is located in the transitional zone between desert and evergreen
forests.
● Rainfall:Approximately 50 cm annually
● Rainfall Pattern:Rainfall occurs primarily in thesummer, while winters are dry.
● Rainfall Characteristics:Rainfall is convective innature.
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● Temperature:Generally high throughout the year.
● Vegetation:Predominantly grassland, characterizedby thick grasses, with some small trees scattered
throughout. Savannah grassland are also known as Big Game Country.
● Notable Animals:African Elephant, African Lion, Cheetah,African Rhinoceros, Giraffe, Zebra, Wild Bison,
Leopard
● Locations of Savannah-Type Ecosystems
○ Africa:Predominantly found in various regions.
○ South America:
■ Paraguay
■ Venezuela (Llanos)
■ Colombia (Interior parts of Peninsular Plateaus)
■ Drier parts of Brazil (Campos)
Desert Type of Climate:
● Rainfall:Less than 25 cm annually, with very littleprecipitation.
● Vegetation:Vegetation is almost absent, primarilyincluding examples such as acacia and cactus.
● Climate Characteristics:
○ Extremely dry climate.
○ Rainfall is convective in nature.
Types of Desert:
● Warm Desert:
○ Location:Tropical belts (10° to 25° latitude).
○ Reasons for Formation:
■ High-Pressure Belt
■ Coriolis Effect of Earth's Rotation
■ Anticyclonic Conditions
○ Examples of Warm Deserts:
■ Al-Nafud
■ Rub' al Khali Peninsula
■ Dasht-e Kavir
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■ Dasht-e Lut
■ Sahara Desert
○ Western Margin:Some of the warm/hot deserts are foundon the western margins of continents due to
dry trade winds (also known as Foehn winds) contribute to the arid conditions and upwelling wind and
High-pressure systems (HP) play a significant role in the climate of these areas. Examples of Western
Mergin Deserts:
■ Atacama Desert- Chile
■ Sonoran Desert- United States and Mexico
■ Mojave Desert- United States
■ Chihuahuan Desert- Mexico
■ Namib Desert- Namibia
■ Kalahari Desert- Southern Africa
■ Gibson Desert- Australia
■ Victoria Desert- Australia
■ Tanami Desert- Australia
■ Great Sandy Desert- Australia
● Continental Deserts:
○ Location:
■ Found in the very interior parts of continents, far away from the sea.
■ The air becomes dry by the time it reaches these areas.
○ Examples of Continental Deserts:
■ Taklamakan Desert- China
■ Gobi Desert- Mongolia and China
■ Karakum Desert- Kazakhstan
■ Kyzylkum Desert- Uzbekistan
■ Moyun Kum Desert- Tajikistan
Note: Desert is a climatic region and not a geological region.
● Deserts in the Rain Shadow Zone
○ Location:Deserts found in the rain shadow zone, where mountains block moisture-laden winds. Hence
become dry condition.
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○ Examples:
■ Patagonia Desert (eastern side of Andes)- Argentina
■ Ladakh Desert- India
■ Other deserts located in the rain shadow zones of the Trans-Himalayas and the Himalayas.
● Cold Desert
○ Location:Polar High-Pressure Deset(A
ntarctica)
○ Characteristics:
■ Considered a cold desert due to its altitude, the air is cold and dry.
○ Example:
■ Ladakh Desert- India
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Geography
Ch 02: Climatology
Lecture 27: Climatic Regions, Thunderstorm and Migration
Steppe Type of Climate:
● The Steppe is a grassland found in Russia and Ukraine, located in the interior of the continent. It lies under
the belt of westerly winds.
● By the time the onshore winds reach the Steppe, they become dry. This region receives approximately 50-60
cm of annual rainfall. Being in the temperate zone, the climate here is characterized by temperate grasslands.
● Examples of temperate grasslands include the Prairies in the USA and Canada, the Pampas in Argentina and
Uruguay, the Downs in Australia, the Canterbury Plains in New Zealand, the Puszta in Hungary, and the Veld
in South Africa. Summers are warm, and winters are cold, with the regions marked by the absence of trees.
China Type of Climate:
● Location:Found between 25° and 40° latitudes in bothhemispheres, typically on the eastern side of
continents.
● Climate Characteristics:
○ Rainfall occurs in summer due to onshore winds, as land has low pressure (LP) and water has high
pressure (HP).
○ In winter, the situation reverses (land has HP and water has LP), leading to prevailing offshore winds.
○ This climate is also known as the Humid Sub-Tropical climate.
● Rainfall:
○ The region receives cyclonic rainfall.
○ In China, these cyclones are calledtyphoons, andin Japan, they are known astaifu.
○ Monsoon and convective rainfall are common.
○ Summers are warm, and winters are cool.
○ There is also a marine coastal effect influencing the climate.
● Region:
○ This climate is found in Southern Manchuria region of China (northeast China), the southeastern USA
(where cyclones are called hurricanes), southern Japan, and the mid-eastern part of Argentina.
○ It is also referred to as a temperate monsoon climate.
● Vegetation:
○ Mixed Forest
○ Deciduous Forest
○ Semi-Evergreen Forest
○ Coniferous Forest:
■ Pine
■ Spruce
■ Oak
■ Fir
■ Cypress
■ Chestnut, etc.
British Type of Climate:
● Location:Found between 40° and 65° latitude in theNorthern Hemisphere, this climate is influenced by
onshore westerlies and ocean currents. It is typically located on the western side of continents.
● Climate Characteristics:
○ Summers are cool, and winters are cold, but not extremely cold due to the presence of warm ocean
currents, resulting in a positive thermal anomaly.
○ Night temperatures do not vary much because of continuous cloud cover.
● Rainfall:
○ Rain is brought by onshore westerlies, with most rainfall occurring through temperate cyclones.
○ Rainfall is distributed throughout the year, with the maximum during winter. There is no dry season.
● Vegetation:
○ Dense, mixed forests, including species like Douglas fir, Pine, Cedar, Juniper, Spruce, and Hemlock.
● Regions:
○ Western France, the British Isles, Denmark, southern Scandinavia, British Columbia (Canada), southwest
Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, and northwest Germany.
Taiga Type of Climate:
● Location:Found between 50° and 55° latitude, thisclimate is located in the sub-polar regions. The word
"Taiga" is of Russian origin, meaning subpolar.
● Climate Characteristics:
○ Marked by coniferous (evergreen) forests.
○ Winters are extremely cold, with heavy snowfall.
○ Summers are cool.
○ Precipitation mainly occurs in the form of snowfall, influenced by Rossby waves.
○ The region is covered by dense forests with conical trees, such as Pine (Chir), Spruce, Fir, Juniper, and
Cedar.
● Notable Features:
○ Taiga represents the Siberian climate.
○ Verkhoyanskin Siberia, Russia, is the coldest placeon Earth outside the polar regions.
● Regions:
○ Taiga is also found in Alaska, Canada, Scandinavia, and parts of European Russia.
Laurasian Type of Climate:
● Location:Found between 45° and 60° latitudes on theeastern part of continents.
● Regions:
○ Laurentian Plateau of Canada (Quebec, Ontario)
○ New England states of the USA (New York, Maryland, Delaware)
○ Northern Manchuria
○ Hokkaido (northern Japan)
○ Southern parts of Argentina
● Climate Characteristics:
○ Rainfall occurs throughout the year.
○ Convective rainfall during summer is greater than the rainfall received in winter through cyclones.
○ Summers are cool, while winters are very cold.
○ The temperature is influenced by cold ocean currents.
● Vegetation:
○ Coastal areas are covered by coniferous forests.
○ Interior regions feature temperate grasslands.
Tundra Type of Climate:
● Location: 65-75 degrees latitude. The region experiences three to four snow-free summer months, with
maximum temperatures reaching around 10°C. The rest of the year is covered in snow, with winter
temperatures consistently below zero. Vegetation is nearly absent, making this an almost treeless region.
● Tundra is a Finnish word meaning "barren land," this region has minimal ecological productivity. In the
northern hemisphere, cold winds known as Purga blow through the area.
● Regions: Northern Scandinavia, northern Scotland, Finland, northern parts of Asia, and northern North America.
Ice Climate:
● Found at the poles and in high-altitude mountainous regions.
Climatic Regions and Natural Vegetation:
Remaining topics from Cyclone
Anticyclones:
● These are high-pressure (HP) regions where the isobars are circular with a central high-pressure area due to
whichwinds move outward from the center.
● These are formed due toupper tropospheric winds.
● In the Northern Hemisphere (NH), winds move clockwise and in the Southern Hemisphere (SH), winds
move counterclockwise due to the Coriolis Effect.
● These regions typicallyhave clear skies/ cloudlesssky and dry conditions.
Tornadoes:
● Tornadoes arelow-pressure systemsthat are verylocalin nature.
● They evolve into larger forms from eddies.
● Structurally, tornadoes arebroader at the top andnarrow at the base,often forming apointed tailthat
acts like a vacuum,uprooting anything in their path.
● They are formed under specific conditions when thelapse rate of temperature and pressure gradient is
steep.
● Tornadoes typically developover land surfaces.Whenthey form over water bodies, they are called
"waterspouts" or "twisters."
● The Mississippi River Plains in the USA are known for frequent tornado activity.
● These are extremely powerful systems, with wind velocities reaching up to 300 km/h.
Thunderstorm:
● A thunderstorm is a storm characterized bylightning,thunder associated with heavy rainfall, and
cumulonimbus clouds.
● It forms due tocontinuous heating of the Earth'ssurface and the consequent convectingraising air.
● It occurs only when the speed of warm rising air is significantly higher than the general wind speed.
● In this process, falling of hailstorms are a common phenomenon. The air, along with the hail, descends as
coolor even super-cold air.
● The rainfall duration is short; however, it causes torrential rain and heavy downpours. Thunderstorms are
also linked totropical and temperate cyclones.
● Continuous supply of warm and moist air is essential to develop thunderstorm.
Stages Associated with a Thunderstorm:
● Cumulus Stage (Initial Stage):
○ Initially, the surface is hot, and the air above is also very hot and
moist. The air rises convectively until it reaches a point of
saturation, at which water droplets begin to form.
○ There is no rainfall during this stage due to the high velocity of the
updrafts, which are continuously rising.
○ The strong updrafts push the water droplets upward, and by the end
of this stage, cumulonimbus clouds are formed, featuring an
anvil-shaped head, which consists of dense clouds.
● Mature Stage:
○ In this stage, the clouds consist of water droplets. The merger
of tiny water droplets forms larger ones. These water droplets
become heavy enough to fall and move downwards against the
updraft.
○ Additionally, the water droplets drags the surrounding cold air,
resulting in the formation of a downdraft.
● Dissipating Stage:
○ This stage marks the end of the thunderstorm and the cumulonimbus clouds. The land and surface air
cool due to rainfall and the descending cool downdraft.
○ Consequently, the continuous supply of warmth and moisture required for the updraft ceases.
Geography
Chapter 02: Climatology
Lecture 28: Population and Migration
Patterns in Internal Migration
● RuraltoRuralMigration:Ruraltoruralmigrationisoftendrivenbymarriagesandnaturaldisasterssuch
as floods or droughts. This type of migration usually involves movement within agricultural areas or
between small villages, allowing individuals and families to seek better living conditions or reunite with
family members in different rural locations.
● Rural to Urban Migration: Rural to urban migration encompasses a range of motivations including
employment opportunities, education, better life prospects, and marriages. Individuals often move from
villages to cities or townsinsearchofjobs,highereducation,orimprovedlivingconditions.Thistypeof
migrationisasignificantcontributortourbanisation,aspeopleleaveagriculturalsectorsforindustrialand
service sectors in urban areas.
● Urban to Urban Migration: Urban to urban migration occurs when individuals move between cities or
towns primarily for better job opportunities, enhanced educational prospects, or to upgrade their living
conditions. This type of migration is common among professionals seeking career advancements or
studentspursuinghighereducationindifferenturbancentres,anditreflectsthedynamicnatureofurban
job markets and educational institutions.
● UrbantoRuralMigration:Urbantoruralmigrationtypicallyoccursafterretirement,lossofemployment,
oradesireforaquieterlife.Insuchcases,peoplemovefrombustlingcitiestovillagesorthecountryside,
often seeking a more peaceful environment or lower living costs. This migration pattern is sometimes
associated with lifestyle changes or economic necessity following a career in an urban setting.
Types of Internal Migration
● Inter-stateMigration:Inter-statemigrationreferstothemovementfromonestatetoanotherwithina
country. For example, individuals may migrate from Tamil Nadu to Maharashtra for job opportunities,
seeking better economic prospects or working conditions that are available in a different state.
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● Intra-state Migration: Intra-state migration involves movement within the same state. An example of
this would be relocating from a rural area toanurbanareawithinKarnataka.Thistypeofmigrationis
often driven by the same factors as rural to urban migration but occurs within the administrative
boundaries of a single state.
● Inter-district Migration: Inter-district migration occurs when individuals move from one district to
another within the same state. For instance, moving from one district in West Bengal to another for
better agricultural land or more favourable economic conditions is a common form of inter-district
migration. This type of migration allows individuals toseekimprovedlocalopportunitieswithoutcrossing
state boundaries.
Trends in internal migration
According to the Census 2011, India has a total of 45 crore (450 million) migrants. Of these, 88% migrated
within their own state (intra-state migration), while 12% moved to different states (inter-state migration).
● Gender-Based Migration Patterns:
○ Women:Asignificantportionoffemalemigrationinvolvesshorterdistances,typicallyfromruralto
ruralareas,primarilyduetomarriages.Thispatternreflectsthesocialcustomofwomenmovingto
their husband's home post-marriage.
○ Men:Malemigrationpredominantlyoccursfromruraltourbanareasandisofteninter-state.The
primarydriverforthismigrationisthepursuitofbettereconomicopportunities,suchasjobsand
improved living conditions.
● Regional Migration Dynamics:
○ SourceStates:UttarPradeshandBihararethemajorsourcesofinter-statemigrants,accounting
for 37% of the total inter-state migration.
○ Destination Cities: Delhi and Mumbai are the top destinations for these migrants,attractinga
large influx due to their economic opportunities and infrastructure.
○ Spatial Variations: Maharashtra has the highestnumberofimmigrants,whileUttarPradeshhas
the largest number of out-migrants. States like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, and Madhya
Pradesh constitute 50% of the total migrants in India, making them the largest sources of
migration.
● TrendsOverTime:Therateofinter-statemigrationhasdeclined,whiletherateofintra-statemigration
has increased. This trend suggests that better life opportunities and improved economic conditions are
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becoming more accessible within closer proximity to people'shomes,reducingtheneedforlong-distance
moves.
● International Migration: Approximately 1.53 lakh (153,000) migrants came to India from neighboring
countriessuchasNepal,Bangladesh,Bhutan,Myanmar,Pakistan,andSriLanka.Thisnumberisexpected
to increase in the next census.
Impact Of Migration
Impact on the Economy
Positive Impacts:
● Remittances: Migrants send remittances to their families, boosting the economicgrowthoftheirhome
regions. India receives the highest remittances in the world, mostly from the Middle East, with Kerala
being the largest recipient state.
● Increased Productivity And Growth: Agricultural states like Punjab and Haryana benefit frommigrants
from Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal, especially during the Green Revolution. Theinfluxoflabor
supports agricultural productivity and growth.
● GrowthandDevelopment:Destinationregionsexperiencegrowthanddevelopmentasmigrantscontribute
their skills and labor, helping to utilize their potential fully.
Negative Impacts:
● Overcrowding:Migrationtourbanareasleadstoovercrowding,puttingpressureonhousing,infrastructure,
and services.
● Inflation: Increased demand for housing in destination cities such as Mumbai,Delhi,NewYork,Sydney,
Dubai, and Shanghai drives up real estate prices.
● Brain Drain: Source regions suffer from a loss of skilled labor, negatively impacting their economic
potential.
● Agricultural Decline: Rural-to-urban migration results in a reduction of young laborers in agricultural
sectors, which are crucial to India's economy.
Impact on Demography
Positive Impacts:
● Urbanisation: Migration accelerates urbanisation, helping to redistribute the rural-urban population and
alleviate pressure on rural land.
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● Reduced Fertility Rates: Migration influences fertility behaviour, leading to lower birth rates due to
separation and urban influences.
Negative Impacts:
● YouthMigration:Themigrationofyoungergenerationsimpactsthedemographicstructure,leavingbehind
an ageing population in rural areas.
● MarginalisedSections:Theruralareasseeanincreaseintheproportionofelderly,women,andchildren,
placing additional burdens on these groups.
Impact on Society
Positive Impacts:
● SocialChange:Migrantsbringprogressiveideassuchasfamilyplanning,sanitation,education,andgender
equality from urban to rural areas, driving social change.
● Cultural Exchange: The intermixing of people from different regions fosters awareness, respect, and
tolerance of diverse cultures, leading to social harmony.
● Women's Status: When women migrate for education or employment, their status improves due to
economic independence and empowerment.
Negative Impacts:
● Unemployment:Aninfluxofunskilledmigrantscanleadtoincreasedunemploymentindestinationareas,
with jobless individuals potentially engaging in anti-social activities like smuggling, drug-peddling, and
crime.
● Cultural Conflicts: Public unrest and conflicts can arise from culturaldifferencesbetweenmigrantsand
local populations.
Impact on the Environment
● CarryingCapacity:Urbanareashavelimitedcapacitytoaccommodatelargenumbersofmigrants,leading
to overcrowding.
● Infrastructure Strain: Increased migration puts pressure on social and economic infrastructure, causing
breakdowns in basic services such as water supply, sanitation, electricity, and waste management.
● Resource Depletion: Migration leads to the depletion of groundwater and illegal encroachment on
wetlands.
● Deforestation:Urban expansion results in deforestation around cities.
Pollution:Migration contributes to increased sound, air, and water pollution in urban areas.
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Geography
Chapter 03 : Oceanography
Lecture 02: Ocenography
Distribution of Water on Earth’s Surface
● The most amount is found in Ocean water - 97.25%
● Glaciers and Ice Caps - 2.05%
● Groundwater - 0.68%
● Lakes and Ponds - 0.01%
● Moisture in the soil - 0.005%
● Atmospheric moisture - 0.001%
● Rivers - 0.0001%
● Biospheric Moisture which is the moisture in plants and animals - 0.00004%
Earth is known as the Blue Planet due to this reason.
The Bottom Relief Of Oceans
● It consists of various parts:
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○ The Coast
○ Ocean/sea level
○ Continental Shelf
○ Continental Slope
○ Continental Rise
■ These are the continental margins
■ They are mostly Granitic in nature
○ Deep Sea Plains
○ Mid-Oceanic Ridges
○ Seamounts (Volcanic Peaks)
○ Guyots
○ Trenches
Continental Shelf
● These are submerged continental parts.
● The slope angle of their submergence is between 1 degree and 3 degrees.
● The slope is not very steep.
● The depth of the shelves varies, it may be as shallow as 30 m in some areas while in some areas it is as
deep as 600 m.
● The average width is 80 km (Subject to variation)
○ Some places have longer shelves (100-150 km) and some places have shorter ones.
○ It is the broadest and lengthiest on theSiberianCoast of the Arctic Ocean.
Significance
● The distance between the shelf break and the sea level is about 200 meters.
● Sunlight can reach or penetrate up to 200 meters in seawater.
○ This zone is called thePhotic Zone.
■ Marine plants and organisms make food through photosynthesis in this zone.
■ Here, the biodiversity is very high compared to the other regions.
■ We can find mangroves, coral reefs, and marine organisms like Shellfish and kelp Forests
among others in this region.
● Some physical features of nature are found only on the continental shelf, for instance,
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○ Delta
○ Estuary
● Most of the oil and natural gas resources are found in this region.
○ Ex: Bombay High Region in Mumbai, Krishna Godavari offshore, North Sea among others
● Marine Resources like sand, gravel, and metallic nodules are found here
● Fishing banks are also found here
○ Phytoplankton and zooplankton are among the organisms found.
○ The rate of Photosynthesis is also high in this region.
■ Ex: Doggers Bank in Western Europe and Grand Bank in Newfoundland in Canada
Continental Slope
● After the shelf break, a large submerged continental block is found this is called a continental slope.
● The slope angle is between 2-5 degrees but can reach up to 30 degrees.
● The depth generally is 200 meters - 3000 meters (3 km).
● It is free from sediments.
Submarine Canyon
● It is found on continental shelves and slopes.
● It is a small relief.
● It is a depression that appears very similar to canyons found on the land surface.
● It is formed mostly because of the erosion from turbidity currents.
● It is a narrow depression but we have to note that it is not a trench.
Continental Rise
● It is the end part of the continental slope which is generally not steep.
○ The width is not much.
● It is like a transition zone between the continental slope and the deep sea plains.
● It is mostly formed by the accumulation of terrigenous deposits.
○ These are deposits and sediments coming from continents.
Deep Sea Plains
● It is basaltic in nature.
● It expands due to mid-oceanic ridge divergence.
● It contracts due to subduction at trenches (Gets destroyed at subduction zone).
● These are generally flat but also have seamounts, guyots, and ridges.
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● A thin layer of marine sediments is found (Dead flora and fauna remains and meteor dust).
Minor features:
● Seamont/seamount -Submerged volcanic peaks mostlyassociated with the convergence of plates.
○ If they come above the level, they form archipelagos.
○ They are also associated with hotspots.
■ Ex: Emperor Seamount in the Pacific Ocean.
● Mid-Oceanic Ridges -They are formed at the divergenceof Plates also where the new plates are formed
○ Also, have a rift valley in between.
○ Ridges are also known as plateaus when they become flat from the top due to erosion.
● Trenches -A linear narrow valley-like depressionfound at the deep zone of subduction.
○ The deepest point is known as the ‘Deep’,
○ Ex: Mariana Trench (Challenger’s Deep).
● Guyot -These are erosional landforms. They are flatfrom the top with steep slopes.
○ These are formed when the volcanoes are eroded.
Coral Reefs
● Coral is a microscopic organism.
○ It is a short-lived organism.
● It is also known as Polyps
● The remains (Shell and Skeleton) are calcium-rich and the deposition of these remains forms coral reefs.
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○ The shape of the reefs is not defined.
○ These are colorful structures.
● Coral lives in a colony of lakhs and crores of Polyps.
● At the outer tissues of coral, the zooxanthellae are attached.
○ Zooxanthellae is an algae.
● Coral and zooxanthellae represent a symbiotic relationship also called a mutual relationship in which both
subjects are benefitted.
○ Zooxanthellae get protection from other organisms and corals get 60% of the food from the
zooxanthellae.
○ Zooxanthellae make their food through photosynthesis.
● Coral gets its colour from Zooxanthellae.
● Coral supports huge biodiversity and is also known as the tropical rainforest of the oceans.
Conditions required for the survival of Polyps
● Corals/Polyps are temperature sensitive.
○ They are intolerant to changes in temperature.
○ Ideally, they need 21-22 degree centigrade to thrive.
● Location -
○ Latitudinal location - 25 degrees north - 25 degrees south which are tropical waters.
○ Region - They are found in the Continental Shelf
■ They need sunlight for their growth.
■ They will be found up to a depth of 200 meters.
■ The corals need a stable flat base with a low slope gradient.
● The salinity of ocean water
○ The ideal condition is 27-30 parts per thousand.
● Ocean Currents and sea waves are good for coral growth and development as they bring food for them.
○ Hence, coral reefs are not found much in closed seas.
○ However, they grow in calm waters where cyclones and Tsunamis are less and temperature is not
changed frequently due to rainfall among others.
■ This is not the major condition as such.
● Corals are not found near the mouths of rivers especially where the deltas are formed due to the incoming
sediments.
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Geography
Chapter 03: Oceanography
Lecture 02: Temperature and salinity of ocean
Topics from Human Geography
Population
● The world’s population is more than 8 billion people.
● Top 2 contributing nations:
○ India
○ China
● Asia has the highest population among the continents of the world.
○ The Indian subcontinent, China, and Southeast Asia comprise the highest concentration of
population in the world.
● India’s land share in the world is 2.4% whereas its population share is approximately 18%.
○ This indicates that there is extreme pressure on the resources of the land.
○ In comparison to the USA which has 7.5% of the surface area and the population is only 4.5%.
Distribution of Population in India
● The distribution of the population in India is highly uneven with zonal variations.
● It is affected by various factors like:
○ Nature of soil
■ Fertile or Infertile nature of the soil.
○ Terrain
■ Difficult Terrain - Harsh living conditions hence low population
■ Simple Terrain - High concentration of population
○ Climate
■ A moderate climate attracts more people
■ Arid regions have low population concentration
■ Hilly areas that have low temperatures have less population concentration
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■ Regions with heavy rainfall like Meghalaya have less population concentration
○ Water availability
■ Rivers, lakes, and oases become the cradles of civilization and attract more population
○ Altitude
■ The height of the place matters, as people do not prefer to live in high-altitude places
○ Literacy rate
■ There is often a high population in regions with less literacy
○ Historical factors like wars and civilizations also contribute to the same.
○ Apart from these factors the following factors also matter:
■ Availability of mineral resources. Ex: Jharkhand and Odisha
■ Availability of efficient transportation. Ex: Prayagraj
■ Industrialization. Ex: IT Sector in Bengaluru
■ Agricultural Settelements.
■ Religious and cultural centers.
■ Famous tourist destinations.
Physical Area of India
● High concentration of population
○ Great plains of North India
○ Coastal Plains
○ Deltas
● Low concentration of population
○ Arid Areas like Deserts
○ Evergreen forests
○ Hilly areas
Reasons for high population size
● Historical Events
○ Initial agricultural settlements (Neolithic age) attracted many people like how they did across
the world.
○ India is a land of great civilizations and empires across both north and south India.
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■ We have had an urbanized society since the Indus Valley Civilisation which attracts more
people.
● Influence of Asiatic Society and its characteristics
■ Meta son preference/Male child preference
■ Dominance of patriarchal society
■ Illiteracy rates
■ The dominance of rural societies
■ Agrarian society and focus on subsistence farming
● This led to the creation of a vicious cycle of poverty due to an increase in the
labor force and a decrease in wages
● Various key events
○ War, famine, drought, floods, shortage of healthcare facilities, absence of transport, epidemics.
○ This led to the creation of a tendency to have more children
■ Increase in birth rate as the death rate was higher.
○ Post-independence, we got better healthcare facilities with better education among others due to
more awareness.
■ Increase in birth rate and decrease in death rate.
Top 5 states with a maximum population (Census 2011)
● Uttar Pradesh
● Maharashtra
● Bihar
● West Bengal
● Madhya Pradesh
Top 5 states with the least population (Census 2011)
● Sikkim
● Mizoram
● Arunachal Pradesh
● Goa
● Nagaland
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Density of population
● It is the number of people per square kilometer area.
● The average density of the population of India is 382 people per sq km.
● Delhi which is a union territory has the maximum population density of 11,320 people per sq km.
● Among the states, it is in Bihar at 1106 people per sq km.
○ Followed by West Bengal at 1028 people per sq km.
● Minimum population density is in Ladakh at 2.8 people per sq km.
○ Among the states, is Arunachal Pradesh with 17 people per sq km.
● It is generally assumed that high population density will exert more pressure on the resources and vice
versa.
○ However, we have seen that in arid areas, the population density is low, and the land has low
fertility. Hence the assumption can be misleading and could be discretionary to each place.
● We can also witness, that the highly urbanized areas can sustain more than 10,000 people/sq km area.
○ Ex, in Seoul in South Korea the population density is 41,000 per sq km area and in Monaco is
about 48000 people.
● A better way to understand this is to study the physiological density and agricultural density.
○ The former means the number of people per unit of arable land.
○ The latter means the number of farmers per unit of arable land.
● A higher physiological density means we are closer to the carrying capacity of land.
Oceanography
Coral Reefs
Types of Coral Reefs
● Fringing Reefs
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○ It is found very close to the coastline.
○ The slope of coral reefs towards the sea is steep and towards the land/coast is gradual.
○ The surface of the reef is irregular and not flat.
○ The gap between a coral reef and the coast has shallow lagoons.
○ It is known as Boat Channel.
■ Ex: Southern Florida Coast, Island coasts of Malaysia.
○ Sometimes there are no lagoons.
● Barrier Reefs
○ It is away from the coastline
but is parallel to the coastline.
○ These are the biggest forms of
the reef.
○ They act as a barrier to the sea
waves.
○ These are elongated in shape.
○ The slope towards the sea is steep.
○ They form lagoons.
■ Ex: Great Barrier Reef of Australia which is the world’s longest and largest coral reef.
○ They are never attached to the coast.
● Atoll
○ It is circular in nature.
○ It appears like a horseshoe or a
ring.
○ In the center of the reef, a
shallow water lagoon is formed.
● It developed around the coast of sinking
islands or circular-shaped sinking
platforms.
● It is a unique feature and is not found everywhere.
○ Ex: Funafuti Atoll, Fiji Atoll in the Pacific Ocean.
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● Coral Bleaching
○ In simple words, the coral becomes colorless or white.
○ This is due to global warming or an increase in the temperature, this phenomenon has increased in
the last 3 decades.
○ Corals are temperature sensitive and hence they react.
○ The zooxanthellae start to release toxic elements in this situation.
■ Corals remove the zooxanthellae from their tissues and hence lose their color.
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Geography
Chapter 03: Oceanography
03: Temperature and salinity of ocean (Part 02)
Lecture
Population from Human Geography Continued(Contnd)
Different Population Growth Theories
● Malthusian Theory by Thomas Malthus
● Marxian Theory by Karl Marx
● Demographic transition model
The Malthusian Theory
● Thomas Malthus was a British economist.
● He proposed his concept/theory in the 1790s.
● He wrote the book ‘Essays on the Principles of Population’ in 1798.
● The population explosion, overcrowding, urbanization, and the Industrial Revolution in England formed the
background of this book.
● He proposed that large population is a problem for the society.
○ Earth has limited agricultural land and the population grows rapidly OR man multiplies rapidly.
● However, the ability of land to provide sustenance is limited.
● The ability of a man to multiply and procreate is far more than the ability to grow food.
○ In the future, there will be a food shortage
■ The production will get limited
■ This will lead to poverty, unemployment, wars, and conflicts among others
■ Natural disasters like famine, floods, and others will be greater in number
● These are positive checks according to Malthus
● Malthus believes that Man is a biological being and is driven by biological instincts.
○ Hence, he has two biological urges:
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■ Desire for Sex
■ Desire for Food
○ Malthus provided that if the man gets food easily and has a secure life then he will indulge in
sex and would increase the population size.
His Views on Poor Population
● He believed that the poor should not be given easy and free food.
● He believed that if this was done, the poor population would indulge in sex and increase population size.
● He said that the poor have to be engaged in labor-productive work.
● Or the poor labor class would multiply like animals if given the comfort of food and safety.
His Views On The Rich Population
● The rich population was considerably a small group and comprised of people like educationists, learned
people, industrialists, and others.
● Malthus said that they control their population size by vices and immoralities.
○ These include contraceptives, celibacy, and restraints among others.
○ They also indulge in homosexuality and adultery.
○ These are the negative checks that control the population.
We can understand that the Malthusian Theory was capitalistic in nature.
Marxian Theory
● It was given by Karl Marx.
○ It is a communist interpretation of poverty and population growth.
○ It stems from his works which includeDas Kapital and Communist Manifesto.
● It was a political-economic theory.
● Marx believed that capitalism and capitalist people were the major reasons for poverty and population
growth in society.
● Marx did not give a population theory as such rather he tried to explain the economic model and relate
it with population growth and poverty.
● According to him, in a capitalist society, there are‘Haves’ and ‘Have Nots’.
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○ Haves are those who are rich and possess land, capital, and proper wages among others.
■ They are owners of modes of production.
○ Have Nots do not possess the above but are the poor and labor-class people.
○ There is a class divide and the existence of private property.
○ He referred to these as twin evils of the society.
● Marx put forward that the objective of the rich capitalists is to accumulate wealth/profit or in simple
words, a capitalist is a profit maximiser.
○ He does so by reducing wages and introducing machinery also by exploitative working conditions.
● On the contrary, the labor class tries to compensate and increase its family income by introducing more
working hands.
○ When the labor wages are reduced, the labor class suffers from low income.
○ Due to this, he will introduce more working hands by giving birth and increasing family size.
○ This leads to the growth of the population.
○ This will create surplus labor or we can say that the supply of labor will be more than the
demand of labor.
○ This will lead to further fall in wages and create a vicious cycle of poverty and population
growth.
● He further provided that will lead to the rich becoming richer and the poor becoming poorer.
● This will create a huge difference between the two and there will be a point where the society will
witness a revolt.
● Post this revolt the difference will be resolved between the two classes.
Demographic Transition Model (1940s - 1960s)
● It was given by Thompson.
● It was later modified by a few other scholars.
● It is based on their experience of European nations.
● This model relied on statistical data on the birth rate and death rate of European countries over the
centuries.
● Therefore this is more scientific and unlike other interpretations.
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Explained:
● Stage 1
○ In the primitive stage, both the birth date and death rate are high.
○ It is 40/1000.
○ This is because of epidemics, famines, tribal wars, and natural disasters among others.
○ The population growth is low.
■ Today, no country in the world is in this stage except a few tribal pockets.
■ India was in this stage before the 1921 census.
The Age-Sex Pyramid
● The bottom is broader which means the high birth rate.
● The height of the pyramid is less which means the death rate is high.
● The pyramid tapers rapidly at the top.
● Less height means less life expectancy.
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Stage 2: Early Expansion Stage
● The birth rate remained high.
○ It is because having a large family became the norm and tradition is also a part of the culture.
○ Culture cannot be changed overnight. It is a gradual process.
○ As of today, many developing countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America fall under this stage.
○ India was in this stage from 1921 to 2001.
● Death rate begins to fall - Reached less than 30/1000.
○ This is due to the improvement in the quality of life.
○ The Industrial Revolution in England gave better life, amenities, and better jobs.
○ The social conditions got better with better food due to the
agricultural revolution in Europe.
○ Better transportation and connectivity were available.
○ Better healthcare facilities were given to the people.
The Age-Sex Pyramid
● The base was broader which meant a high birth rate.
● Taller pyramid as the birth rate reduced and this height does not taper
much.
● This was also due to the male preference.
Stage 3: Late Expanding Age
● Population growth remains high although the birth rate starts to decline.
● The death rate is almost bottomed out.
● The birth rate declined as it is an aspirational society.
● The society was characterized by slipping back into poverty.
● The nuclear family idea increased.
● Children were seen as liabilities.
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● Urbanized culture increased.
● Many developing countries have transited into this phase/stage today.
● India entered the same in 2001
The Age-Sex Pyramid
● The pyramid is barrel-shaped and is tall as well.
● The birth rate has declined.
Stage 4: Post-Industrialisation/Mature Stage
● The death rate is very low between 10-15/1000.
● The birth rate is also on similar lines.
● The population growth rate is also low.
● It can also be seen that in some classes it is negative.
● The total fertility rate is less than 2.
● The life expectancy is high.
The Age-Sex Pyramid
● This is an inverted shaped pyramid.
● It is tall with a broad top and narrow bottom.
● Japan, Germany, and South Korea are witnessing this as the old population is
really high.
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Geography
Chapter 03: Oceanography
04: Temperature and salinity of ocean (Part 03)
Lecture
Temperature of the ocean water
● 80% of the solar radiation/insolation received by the earth’s surface is absorbed by the ocean water.
● In fact, 10% of the ocean water (top layer) has more heat than the heat of the entire atmosphere.
● The temperature of the ocean water is not uniform, it varies horizontally from latitude and longitude and
vertically.
Factors affecting the distribution of temperature of the ocean water
● Latitude
○ The surface temperature of ocean water differs from the poles to the equator.
○ Low temperature in poles (slating sunrays).
○ Equator and tropics - High temperature (perpendicular sunrays).
● Prevailing winds
○ Onshore winds
■ That blows from sea towards land and brings warm water towards the coast.
○ Offshore winds
■ That blows from land towards sea and are responsible for upwelling.
● Unequal distribution of land and water
○ Northern hemisphere: There is more landmass and land will heat the water through conduction.
Hence the temperature of ocean water is warmer.
○ Southern hemisphere: There is less landmass and hence the cooling will be more through
conduction. Therefore the temperature of ocean will be less.
● Evaporation Rate:
○ It is not uniform and it varies from latitude to latitude.
○ Ex: Evaporation at equator is high and hence the clouds are more. This causes more rainfall and
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hence temperature of at the equator is not maximum.
● Ocean Currents:
○ Warm ocean currents: Increases the temperature of polar regions.
○ Cold ocean currents: Decreases the temperature of tropical regions.
● Local Factors:
○ Mid Oceanic Ridges - Volcanic Eruptions: Temperature increseas
○ Cyclonic rainfall - Temperatue falls
○ Fog/clouds - Insolation decreases and the temperature decreases
Distribution of temperature of ocean
● Horizontal distribution
○ The tropics have more temperature.
○ It reduced polewards.
○ Temperature at equator is moderate.
○ Tempreature of surface water at lower latitudes (0-30 degrees) is 26 degree centigrade generally.
○ In the Northern hemisphere the average temperature is 19.4 degree centigrade.
○ The average annual temperature is more at north atlantic ocean.
○ In the souther hemisphere the average temperature is 16.1 degree centigrade.
● Vertical distrbiution
○ Surface water has maximum temperature.
○ With depth the temperature reduces generally, however at poles, the temperature increases upto a
certain depth.
○ The photic receives good amount of sunlight.
○ It penetrates upto the depth of 200 mtrs in water.
○ It means the temperature of this layer would be almost same.
○ In aphotic zone, there is no sunlight.
○ 80% if ocean volume is below the thermocline.
○ The max density of water is at 4 degree centigrade.
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Salinity of ocean water
● It is the amount or percentage of dissolves salts in the water.
● It is epxressed in parts per thousand which is gms/1000 gms.
● The standard salinity of ocean water is is 35 parts per thousand.
○ If its less than this, we can say that the salinity is less.
○ If its more, we say that the salinity is higher.
Composition of salts in ocean water
● Sodium chloride - Maximum (2.6%)
● Magnesium chloride
● Magnesium Sulphate
● Calcium Sulphate
● Potassium chloride
● Potassium bromide
● Other salts
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What is the source of salinity?
● It is basically the rock salts from land that lead to salinity.
● The agents of transportation to the sea include:
○ River
○ Rain water
○ Groundwater
○ Glaciers
○ Sea waves
● Volcanic lava is also a source
● Marine life
● Cosmic dust
○ These are minor sources with land being the major source.
● The salinity stays there as there is no exit through evaporation and the salts are dissolved left behind.
Determinants of the salinity of ocean
● Evaporation
○ Generally, higher evaporation means higher salinity.
○ Highest evaporation is recorded at the tropic of cancer where we can also find the Red Sea and
the persian gulf.
● Tempreature is directly related to salinity
○ Higher temperature means higher salinity and vice versa.
○ Tropics have highest salinity.
● Precipitation
○ More rainfall means more freshwater and decrease in salinity
○ In equator salinity is lower than the tropics
● Influx of fresh river water
○ At the mouths of rivers, the salinity is lower.
● Ice formation
○ When the ice melts, the salinity decreases.
● Ocean currents
○ When ocean currents bring warm water, evaporation increases and the salinity increases.
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○ When there is upwelling, there is cold water, evaporation decreases and the salinity decreases..
○ They are also responsible for affecting the salinity of coastal waters.
○ Salinity of red sea is laess than that of Persian Gulf.
● Closed water body or open water body
○ In open water body, the mixing of water through waves or ocean currents is more.
■ The salinity will be moderate.
○ In closed on tropical water body located at the tropics, the temperature will be high and salinity
will also be high
○ Saline water is unable to mix further. Hence there is higher salinity.
■ For ex, Red Sea and Mediterranean Sea.
○ In sub polar close water, the temperature is less and hence the salinity is also less.
○ Since there is no mixing of water, the salinity will remain low. Ex, Hudson Bay.
Some Facts
Salinity at tropic of cancer os 36 parts per thousand.
Salinity above normal
● Red Sea - 39-41
● Mediteerrnean - 39
● Persian Gulf - 38
Salinity at normal rates
● Carribean sea
● Gulf of Mexico (Partially closed and is at tropics but the Mississipi river outflows into it)
● Gulf of california
● Yellow sea
Salinity below normal
● Arctic Ocean due to melting of ice
● Souther ocean
● Baltic Sea
● Black Sea
Vertical distribution of salinity
● The salinity of ocean water decreases with depth.
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● Tropics have higher salinity at surface due to higher evaporation.
● At the equator, due to rainfall the salinity is low.
● As we come down, the water temperature reduces and hence the salinity is less.
● At the poles, the salinity is very low at the surface.
○ The salinity increases as we go below.
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Geography
Chapter 03: Oceanography
Lecture 05: Ocean Currents and Indian
Physiography
Ocean Currents
● Ocean currents refer to the movement of largemassesofoceanwaterinrelativelyfixed,
consistentdirections.Thesecurrentsgenerallymaintainthesamepatternyear-round,with
an exception in the northern part of the Indian Ocean, where the direction changes
seasonally due to the influence of monsoon winds.
Ocean currents are different from sea waves and tides:
● Sea Waves: These are oscillatory movements of water, created by the frictional drag of
wind on the water's surface. Water in waves moves up and down but does not move
forward or backward significantly. Waves are characterized by the liftinganddroppingof
water, with gravity pulling the water back down after it's lifted by wind.
● Tides:TidesarecausedbythegravitationalattractionbetweentheEarth,moon,andsun.
Thisattractioncauseswatertoriseandfallcyclically,leadingtohighandlowtides.Tides
result in a regular rise and fall of sea levels, not a directional movement of water like
currents.
Origin Of Ocean Currents
● Ocean currentsareprimarilydrivenbyprevailingwindsthatpushwateralongtheocean’s
surface, initiating directional flows. However, several additional factors contribute to the
formation and movement of these currents, creating complex circulation patterns:
● Temperature: Variations in temperature affect water volume. Warmer water expands,
increasing sea level in warmer areas, which creates a gradient where water moves from
high to low levels, influencing current direction.
● Density: Water densityaffectsverticalmovement,resultinginupwellinganddownwelling.
Denserwatersinks,whilelessdensewaterrises.Temperatureandsalinityarekeytothis
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density difference, with colder, saltier water being denser and sinking below warmer,
fresher water.
● Salinity: Salinity directly influences density, as more saline water is denser and sinks,
contributing to the vertical circulation of currents. Regions with lower salinity have less
dense water that tends to rise or stay near the surface.
● Evaporation: Increased evaporation decreases sea level locally, creating a level difference
that can influence surface water flow toward areas with lower sea levels, reinforcing or
altering current directions.
Factors Resposonsible For Its Direction
Thedirectionofoceancurrentsisinfluencedbyseveralkeyfactorsthatshapetheirpathsacross
the ocean’s surface and depths:
● Coriolis Force: This force, caused by the Earth’s rotation, deflects moving water to the
right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. This
deflection alters the natural path of currents, causing them to flow in circular patterns,
known as gyres.
● ConfigurationofCoastlines:Whenoceancurrentsencountercoastlines,theyareredirected,
leading to changesindirection.Forinstance,acurrentflowingtowardalandmasswillbe
deflected along the coastline, shaping regional current patterns.
● Bottom Topographic Relief: Features on the ocean floor, such as mid-ocean ridges,
underwater mountains, and trenches, influence the direction of currents. For example,
mid-ocean ridges can block and redirect currents, creating variations in flow patterns at
different depths.
Types Of Surface Ocean Currents
Surface ocean currents can be broadly categorized into warm ocean currents and cold ocean
currents, each with distinct characteristics and climatic impacts:
Warm Ocean Currents:
● Origin: These currents typically originate in equatorial or tropical regions, where solar
heating warms the water.
● Direction:They flow from the equator toward the poles.
● Effect: Warmcurrentsraisethetemperatureofcoastalregionstheyflowpast,creatinga
positive thermal anomaly (higher than average temperatures). They tend to increase
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humidity and bring rainfall to adjacent coastal areas due to the added warmth and
moisture they carry.
● Examples: The Gulf Stream intheNorthAtlanticandtheKuroshioCurrentintheNorth
Pacific.
Cold Ocean Currents:
● Origin: Thesecurrentsusuallyoriginatenearthepolesorfromregionsofupwelling,where
cold, deep water rises to the surface.
● Direction:They flow from polar regions or areas ofupwelling toward the equator.
● Effect: Cold currents create a negative thermal anomaly (lower than average
temperatures) along the coastlines theypass,contributingtodrynessintheseregionsby
reducing humidity and inhibiting rainfall.
● Examples: The California Current along the western coast of North America and the
Humboldt Current off the coast of South America.
Upwelling and Downwelling
● Ocean currentsplayasignificantroleintheprocessesofupwellinganddownwelling,both
ofwhichareessentialfornutrientcyclingandmarinebiodiversity.Upwellingoccurswhen
deep, cold, nutrient-rich water rises to the ocean’s surface, typically along coastlines.
● This process is driven by winds that push surface water away from the coast, allowing
colder, nutrient-laden water from the depths to replace it.
● Upwellingcommonlyoccursalongthewestcoastsofcontinents,suchasCalifornia,Peru,
andNamibia,supportingrichmarineecosystemsduetotheinfluxofnutrientsthatsustain
diverse marine life.
● In contrast, downwelling occurs when surface water is forced downward, often due to
winds pushing surface water toward the coast. This downward movement sends
oxygen-richsurfacewaterintodeeperpartsoftheocean,benefitingdeep-seaecosystems
by increasing oxygen availability in these regions.
Ocean currents are further classified by their positions along basin boundaries:
● West Boundary Cold Currents (Cold Currents): These cold currents flow along the
westernboundariesofoceanbasins,movingcoldpolarwaterstowardtheequator.Examples
includetheCaliforniaCurrentandthePeruorHumboldtCurrent,whichbringcolderwater
from higher latitudes toward the equatorial regions.
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● EastBoundaryWarmCurrents(WarmCurrents):Flowingalongtheeasternboundariesof
oceanbasins,thesewarmcurrentsmoveequatorialwaterspoleward.Notableeastboundary
warm currents include the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic and the Kuroshio Current in the
Pacific, both of which transport warm waters from equatorial regions toward higher
latitudes.
Oceanic Currents In Atlantic Ocean
● The North Equatorial Current of the Atlantic and the South Equatorial Current both
originateduetotheinfluenceoftradewinds.TheSouthEquatorialCurrentencountersthe
CapeofSãoRoque,whereitbifurcatesintotwobranches:oneflowsnorthwardwhilethe
other flows southward.
● The northern branch of the South Equatorial Current merges with the North Equatorial
Current, moving towards the north of the Antilles Islands, and is referred to as the
Antilles Current.
● AsthiscurrententerstheGulfofMexico,itturnsintotheFloridaCurrentuponreaching
theFloridaStrait.ContinuingalongtheeasterncoastoftheUnitedStates,ittransforms
into theGulf Stream.
● Upon reaching approximately 45degreeslatitude,theGulfStreamturnseastwarddueto
the Coriolis force and the westerlies, traveling towards the western coast of Europe,
where it becomes theNorth Atlantic Drift.
● When this current hits the Norwegian coast, it changes into the Norwegian Current,
which plays a crucial role in keeping the coast warm.
● The Norwegian Current extends further and takes a U-turn, flowing along Greenland to
become thecold East Greenland Current.
● Meanwhile,theNorthAtlanticDrift,whileprogressingtowardsEurope,turnssouthwardand
flowsalongthecoastoftheCanaryIslands,formingtheCanaryCurrent,acoldcurrent
responsible for contributing to the aridity of theSahara Desert.
● Along the coast of Labrador, a cold current known as the Labrador Current travels
southward, impacting the local climate. The southern branch of the South Equatorial
Current is known as the Brazilian Current, which furtherturnsintotheSouthAtlantic
Drift.
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● A branch of this drift moves upward due to the Coriolis force and flows along theeast
coastofAfrica,becomingtheBenguelaCurrent.Thiscurrentcontributestotheformation
of theNamibandKalahari deserts.
● In the region between the east coast of South America,particularlyArgentina,andthe
Falkland Islands, a cold current called the Falkland Current flows. In the Antarctic
Ocean, a permanent current called the West Wind Drift, also known as the Antarctic
Cold Current, travels from east to west.
● Additionally,therearewarmcounter-equatorialcurrents,whicharesubsurfacecurrentsin
theAtlantic,referredtoastheGuineaCurrent,andinthePacific,knownastheCromwell
Current. These currents are caused by downwelling and are significant inthecontextof
climate phenomena such asEl Niño.
Warm Currents In North Hemisphere
● North equatorial current
● Carribean Current
● Antilles Current
● Florida Current
● Gulf Stream North Atlantic Drift
● Norwegean Current
Warm Currents In South Hemisphere
● South Atlantic Current
● Brazilian Current
● South Atlantic Current
Cold Currents In North Hemisphere
● Labroador Current
● East Greenland Current
● Canary Current
Cold Currents In South Hemisphere
● Benguela Current (West Coast Of Africa)
● West Wind Drift
● Folkland Current (East Coast Of Argentina)
Concept Of Sargasso Sea
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● TheSargassoSeaisuniqueasitistheonlyseawithoutlandboundaries,distinguishingit
fromotherseastypicallyborderedbylandononeormoresides.Namedaftertheseaweed
known as Sargassum, this area is characterized by the abundance of this floating
vegetation, which plays a crucial role in its ecology.
● The formationoftheSargassoSeaislargelyattributedtothegyrecirculationcreatedby
the motion and direction of ocean currents in the North Atlantic. In the center of this
gyre,thewaterremainsnotablycalm,creatingatranquilareareferredtoastheSargasso
Sea, where the effects of surrounding currents are minimized.
● These calm waters, particularly in the Northern Hemisphere, provide ideal growth
conditions for Sargassum seaweed, allowing it to flourish.
● Thisseaweedisoftenreferredtoasthe"GoldenRainforestoftheSea,"anicknamethat
underscores its ecological significanceandthediversemarinelifeitsupports,servingasa
habitat for various organisms. The Sargasso Sea thus stands out not only for its
geographical uniqueness but also for its vital role in marine ecology.
Ocean Currents In Pacific Ocean
● In the Pacific Ocean, the Pacific North Equatorial Current flows westward and, upon
reaching theeastcoastofAsia,splitsintotwobranches:theTsushimaCurrentandthe
Kuroshio Current.
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● TheKuroshioCurrentflowsnortheastwardandeventuallybecomestheNorthPacificDrift
as it approaches North America. This drift then bifurcates, with one branch moving
towardsAlaskaandformingtheAlaskanCurrent,whiletheotherbranchheadssouthward
to become theCalifornia Current.
● TheCaliforniaCurrentisacoldcurrentandisresponsiblefortheformationofaridregions
such as the Arizona, Mojave, Sonoran, and Chihuahua deserts.Extendingfurthernorth,
the Alaskan Current gives rise to theAleutian Current.
● In the southern hemisphere, the Pacific South Equatorial Current flows westward and,
upon reaching the east coast of Australia, becomes the East Australian Current. As it
continues southward, it transforms into theSouthPacific Drift.
● This drift eventually flows along the coast of Peru and becomes known asthePeruvian
CurrentorHumboldtCurrent.TheHumboldtCurrentisacoldcurrentthatcontributesto
the arid conditions of theAtacama Desertin SouthAmerica.
● Another significant current, the Oyashio Current, flows along the coast of Japan. The
point where the cold Oyashio Current meets the warm Kuroshio Current is particularly
favorable for fisheries, creating an area of high marine productivity.
● Additionally,aregionsimilartotheSargassoSeaisknowntoforminpartsofthePacific
Ocean, characterized by calm waters and dense seaweedpresence.Thisecosysteminthe
Pacific resembles the Atlantic’s Sargasso Sea, further enhancing the biodiversity of the
ocean currents.
Oceanic Currents In The Indian Ocean
● IntheIndianOcean,theSouthEquatorialCurrentflowswestwardand,uponreachingthe
Africancoast,movesalongitastheMozambiqueCurrent.NearMadagascar,thiscurrent
isreferredtoastheMadagascarCurrent,whichcontinueswestwardintothemainpartof
the Indian Ocean as theSouth Indian Ocean Drift.
● On the west coast of Australia, the West Australian Cold Current flows northward,
bringingcoolerwatersandcontributingtothearidconditionsoftheGibson,GreatSandy,
andVictoria deserts.
● Additionally,theWestWindDriftisamajoroceaniccurrentthatflowsfromeasttowest
intheSouthernOcean.Thesecurrentsplaysignificantrolesinshapingtheclimate,marine
life, and coastal conditions of the regions they influence.
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Geography
Chapter 04: Indian physiography
Lecture 01: Indian Physiography-1
Physiographic Divisions of India:
Coastal Plains:
● The coastal plains are located between the Arabian Sea
and the Western Ghats and between the Bay of Bengal
and Eastern Ghats.
● These arenewly formedphysiographic regions formed
bysand depositiondone by sea waves andalluvialand
laterite depositsby rivers.
● There are two types of coastal plains:
○ Western Coastal Plains
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○ Eastern Coastal Plains
Western Coastal Plains Eastern Coastal Plains
● Narrow because of the subsidence of the ● Broader
western part of the peninsular plateau. But the ● Only Emerged Coast.
continental shelf is broader because the ● Deltas of Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and
western coast subsided and submerged. Kaveri rivers.
● Submerged coast (Konkan and Kannara coast) ● Natural harbors are not present except for
and Emerged coast (Malabar coast). Visakhapatnam or Vizag (Andhra Pradesh) and
● Absence of deltas. The estuaries of Narmada Paradip (Odisha).Vizag port is the deepest
and Tapi are seen here. port in India.
● Natural harbours are present. Kochi port on
Wellington Island is the second deepest port of
India.
Western Coastal Plains:
● Kuchchh Coast:
○ It is inGujarat. It is amarshy land(soil is oversaturated).This region is characterized by saline
grasses and plants.Halophytes, plants that survivein saline water (Eg:Banni Grasslandis the
largest halophyte grassland in Asia)
are found in this region. It is also
called asWhite Desert.
○ Luni River, an inland river
disappears in the Rann of the
Kutchh region.
○ The region too doesn't have a lot of
vegetation. It is thebroadest coastof India.
NOTE:
Swamp:
● Woody plantsare present.
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● It is awetland.
● Productivity is moreas compared to Marsh.
Marsh:
● These aretreelessandherbaceous plantsare found.
● It is awetland.
● Productivity is lessas compared to Swamp.
● Kathiawar Coast:
○ It is inGujarat.The Kuchchh coast and Kathiawarcoast are separated by theGulf of Kuchchh.
Several hills like the Girnar Hills, Mandav Hills, and Gir Hills.
○ Gir National ParkinGir Hills(volcanic hills) isfamous forAsiatic lions.
● Gujarat Plains:
○ Gujarat has the longest coastline. It is inGujarat(Surat, Bharuch). It is separated from the
Kathiawar coast by theGulf of Khambhat which witnesses the highest water tide in India.
➢ In terms of the world,
the highest water tide
is witnessed in theGulf
of Tundy (eastern side
of Canada) across the
Atlantic Coast.
○ This is alava depositional
landform. Black soilis present
which is good forcotton and
sugarcane cultivation.
➢ This is a very prosperous region that has important locations like Ankaleshwar (a port also
known for its oil reserves), Surat, and Bahroch (both are important textile centre).
○ Narmada and Tapi estuariesare formed which inhabitAliabet Island(oil reserve) andKhadiavet
Islandrespectively.
● Konkan Coast:
○ It stretches over the coastal plains of Maharashtra from themouth of the Tapi River to Goa
(which becomes very narrow here), in between theWesternGhats and the Arabian Sea.
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○ This is asubmerged and extremely narrow coastwithno deltas.Agriculture is not very suitable
therefore most people areengaged in fishing.
○ The coast has New Mumbai Port, and Old Mumbai Port and issubdivided into:
➢ Palghar Coast in the northern part of Maharashtra
➢ Colaba/Alibaug Coast
➢ Ratnagiri Coast
➢ Raigarh Coast (mango cultivation)
➢ Malwa Coast (north of Goa)
➢ Goa Coast.
● Cannera/Kannada/Karnataka Coast:
○ It is the coast of Karnataka that stretches fromMangaloreto Goa andis anarrow and
submerged coast.
○ The Konkan Coast and the northern coast of Cannera is characterized by the presence of
laterite soil.
● Malabar/Kerala Coast:
○ It is comparatively broader than the Konkan and Cannera coasts and is famous forits
backwaters, known asKayals (brackish water).
➢ These are narrow water
bodies in a depressed zone
where the river water and
the seawater encroach
alternatively.
➢ Mostly it is a calm water
zone. For example.,Penna
Mada or Punna Mada Kayal
where theNehru Boat Race
Championship(Vallamkalli) is held every year.
○ It is anemergent coast, which is evidenced by thepresence of lagoons.
○ Neighbouring areas of backwaters are locally known asKuttanad which is a flat land lying below
the sea level (low land relief). These are the lowestpoints of India. They are marked byrice
cultivation.
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What do you understand by Submergent and Emerget Coastline?
● Emergent Coastlines:In Kerala, for example, the presenceof lagoons and sandbars is indicative of this
type of coastline, where land is gradually emerging from the sea. Kerala showcases emergent
characteristics like the lagoons and sandbars. A part of the Kathiawar coast is also emergent.
● Submergent Coastlines:The western coastal plainsof India are examples of submerged coastlines. These
coastlines tend to be more indented and irregular due to extensive erosion. Natural sea ports or natural
harbours are found on this coastline.
Eastern Coastal Plains:
● It starts from theSubarnarekha river mouth in Odishaand extends up toKanyakumari. River Kaveri also
flows through this plain. It is anemergent coastwhich is evidenced by the presence oflagoonsnamely:
● The Eastern Coastal Plains are examples of emergent coasts, with most of the ports being artificial. The
notable exceptions include:
○ Visakhapatnam- the deepest natural
port in Andhra Pradesh
○ Paradeepis located in Odisha.
○ Masulipatnam- another significant
port in the region
● Theadministrative namesof the Eastern
Coastal Plains given by Britishers include:
○ Carnatic Region:Between Cauvery and
Krishna River.
○ Northern Circar:Between Krishna and
Mahanadi rivers.
● The Kaveri River flows into the Bay of Bengal
through this region, contributing to the fertile
lands of Tamil Nadu.
● The delta is situated between the Bay of Bengal and the Tamil Hills ofVarshunad Hills, Javadi Hills,
Sirumalai, andShevroyHills, enhancing its agriculturalproductivity.
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● Thephysiographic divisionof Eastern Coastal
Plains includes:
○ Utkal/Odisha’s Coast:It is an extension
between Subarnarekha and Godavari
rivers and is the coastal plains of Orissa.
➢ The deltas of theMahanadi,
Baitarani,Brahmani,
Subarnarekha, andRishikulya
rivers are located in these
coastal plains.
➢ This region is also home to the
Bhitarkanika Mangrove Forest
andChilika Lake, which is a significant ecosystemwithin the coastal landscape.
○ Andhra Plains:TheAndhra Plains, also known as theKakinada Plains, are coastal plains located
between the Krishna and Godavari delta. This region is rich in oil and gas resources.
➢ Nestled between these deltas isKolleru
Lake, which initially was a lagoon but
later became enclosed by the expanding
deltas of the Krishna and Godavari
rivers.
➢ Today, Kolleru Lake is recognized as a
freshwater lake, playing an important
role in the local ecosystem.
○ Coromandel Coast:Between Krishna River and
Kanyakumari. The eastern Coastal Plains receivelessrainfallthan the Western Coastal Plains.
These coasts receivecyclonic rainfall.The CoromandelCoast mainly receives rainfall from
northeast monsoon winds (in winter).
● The plains are known forrice cultivation.The Krishna and Godavari delta weretarget regions for the
Green Revolution.
Islands of India:
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Lakshadweep Island:
● There are approximately36 coral reef islands, outof which10 are inhabited.They are completely of
coral origin.There arethree sets of island groups:
○ The northern set of islands is known asAmindivi Island.
○ The middle set of islands is known asLaccadive Island(Port Blair is located here).
○ The northern set of islands is known asMinicoy Island.
● Nine Degree Channelseparates the Laccadive and MinicoyIslands.Eight Degree Channelseparates
Minicoy and Maldives Island.
● Kavarattiis the capital situated in the Laccadiveisland group.Androth/Androitis the largest island.
Other sources considerMinicoyto be the largest island.
Andaman and Nicobar Islands:
● These were a result of the convergence of tectonic plates and are considered to be the extension of
the Eastern Himalayas. Coco Islandwas gifted to Myanmar,which in turn is gifted to China.
● Northern Andaman:
○ Coco Straitseparates Coco Island from Northern Andaman.
○ TheSaddle Peak (situated in North Andaman)is thehighest peak in Northern Andaman and
also Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
● Middle Andaman:
○ Barren Islandis the only active volcano in India.Narcondam Islandis a dormant volcano. Both
islands lie east of Middle Andaman.
○ Middle Andaman is thelargest island in India.
○ Mt. Diavoliis the highest peak.
● South Andaman:
○ Port Blair, the capital of Andaman and Nicobar Islands is situated here. TheCellular Jailis
present here.
○ Mt. Koyobis the highest peak.
● Little Andaman:
○ Duncan Passageis a water body that separates SouthAndaman from Little Andaman.
● Car Nicobar:
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○ Ten Degree Channelseparates Little Andaman from CarNicobar.
● Little Nicobar
● Great Nicobar:
○ Mt. Thuilleris the highest peak. It is also thesecond-highestpeakin the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands.
○ Indira Point (Pygmalion Point)is thesouthernmostpoint of India, which wassubmergedin
2004 during the Tsunami.
○ Six Degree Channelseparates Great Nicobar from SumatraIsland, Indonesia.
● There are approximately 572 islands. The famous islands include:
○ Ross Islandrenamed asNetaji Subhash Chandra BoseIsland
○ Neil Islandrenamed asShaheed Island
○ Havelock Islandrenamed asSwaraj Island
○ Important Peaks:Saddle Peak (highest peak) NorthAndaman, Mount Dioveli - Middle Andaman,
Mount Koyom - South Andaman, Mount Thuiller, the second highest peak is located in Great
Nicobar
● Sentinel Island, west of South Andaman, is inhabitedby theSentinelese tribe.The other tribes include
Jarwa and Shompen.
● Origin:
○ Some arecoral islands.Some islands are the resultofocean-continent collision.These are
Andean types of islands.
○ Some displayPseudo Volcanic FeatureslikeBaratangVolcano (Mud Volcano).
Some Other Islands of India
● Pamban Island is a part of the "Ram Setu" or Adam's Bridge. Rameshwaram, situated on this island, is
one of the sacred sites in India's "Char Dham" pilgrimage (for Lord Vishnu and Shiva).
○ The important Char Dham destinations are Badrinath in the North, Rameshwaram in the South,
Dwarka in the West, and Jagannath Puri in the East.
○ For Lord Shiva, India holds 4 Char Dham’s in Uttarakhand- Badrinath (Alakananda), Kedarnath
(mandakini), Yamunotri (Yamuna), and Gangotri (Bhagirathi).
○ Collectively, these sites are revered for their cultural and religious significance. Also, Ganga is
considered to be the holy river of India.
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Notable Islands of India
● New Moore Island:Itis a deltaic island located inthe Bay of Bengal, part of the Ganga-Brahmaputra
delta. It lies on the border between India and Bangladesh and has been a disputed territory. The island is
divided between the two countries, and the Indian portion of the island is now largely submerged.
● Abdul Kalam Island: Formerly known as "Wheeler Island,"it is situated offshore from Odisha's coast,
approximately 150 kilometers from Bhubaneswar in the Bay of Bengal. This island is under the control of
DRDO (Defence Research and Development Organisation) and is a site for missile testing.
● Sriharikota Island:It is known for housing the IndianSpace Research Organisation's (ISRO) launch
facilities for GSLV and PSLV rockets.
● Wellington Island: It is located in Kerala, and isanother significant island, serving as a vital port and
naval base. Kochi is located here.
● Majuli Island: Situated in the Brahmaputra River inAssam, it is the largest river island in the world. It is
renowned for its rich cultural heritage and vibrant Assamese traditions.
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Geography
Chapter 04: Indian physiography
Lecture 02: Physiography of India (Part 2)
Northern Mountains of India:
● Himalayas are the youngest and the loftiest mountains of the world. The central axis
extensionoftheHimalayasisfromtheIndusGorgeintheWesttonearNangaParbatto
the BrahmaputraGorgenearNamchaBarwaPeakintheEast.Thetotaldistanceextends
to about 2400 km in an ARC SHAPE.
Different Ranges and Regions of the Himalayas:
Trans-Himalayas:
● The Trans-Himalayas are a region that is located north of the Great Himalayas. The
Trans-Himalayas are a significant geological formation resulting from the
oceanic-continental collision between the Tethys Sea Plate and the Tibetan Plate.
○ This region provides evidence of volcanic activity, including three notable lava
eruptionsthatoccurredinKargilandDras,bothlocatedinLadakh.Threerangeslie
in Ladakh and Jammu Kashmir:
➢ Karakoram Range: Kara means black. This range lies in Ladakh and
includes some of the highest peaks in India and Karakoram, with K2
(Mount Godwin-Austin). The peak is located in Pakistan-administered
Kashmir (POK).
➢ ZanskarRange:TheZanskarRangeisconsideredthesouthernextensionof
the Trans-Himalayas and is known for its breathtaking landscapes and
challenging terrains.
➢ Ladakh Range: The Ladakh plateau is located on the NE side of the
Trans-Himalayas.
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Geo-Political Location of the Himalayas
● ThesouthernslopesoftheHimalayasarecharacterizedbysteeperterrain,whichsupports
more vegetation andahigherpopulationdensitycomparedtothenorthernslopesbecause
the southern slope is sun-facing.
● The Himalayas act as a natural barrier between Central Asia and Southern Asia.
● The range significantly affects climatic conditions, creating a divide in precipitation
patterns between Central Asia and South Asia, however, theydonotactasawatershed
divide., originate in the Himalayas and are vital for the region's agriculture and economy.
● They are responsible for theculturaldividehavingdiversefoodsources,languages,rituals,
traditions, and customs.
Indian Himalayan Region (IHR)
● Union Territories:
○ Jammu and Kashmir (J&K)
○ Ladakh
● States:
○ Uttarakhand
○ Himachal Pradesh
○ Sikkim
○ Arunachal Pradesh
○ Assam
○ West Bengal
○ Nagaland
○ Manipur
○ Tripura
○ Meghalaya
Physiographical Division of India:
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Division of Himalayas:
● Trans-Himalayas:
● It includes:
○ Karakoram
○ Ladakh → Kailash
○ Zanskar/Zaskar
● These were formed before the Himalayas. Theywereformedbytheendofthe
Cretaceous Period (60-65 MYA).
● Himalayas:
● It includes:
○ Greater Himalayas/Inner Himalayas/Himadri
○ Middle Himalayas/Lesser Himalayas/Himachal
○ Outer Himalayas/Shiwaliks
● Purvanchal or Eastern Himalayas:
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● It includes:
○ Patkai Bum
○ Naga Hills
○ Manipur Hills
○ Mizo Hills
○ Lushai Hills
**TheWesternpartoftheHimalayasrisesgraduallywherewhereastheEasternpartofthe
Himalayas rises abruptly.
Formation Of Northern Mountains:
● ItstartedwiththecollisionoftheTethysSeaplateandtheEurasianplate.TethysSea
plate subducted under the Eurasian plate resulting in the formation of Andean Type of
Fold Mountains(formation of volcanic arcs). Example:Trans-Himalayas.
● ThePeninsularblockcollidedwiththeEurasianblockandresultedintheformationofthe
HimalayanTypeofFoldMountainsi.e.themarinesedimentsgotupliftedtoformthefold
mountains.
Did you Know?
Stages of Upliftment:
● Late Cretaceous Period → Formation of Trans-Himalayas
● Oligocene Period (55-50 MYA) → Formation of Greater Himalayas: The sediments
between the Peninsular block and the Eurasian block uplifted. The continentsalsogot
uplifted as they were light granitic in nature.
○ During this upliftment process, the crushed crystalline parts of continents also
gotuplifted.Therefore,theGreaterHimalayashavecrystallinerocksinpatches.
Thus Archean Granite and Gneiss rocks, Dravidian rocks, andDharwarrocks
are found here.
○ TheDravidianrocksarefoundintheKashmirregionhavingcoaldeposits(the
best type of coal →Anthracite coal). The GreaterHimalayas are continuous.
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● MiocenePeriod→FormationofMiddleHimalayas:Thisperiodofupliftmentofmarine
sedimentshasexperiencedheavycompressionforunknownreasons.Becauseofthis,the
Middle Himalayas are characterized byIsoclinal folds,Recumbent folds, Nappes, etc.
○ These Himalayas are not continuous and are broken. These include Pir Panjal,
Dhauladhar, Nag Tibba, Mussoorie, Mahabharat, and Darjeeling. Thus,
Trans-Himalayas,GreaterHimalayas,andMiddleHimalayasareformedduetothe
upliftment of marine sediments.
● Pliocene and Pleistocene Period → Formation of Shiwaliks: They are formed bythe
upliftment of fluvial sediment deposits deposited at the foothills of the Middle
Himalayas.
Why Western Himalayas are lower in height and broader than Eastern Himalayas?
● During the collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates, the Indian plate was moving in a
counter-clockwise direction. As a result, the Western Himalayas were formed.
● The continuous counter-clockwise movement developed the Eastern Himalayas. The rotation
of the Indian plate did not stop and because of this, the western part opened up. As a
result, theWestern Himalayas (uplifted sediment)got slumped and became broader.
● This slumping alsoreduced the heightof the WesternHimalayas. Thecompression at the
Eastern Himalayas continuedand because of this, thealtitudeof these parts kept on
increasing. And because of excessive compression, the Eastern Himalayas arenarrower.
Comparison Between Western and Eastern Himalayas:
Western Himalayas Eastern Himalayas
● Includes the Himalayas of ● Includes the Himalayas of Eastern
Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, Arunachal
Ladakh and Kashmir. Pradesh, and Eastern Tibet.
● They are relativelylower in height. ● They are relatively higher in height.
Example: Mt Everest, Makalu,
Dhaulagiri, Kanchenjunga, Namcha
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Barwa.
● They are relatively broader ● They are relatively narrower
(approximately 400 km). (approximately 150 km).
● Theyarerelativelycoolerbecausethey ● They are relatively warmer because
lie towards the poles. they lie towards the equator.
● There is a gradual increase in ● There is a sudden increase in
height/altitude(step-like increase). height/altitude.
● Snowline (it is a line above which ● The snowline is higher.
there is a permanent cover of ice) is
lower.
● Mostly coniferous trees are found of ● Mostly teak and mixed forest
pine variety- chir, deodar, juniper, vegetation is seen (sal andoak).Only
spruce, and fir. at the higher elevation, we can see
coniferous forests.
What is Snowline?
● A snowline is a line above which there is permanent snow. Snowline is higher in the
eastern Himalayas as compared to the western Himalayas.
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Comparison Between Ranges of Himalayas:
Basis Greater Himalayas Middle Himalayas Shiwaliks
Average Elevation 6000 km 3000-4000 km 1.5 km
Fold Type Simple Folds-Hogback Complex Folds - Simple Folds -
Slopes Overturned Folds, Hogback Slopes
Nappe, Recumbent
Folds
Range Type Continuous range from Fragmented andbroken More or less
Nanga Parbat to ranges. continuous but notas
Namcha Barwa and are extended as the
loftiest of all ranges Greater Himalayas.
Thesearebrokenafter
Darjeeling Hills and
again reappear at
Assam.
Sediment Type Formed due to the Marine sediment Formed out of the
upliftment of the formation. upliftment of river
marine sediments and sediments.
continental upliftment.
Many rivers originate
from these ranges-
Ganga from the
Gangotri Glacier and
Yamuna from the
Yamunotri Glacier.
Crystal Formation Central Crystalline Axis No crystals. No crystals.
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(CCA) i.e. crystals are
found.
Period of FormedintheOligocene Formed in the Miocene Formed in the
Formation period (oldest). period. Pliocene and
Pleistocene period
(latest).
Climate Conditions Maximum number of Pleasant climatic and Relatively warmer
glaciers and extreme environmental regions.
environmental conditions
conditions.
Type of Vegetation Snow-covered regions Alpine Meadows or Tropical and
and Tundra type of BugyalsinUttarakhand, Subtropical vegetation.
climate. Kashmir (Tourist Sal and Teak are the
destinations). main trees.
Temperate vegetation
(Conifers).
Types of rocks Threetypesofrocksare It has metamorphosed
found found in the greater rocks
Himalayas- Crystalline,
metamorphosed, and
sedimentary rocks.
Crystalline rocks are
crushed crystal rocks
that gotupliftedinthe
process of convergence
(crushing of plate
margins).
Major peaks in the Greater Himalayas:
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● Mount Everest:Known as Sagarmatha in Nepal, it is the highest peak in the world.
● Kanchenjunga:Located on the border of Sikkim andNepal, it is the third-highest
mountain.
● Makalu:The fifth highest peak, situated southeastof Mount Everest.
● Dhaulagiri:The seventh highest mountain, locatedin Nepal.
● Annapurna:Renowned for its challenging climbs, itis part of the Annapurna massif in
Nepal.
Ranges in the Middle Himalayas:
● Pir Panjal: The longest and most important range inthe Middle Himalayas, located in
Kashmir. Srinagar is located between the Greater and the Middle Himalayas.
● Dhauladhar: Also known as the Outer Himalayas, this range is located in Himachal
Pradesh. Shimla, Dalhousie, and Dharamsala (Mcleodganj) are located here.
● Mussoorie Range: Located in Uttarakhand (Nainital,Almora, and Ranikhet are located in
this range).
● Nag Tibba: Located in Uttarakhand. In Nepal, it isreferred to as the Mahabharata range.
● Darjeeling Range:It is located in West Bengal.
Duns:
● Duns areflat or irregular parts between the MiddleHimalayas and Shiwaliks.They are
formed due to theremains of sedimentary depositiondone by rivers in the past. They
are formed by the sedimentary deposits of temporary
lakes formed by the lakes.
● Formation:
○ Since the initial rate of upliftment was more than
the rate of erosion done by the river, the river water
got blocked by the Shiwaliks and as a result,
temporary lakeswere formed.
○ Eventually, the Shiwaliks were cut down by the
rivers, and the waters of temporary lakes were
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drained. However, the heavier sediments settled at the base forming a flat valley
between Shiwaliks and the Lesser Himalayas.
○ This feature is known as Duns. In the east, Duns are referred to as the Duars.
● Example:Kotli Dun, Pathankot Dun, Kotowar Dun, Dehradun(largest dun).
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Geography
Chapter 04: Indian physiography
Lecture 03: Indian Physiography-part 03
Himalaya:
● The Himalayas extend from NangaParbatinthe
west to Namcha Barwa in the east.
● The Indus River enters India through a syntaxial
bendinthewest,andsimilarly,theBrahmaputra
RiverentersIndiathroughasyntaxialbendinthe
east.
● The Brahmaputra River forms the Dihang Gorge
as it flows into India.
● In Arunachal Pradesh, the eastern extension of
the Himalayas is known as the Purvanchal Hills.
● The Purvanchal Hills include ranges like the Patkai Bum, Naga Hills, Manipur Hills, and
Lushai Hills.
● These hills extend into Myanmar, where they are known as the Arakan Yoma ranges.
Division of himalayas on the basis of river basin:
● PunjabHimalaya:Thissectionliesbetween
the Indus River and the Satluj River.
● Kumaon Himalaya: This section extends
from the Satluj River to the Kali River.
● Nepal Himalaya: This portion is located
between the Kali River and the Teesta River.
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● Assam Himalaya:This section spans from the Teesta Riverto the Brahmaputra River.
Some important glaciers:
● Siachen Glacier:Located in Ladakh, it is 76 km long.
● Hispar Glacier:Situated in Ladakh.
● Biafo Glacier:Also found in Ladakh.
● Baltoro Glacier: Located in Ladakh.
● Chomolungma Glacier: Situated in Ladakh.
● Zemu Glacier: Located in Kanchenjunga in the GreaterHimalayas.
● Milam Glacier:Found in the Greater Himalayas.
● Chorabari Glacier:Located in Uttarakhand.
● Gangotri Glacier:Situated in Uttarakhand.
● Yamunotri Glacier: Located in Uttarakhand.
● Nanda Devi Glacier:Also found in Uttarakhand.
Major passes of himalayas and trans himalayas:
Passes are natural routes between mountain ranges that facilitate travel and trade across
mountainous terrain. Key passes in the Himalayas and Trans-Himalayas include:
● BanihalPass:LocatedinthePirPanjalrangeofJammuandKashmir,itconnectsJammu
and Srinagar. National Highway 44 (NH-44) runs through this pass, and the Jawahar
Tunnel, constructed in 1956, is also situated here.
● Lanak Pass:Situated in Aksai Chin, this pass connectsTibet with Ladakh.
● Nathu La Pass:Located in Sikkim, it links Gangtokwith Lhasa in Tibet.
● Jelep La Pass: Another important pass in Sikkim.
● Zoji La Pass: Situated in Ladakh, this pass connects Kargil, Leh, and Srinagar, with
National Highway 1 passing through it.
● LipulekhPass:LocatedatthejunctionofIndia,Nepal,andTibet,intheKumaonrangeof
the Greater Himalayas, it connectsTibetwithUttarakhand.TheroutefortheMansarovar
Yatra passes through this pass.
● BomdilaPass:SituatedinArunachalPradesh,itconnectsArunachalPradeshwithLhasain
Tibet.
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● Diphu Pass: Positioned at the tri-junction of India, China, and Myanmar, it provides a
shorter route between Arunachal Pradesh and Mandalay in Myanmar
● Karakoram Pass: Located in the Karakoram range, this is the highest pass, connecting
India and China, and is situated in Ladakh, though it is currently controlled by China.
● BurzilPass:FoundintheGreaterHimalayas,thispassconnectsGilgit,Srinagar,andKargil.
It links Pakistan-occupied Kashmir with the Deosai Plains in Ladakh.
● RohtangPass:LocatedintheGreaterHimalayasinHimachalPradesh,itconnectsManali
to Leh.
● Shipki La Pass: Situated in Himachal Pradesh, this pass connects the state with Tibet.
The Satluj River enters India through this pass.
● Tuju Pass: Located in Manipur, it connects Manipurwith Myanmar.
● Other Passes by region:
○ JammuandKashmir/Ladakh:NotablepassesincludeKarakoramPass,KhardungLa
Pass, Lanak Pass, Pir Panjal Pass, Banihal Pass, and Burzil Pass.
○ Himachal Pradesh: Key passes include Rohtang, BaraLacha, and Shipki La.
○ Uttarakhand: Important passes include Mana Pass, Lipulekh,and Niti La.
Important valley of india:
● Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh:
○ Markha Valley:Located in Ladakh, this valley is hometo Hemis National Park.
○ KashmirValley:SituatedbetweentheGreaterHimalayasandtheMiddleHimalayas
(Pir Panjal).
○ Nubra Valley: Formed by the Nubra River, which originates from the Siachen
Glacier, this valley is located in Ladakh.
○ Suru Valley:Found in Kargil, Ladakh.
○ GalwanValley:LocatedbetweenIndiaandChina,thisvalleyisformedbythelocal
Galwan River.
● Himachal Pradesh:
○ Kinnaur Valley:A picturesque valley in Himachal Pradesh.
○ Lahaul-Spiti Valley:Known for its rugged terrainand stunning landscapes.
○ Parbati Valley:This valley leads to Manikaran, famousfor its hot springs.
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○ Sangla Valley:Also known as Baspa Valley, it is renowned for its scenic beauty.
○ MalnaValley:OftenreferredtoasChotaUnanorLittleGreece,knownforitslush
landscapes.
○ KulluValley:KnownastheValleyofGods,itisfamousforitstemplesandscenic
beauty.
○ ChambaValley:ThisvalleyincludespopulartouristdestinationslikeDalhousieand
Khajjiar.
○ Kangra Valley: Home to Dharamshala, this valley is knownforitsnaturalbeauty
and cultural significance.
● Uttarakhand:
○ Doon Valley: Located in Dehradun, this valley is known for itslushgreeneryand
pleasant climate.
○ Nelang Valley:Situated in Uttarkashi, it is partof the Gangotri National Park.
○ Dharma Valley:Formed by the Dharma River, it is knownfor its natural beauty.
○ Valley of Flowers: Located near Joshimath, this UNESCO-recognized site was
included in its biosphere network in 2004, known for its diverse flora.
● West Bengal:
○ Nyora Valley: Situated in Kalimpong, near Darjeeling, it is known for its scenic
beauty.
● Sikkim:
○ ChumbiValley:LocatedattheborderofChina,Nepal,andBhutan,itisknownfor
its stunning landscapes.
○ YumthangValley:Famousforitshotspringsandrhododendrontrees,thisvalleyis
a popular tourist destination.
● Nagaland:
○ JukuValley:DuringSeptemberandOctober,thisvalleyiscoveredwithwildflowers,
creating a stunning visual spectacle.
● Andhra Pradesh:
○ ArakuValley:SurroundedbyvariouspeakssuchasSunkrimettaPeak,Chitomogondi
Peak, Galikonda Peak, and Raktikonda Peak, this valley is known for its natural
beauty.
● Tamil Nadu:
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○ Kambam Valley: Located near the ThekkadyHillsandKodaikanalHills(itincludes
attractions such as the artificial Kodaikanal Lake )and Varshanadu Hills.
● Kerala:
○ Silent Valley: Situated in the Nilgiri Hills, this valley is located in the Palakkad
district and is known for its rich biodiversity.
Northern Plain of India:
● The Northern Plain of India extends approximately 3,200 kilometers in length.
● Its width is greater in the west and narrows towards the east.
● This plain stretches from the Indus River in the west to the Brahmaputra River in the
east.
Physiographic Division (Geomorphological Division of Indian Plains):
● The Northern Plain is formed by sediment deposited in the foredeeps created by the
alluvial plains of North India.
● There are four types of geomorphic plains in this region:
●
○ Bhabhar:
■ This plain is broader in the western part of India and is found at the
foothills of the Shivaliks.
■ Small rivers disappear into the ground as they flow beneath the rocky
deposits in this region.
■ Due to its rocky nature, the Bhabar plain is not suitable for cultivation.
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■ ItextendsfromtheSatlujRivertotheTeestaRiver,withawidthofabout
8 to 9 kilometers.
○ Terai:
■ This is a marshy land located south of the Bhabar plain.
■ In this region, rivers re-emerge on the surface.
■ The Terai is broader in the eastern parts and derives its name from the
word "tar," meaning wet.
■ The river beds and channels are not well developed or deep, causing the
river water to spill out and create damp areas.
■ The Terai region is favorable for forest growth, with notable forest cover
foundinareassuchasPilibhitTigerReserve,Lakhimpur,andDudhwaTiger
Reserve.
○ Bangar:
■ Thisistheolderalluvialplain,characterizedbyahigherelevationandmore
clayey soil compared to Khadar.
■ It is less fertile than Khadar but is often used for agriculture due to its
relative stability.
○ Khadar:
■ This is the newer alluvial plain, composed of recent deposits of fertile soil.
■ Itislocatedclosertoriverbedsandismoresuitableforcultivationbecause
of its fertility.
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Geography
Chapter 04: Indian Physiography
Chapter 04: India’s Location
Bhangar:
● The Bhangar is the older alluvium along the river beds forming terraces higher than the
floodplain.
● It is of a more clayey composition and is generally dark-colored.
● A few meters below the terrace of the bhangar are beds of lime nodules known as kankar.
● It is not suitable for cultivation because over some time this region has lost its minerals.
● The floods do no replacement.
● It is found in Upper gangatic planes which include Haryana, western up, and Rohilkhand
region.
● ‘The Barind plains’in the deltaic region of Bengaland the ‘Bhur formations’ in the
middle Ganga and Yamuna doab are regional variations of Bhangar.
Khadar:
● The Khadar comprises newer alluvium and forms the flood plains along the river banks.
● The banks are flooded almost every year and a new layer of alluvium is deposited with
every flood.
● This makes them the most fertile soils of the Ganges.
● They are sandy clays and loams, more dry and leached, less calcareous and carbonaceous
(less kankar).
● Each year, river floods deposit a new layer(minerals) of alluvium, making these soils the
most fertile along the Ganges.
Regional division of Northern Plains:
● Punjab Plain:
○ This plain is formed by five important rivers of the Indus system.
○ The plain is primarily made up of ‘doabs’ —the land between two rivers.
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○ It consists of sind sagar doab, chaj doab, Rachna doab, bari doab, and bis doab.
These five doab in totality are known as Punjab.
○ It is in India as well as Pakistan.
○ Punjab plains of India are mostly bist diab and some parts of bari doab.
○ The extension of the Punjab plains is Sutlaj and Yamuna plains.
○ The depositional process by the rivers has united these doabs giving a homogenous
appearance.
○ Punjab means "(The Land of) Five Waters" referring to the following rivers: the
Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej, and Beas.
○ To the south of the Satluj river, there is the Malwa plain of Punjab.
○ The area between the Ghaggar and the Yamuna rivers lies in Haryana and is often
termed the ‘Haryana Tract’. It acts as a water divide between the Yamuna and the
Satluj rivers.
○ The northern part of this plain [Shiwalik Hills] has been intensively eroded by
numerous streams calledChos. This has led toenormousgullying [Arid
Landforms].Chos are found in Hushiyarpur in Punjab.
● Rajasthan Plain:
○ Lies West of Aravallis and include the Marusthali and Bagar region of Rajasthan.
○ It has several dry beds of rivers like Saraswati and Drishadvati.
○ At present, the Rajasthan Plains are a desert covered with longitudinal and
transverse dunes and Barchans.
○ The western part of Rajasthan plains is occupied by Thar or the Great Indian
Desert.
○ This plain is an undulating plain [wave-like] whose average elevation is about 300
meters above mean sea level.
○ The desert region is called Marusthali and forms a greater part of the Marwar plain.
○ It has a few outcrops of gneisses, schists, and granites which proves that
geologically it is a part of the Peninsular Plateau.
○ It shares the boundary with the southern Punjab plains(Malawa Plains). Gangangar
district of Rajasthan is a prosperous region.
○ The eastern side of Rajasthan is known as the bagar plains which is a semi-arid
region.
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○ It is only at the surface that it looks like an aggradational plain.
○ In general, the eastern part of the Marusthali is rocky while its western part is
covered by shifting dunes locally known as Dhrians.
○ The eastern part of the Thar Desert(Jaisalmer and Bikaner) up to the Aravali
Range is a semi-arid plain known as Rajasthan Bagar.
○ It is drained by many short seasonal streams originating from the Aravali and
supports agriculture in some patches of fertile tracts.
○ Luni is an important seasonal stream that flows into Rann of Kuchchh. The tract
north of the Luni is known as thali or sandy plain.
Fluvial arid landforms:
● Fluvial arid landforms are features shaped by the interaction of water and arid (dry)
environments, particularly in regions where precipitation is scarce, and evaporation
exceeds rainfall.
● Pediment:Pediments are erosional and flat surfaces. They are formed due to the
erosion done by the seasonal rivers. The slope of the angle is gradual. They are found
at the foothills of the arid zone.
● Bajada:These are flat plains found in arid regions. Bajada is a depositional feature.
● Playa:Plya are saline lakes that are found within water during the rainy season.
Sambhar Lake is the largest inland saline lake in India.
● Bolson:Bolson is a topographic arid region that has flat pediments, bajada, and also
saline playa.
● Ganga Plain:
○ This is thelargest unit of the Great Plain of IndiastretchingfromDelhi to
Kolkata (about 3.75 lakh sq km).
○ The Ganga along with its large number of tributaries originating in the Himalayas
have brought large quantities of alluvium from the mountains and deposited it here
to build this extensive plain.
○ The peninsularrivers such asChambal, Betwa, Ken, Son, etc.joining the Ganga
river system have also contributed to the formation of this plain.
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○ The generalslope of the entire plain is to the east and southeast.
○ Rivers flow sluggishly in the lower sections of the Ganges as a result of which the
area is marked by local prominences such as levees, bluffs, oxbow lakes, marshes,
ravines, etc.
○ Almost all the rivers keep on shifting their courses making this area prone to
frequent floods.
○ The Kosi Riveris very notorious in this respect. It has long been called the‘Sorrow
of Bihar’.
Features of Indo-Gangatic Plains:
● Upper Ganga Plains:
○ ItincludesGangaYamunaDoab,partsofRohillakhand(drainedbyGanga),andthe
Awadh division drained by Saryu River (includes Lucknow, Kanpur, and Unno
district).
○ Traversed by the Yamuna, Ganga, Kali, and Sharda rivers.
○ It has the presence of Bhur (Undulating Aolean Sandy deposits).
○ Sugarcane, Rice, Wheat, Maize, and Pulses are grown here.
○ Green Revolution has been a great success in this region.
● Middle Gangatic Plains:
○ It includes Central and Eastern UP and Bihar Plains.
○ It has thick alluvial deposits.
○ It includes cultural and historicalregionssuchasSaranPlain,MagadhPlains,and
Mithila Plain.
○ The region is featureless and homogenous where monotony is broken by levees,
Dhus, Taals, Jala, and Chuars (marshy lands)
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○ It is a fertile region which has features like khadar plains.
○ Plains near Patna are called jalla and near mokama is called taal. These are
depressed parts filled with river surplus water.
○ It has a low gradient. The rivers often change course. Example: Gandak and Kosi.
● Lower Gangetic Plains:
○ It extends from Patna in the west totheFootofDarjeelingintheNorthtothe
Bay of Bengal in the South.
○ It includes flood plains and deltaic plains.
○ It is very fertile in nature and receives a good amount of rainfall.
○ This region is known for paddy cultivation.
○ The soil of this region is saturated. It has depressed land with water called Beel.
○ The upper part of the delta isknown as chars.
○ The Eastern part is drained by the Teesta, Jaldhakia, and Sankosh rivers.
○ ItisformedbythedownwarpingofthepartofpeninsularIndiabetweenRajmahal
hills and the Meghalaya plateau and subsequent sedimentationbytheGangaand
Brahmaputra rivers.
○ MeghalayaregionisseparatedfromthepeninsularregionbytheMaldaGaporGaro
Rajmahal Gap.
● Brahmaputra Plain:
○ It is a narrow fertile tract found between Shiwaliks and Meghalaya plateau.
○ ThisisalsoknownastheBrahmaputraValleyorAssamValleyorAssamPlainas
most of the Brahmaputra valley is situated in Assam.
○ Its western boundary is formed by the Indo-Bangladesh border as well as the
boundary of the lower Ganga Plain.
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○ Its eastern boundary is formed by Purvanchal hills.
○ ItisanaggradationalplainbuiltupbythedepositionalworkoftheBrahmaputra
and its tributaries.
○ The innumerable tributariesoftheBrahmaputrarivercomingfromthenorthform
several alluvial fans.
○ Consequently,thetributariesbranchoutinmanychannelsgivingbirthtotheriver
meandering leading to theformation of Bill and Oxbowlakes.
○ Brahmaputra forms braided channels in this plain.
○ There are large marshy tracts in this area.
○ The alluvial fansformedbythecoarsealluvialdebrishaveledtotheformation
of terai or semi-terai conditions.
○ theseplainsaremarkedbyriverislandsor[Link]:Majuliisthelargest
riverine island.
○ It is the most productive part.Rice and Jute arethe main crops grown here.
● Peninsular Plateau:
○ It extends from Gir Hills in the west to Rajamhal Hillsintheeastandinnorth
Delhi to Cardamom Hill in the south.
○ Most of the peninsular rivers flow westto
east due slope of the plain.
○ The Peninsular Plateau is the oldest
landforms of India. It is themoststable
landmass.
○ It is mostly granitic or metamorphosed
granitic rocks.
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○ It is a highly stable block composed mostly of the Archaean gneisses and
schists.
○ Ithasbeenastableshieldthathasgonethroughlittlestructuralchangessinceits
formation.
○ It is subjected to erosion such as in Aravali hills.
○ Peninsular Plateau is an aggregation of several smaller plateaus, hill ranges
interspersed with river basins and valleys.
○ Lack of groundwater due to the availability of hard surfaces.
○ Theaverageheightoftheplateauis600-900metersabovesealevel(variesfrom
region to region). Height decreases from west to east.
○ The slope of the peninsular plateau is from south to north.
PW Web/App:[Link]
Geography
Chapter 04: Indian Physiography
Lecture 05: India’s Location (Part 02)
Peninsular Plateau:
● Features of the Peninsular Plateau:
○ The peninsular plateau is also called as‘Plateauof Plateaus’
○ Peninsular plateau is divided into,
■ Central Highland
● Aravali Range
● Malwa Plateau
● Mewar Plateau
● Vindhyan Ranges
● Satpura Range
● Budelkhand
● Baghelkhand Range
■ Eastern Plateaus
● Chhotanagpur Plateau
● Dandakaranya Plateau
● Chattisgarh Basin
■ Deccan Plateau
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● Deccan lava trap
● Karnataka Plateau
● Andhra Plateau
■ North-Eastern plateau
● Meghalaya Plateau
■ Ghats of India
● Western Ghat
● Eastern Ghat
Central Highlands:
● Aravali Range:
○ It is aligned in thenortheast to south-west direction.
○ They run for about800 km between Delhi and Palanpurin Gujarat.
○ They are one of the world'soldest(veryold)foldmountainsandtheoldestin
India.
○ After its formation in the Archaean Era, its summits
werenourishingglaciersandseveralsummitswereprobably
higher than the present-day Himalayas.
○ Now they are relict (remnants after severe weathering
and erosion sincemillionsofyears)oftheworld'soldest
mountain formed due to folding(Archaean Era).
○ They continue up to Haridwarburiedunderthealluvium
of Ganga Plains.
○ TherangeisconspicuousinRajasthan(acontinuousrangesouthofAjmer,where
it rises to 900 meters) but becomes less distinct in
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HaryanaandDelhi(characterizedbyachainofdetachedanddiscontinuousridges
beyond Ajmer).
○ According to some geographers, one Branch of the Aravalis extends to the
Lakshadweep Archipelago through the Gulf of Khambhat and the other into
Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.
○ Its general elevation is only 400-600 meters, with few hills well above 1,000
meters.
○ At the southwest extremity, the range rises to over 1,000 meters. Here, Mt.Abu
(1,158meters),asmallhillyblock,isseparatedfromthemainrangebythevalley
of theBanas.
○ GuruSikhar(1,722m),thehighestpeakoftheAravaliRangeissituatedinMt.
Abu.
○ Pipli Ghat, Dewair, and Desuripassallowmovementthroughtherangebyroads
and railways.
○ The Luni river is the main river here.
● Malwa Plateau:
○ This region was exposed to the eruptions from the reunion hotspot.
○ The Malwa Plateau roughly forms a triangle based on the Vindhyan Hills,
boundedbytheAravaliRangeinthewest,MadhyaBharatPathartothenorth,
and Bundelkhand to the east.
○ This plateau has two systems of drainage; one towards the ArabianSea(The
Narmada, the Tapi, and the Mahi), and theothertowardstheBayofBengal
(Chambal and Betwa, joining the Yamuna).
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○ In the north, it is drained by the Chambal and many of its right-bank
tributariesliketheKali,theSindh,andtheParbati.Italsoincludestheupper
courses of the Sindh, the Ken, and the Betwa.
○ It is composed of extensive lava flow and iscovered with black soil.
○ Thegeneralslopeistowardsthenorth[decreasesfrom600metersinthesouth
to less than 500 meters in the north]
○ This is a rolling plateau dissected by rivers.
○ The plateau is known as the‘Madauti Plateau’in Rajasthan.
● Marwar Plateau or Mewar Plateau
○ ItistheplateauofeasternRajasthan.[Marwarplainis
to the west of Aravalis whereas Marwar plateauisto
the east].
○ The average elevation is 250-500 m above sea level
and it slopes down eastwards.
○ It is made up ofsandstone,shales,andlimestonesof
the Vindhayan period.
○ TheBanasRiver,alongwithitstributaries[BerachRiver,KhariRivers]originatein
theAravali Range and flow towards the north intothe Chambal River.
○ The erosional activity of these rivers makes the plateau top appear like a rolling
plain.
■ Rolling Plain: ‘Rolling plains’ arenotcompletelyflat:thereareslightrises
and falls in the landform.Ex: Prairies of the USA.
● Bundelkhand Upland:
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● ItisboundedbytheYamunaRivertothenorth,MadhyaBharatPathartothe
west, Vindhyan Scarplands to the east, Panna Ajaygarh Range to the
southeast, and Malwa Plateau to the south.
● It is the old dissected (divided by several deep valleys) upland of the
‘Bundelkhand gneiss’ comprising granite and gneiss. Red soil is found here.
There is a lack ofground water here.
● It is spread over five districts of Uttar Pradesh and four districts of Madhya
Pradesh.
● With its average elevation of 300-600 meters above sea level, this area slopes
down from theVindhyan Scarp toward the Yamuna River.
● The area is marked by a chain of hillocks (small hills) made of granite and
sandstone.
● The erosional work of the rivers flowing here has converted it intoanundulating
(wave-like surface) area and rendered it unfit for cultivation.
● StreamslikeBetwa,Dhasan,andKenflowthroughtheplateauandhavecreated
gorges, rapids, and waterfalls.
● Vindhyan Range:
● The Vindhyan Range, overlooking (have a
view of from above) the Narmada valley,
rises as an escarpment (a long, steep
slope at the edge of a plateau or
separating areas of land at different
heights) flanking (neighboring on one
side) the northern edge of the
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Narmada-Sontrough(theriftthroughwhichtheNarmada
river flows).
● It runs more or less parallel to theNarmadaValleyinan
east-westdirectionfromJobatinGujarattoSasaramin
Bihar for a distance of over 1,200 km.
● The general elevation of the Vindhyan Range is 300 to
650 meters.
● Most parts of the Vindhayan Range are composed of
horizontally bedded sedimentary rocks of the ancient
age.
● The Vindhyas continue eastwards as theBharner andKaimur hills.
● This range acts as a watershed between the Ganga system and the river
systems of south India.
● The riversChambal, Betwa, and Ken rise within 30km of the Narmada.
● Satpura Range:
○ Satpura range is aseries of seven mountains(‘Sat’= seven and ‘pura’ =
mountains)
○ It runs in aneast-west direction south of the Vindhyasand inbetween the
Narmada and the Tapi,roughly parallel to these rivers.
○ It stretches for a distance of about 900 km. The plateau has the drainage systems
of Narmada and Son
○ Parts of the Satpuras have been folded and upheaved. They are regarded as
structural uplift or 'horst'.
○ Dhupgarh (1,350 m)near Pachmarhi on Mahadev Hillsis the highest peak.
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○ Amarkantak, at 1,127 meters, is another significant peak.
○ Satpura acts as a water divide.
○ Satpuda is mainly made up of Granite and Basalt.
Eastern Plateaus:
● Chotanagpur Plateau:
○ Chotanagpur plateau represents the north-eastern projection of the Indian
Peninsula.
○ It lies mostly in Jharkhand, the northern part of Chhatisgarh, and the Purulia
district of West Bengal.
○ TheSon Riverflows in the northwest of the plateauand joins the Ganga.
○ The average elevation of the plateau is700 metersabove sea level.
○ This plateau iscomposed mainly of Gondwana rocks(containing coal deposits).
○ The plateau is drained by numerousriversandstreamsindifferentdirectionsand
presents a radial drainage pattern.
■ Rivers like the Damodar, the Subarnarekha, the North Koel, the South
Koel, and the Barkarhave developed extensive drainagebasins.
○ The Damodar River flows through the middle of this region in ariftvalleyfrom
westtoeast.HerearefoundtheGondwanacoalfieldswhichprovidethebulkof
coal in India.
○ NorthoftheDamodarriveristheHazaribaghplateauwithanaverageelevation
of600metersabovemeansealevel.Thisplateauhasisolatedhills.Itlookslikea
peneplain due to large-scale erosion.
○ The Ranchi Plateau to the south of the Damodar Valley rises to about 600
meters above mean sea level.
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○ Most of the surface is rolling where the city of Ranchi (661 meters) is located.
○ TheRajmahalHillsformingthenortheasternedgeoftheChotanagpurPlateauare
mostly made of basalt and are covered by lava flows (Basaltic Lava).
○ They run in a north-south direction and rise to an average elevation of 400
meters (the highestmountis567meters).Thesehillshavebeendissectedinto
separate plateaus.
● Chhattisgarh Basin:
○ The Chhattisgarh plain is the only plain worth the name in the Peninsular
plateau.
○ It is a saucer-shaped depressiondrained by the upperMahanadi.
○ The whole basin liesbetween the Maikala Range andthe Odisha hills.
○ The basin is laid with nearly horizontal beds of limestone and shales.
○ Thegeneralelevationoftheplainrangesfrom250mintheeastto330minthe
west.
○ This system has aGondwana rock system and thus isfamous for Coal.
○ Chhattisgarh Basin is a subsided part of the easternplateauwhichisdrainedby
the Mahanadi River and its tributaries like Ib River, Mand, Seonath, and Hasdo.
● Dandakaranya Plateau:
○ It is spread over Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Telangana, and
Odisha.
○ It is infamous forNaxal Activities
○ Bastar region is famous here for Tin production.
○ ThefamousriveristheIndravatiRiver(TributaryofGodavari).ChitrakootFallis
present on this river.
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○ It is a very eroded and irregular region and thus cultivation is complex here.
North-Eastern Plateaus:
● Meghalaya Plateau:
○ The peninsular plateau extends further east beyond the
Rajmahal hills toMeghalaya or the Shillong plateau.
○ Garo-Rajmahal Gapseparatesthisplateaufromthemain
block.
○ This gap was formed by down-faulting (normalfault:a
block of earth slides downwards). It was later filled by
sedimentsdeposited by the Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers.
○ The plateau is formed byArchaean quartzites, shales,and schists.
○ TheplateauslopesdowntoBrahmaputravalleyinthenorthandtheSurmaand
Meghna valleys in the south.
○ Its western boundary more or lesscoincides with theBangladesh border.
○ Thewestern,central,andeasternpartsoftheplateauareknownastheGaroHills
(900 meters), the Khasi-JaintiaHills(1,500meters),andtheMikirHills(700
meters).
○ Shillong (1,961 meters) is the highest point of the plateau.
○ It receives heavy rainfall due to the‘Funnel Effect’
○ Laterite soilis found here.
Deccan Plateau:
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● Deccan Lava Plateau:
○ It covers an area of aboutfive lakh sq km.
○ ItistriangularinshapeandisboundedbytheSatpuraand
theVindhyainthenorth,theMahadevandtheMaikalin
the northeast, the Western Ghats in the west, and the
Eastern Ghats in the east.
○ Itsaverage elevation is 600 meters.
○ It rises to 1000 meters in the south but dips to 500
meters in the north.
○ Itsgeneralslopeisfromwesttoeastwhichisindicatedbytheflowofitsmajor
rivers. It has steps like a slopeandthusmanywaterfallsemergehereduringthe
rainy season.
○ Rivers have further subdivided this plateau into a number of smaller plateaus.
● Karnataka Plateau:
● It is also known as theMysore Plateau.
● It has a dominance of Archean and Dharwar rock
formations.
● It lies to thesouth of the Maharashtra plateau.
● It is highly dissected by numerous rivers rising from
the Western Ghats. Example: Kaveri and
Tungabhadra rivers.
● Thegeneraltrendofthehillsiseitherparalleltothe
Western Ghats or across it.
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● The highest peak (1913 meters) is at Mulangiri in Baba Budan Hills in
Chikmagalur district.
● The plateau is divided into two parts calledMalnadand Maidan.
● MalnadinKannadameansthehillcountry.Itisdissectedintodeepvalleyscovered
with dense forests.
● TheMaidanon the other hand is formed of arollingplain with low granite hills.
● The plateau tapers between the Western Ghats and theEasternGhatsinthe
south and merges with theNiligiri hills there.
● Andhra Plateau:
○ Krishna Riveris situated here.
○ ThenorthernpartoftheKrishnaRiverisknownastheTelanganaPlateauandthe
Southern part is known as theRayalaseema Plateau.
○ Rayalaseema plateau has different ranges like Vellikonda, Palkonda, and Nalla Malai.
○ The northern partoftheTelanganaPlateauisrockywhereasthesouthernpartis
fertile.
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Geography
Chapter 04: Indian Physiography
Lecture 06: India’s Location (Part 03)
Western Ghats (or Sahyadris):
● They form the western edge of theDeccan tableland.
● TheyrunfromtheTapivalleytoalittleKanyakumarifora
distance of 1,600 km.
● TheWesternGhatsaresteep-sided,terraced,flat-topped
hills presentingasteppedtopographyfacingtheArabian
Sea coast.
○ This is due to the horizontally bedded lavas,
which on weathering, havegivenacharacteristic
‘landing stair aspect’ to the relief of this
mountain chain.
● The WesternGhatsabruptlyriseasasheerwalltoanaverageelevationof1,000meters
fromtheWesternCoastalPlainbuttheyslopegentlyontheireasternflankandhardly
appear to be a mountain when viewed from theDeccantableland.
● South of Malabar, the Nilgiris, Anamalai, etc. are present.
● Western Ghats are higher than Eastern Ghats
● Western ghats are continous whereas Eastern ghats are not continuos and are broken
because of rivers such as Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery, and Mahanadi.
● More rainfall is recieved in Western Ghats
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Divisions of Western Ghats:
1. Northern Section:
● The northern section of the Western Ghats from Tapi valley to a
little north of Goa is made of horizontal sheetsofDeccanlavas
(Deccan Traps).
● The average height of this section of the Ghats is 1,200 meters
above mean sea level.
● Kalsubai(1,646meters)nearIgatpuri,Salher(1,567meters)about
90 km north of Nashik, Mahabaleshwar (1,438 meters) and
Harishchandragad (1,424 meters) are important peaks.
● Thal ghat and Bhor ghat are important passes that provide passage by road and rail
between the Konkan Plains in the west and the Deccan Plateau in the east.
● Konkan coast:It extends throughout the Maharashtraand Goa coast.
● Malabar Coast:It extends through the Kerala and Karnataka coast.
2. Middle Sahyadri:
● The Middle Sahyadri runs from 16°N latitude up to Nilgiri hills.
● This part is made ofgranites and gneisses.
● This area is covered withdense forests.
● The western scarp is considerably dissected by headward erosion of the
west flowing streams.
3. Southern Section:
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● ThesouthernpartoftheWesternGhatsisseparatedfromthemainSahyadrirangeby
Palghat Gap [Palakkad Gap]. The high ranges terminate abruptly on eithersideofthis
gap.
● Palghat Gap is a rift valley. This gapisusedbyanumberofroadsandrailwaylinesto
connect the plains of Tamil Nadu with the coastal plain of Kerala.
● It is through this gap that moist-bearing clouds of the south-west monsoon can
penetrate some distance inland, bringing rain to the Mysore region.
● SouthofthePalghatGapthereisanintricatesystemofsteepandruggedslopesonboth
the eastern and western sides of the Ghats.
● Anaimudi is the highest peak in the whole of southern India.
● ThreerangesradiateindifferentdirectionsfromAnaimudi.TheserangesaretheAnaimalai
to the north,thePalanitothenorth-east,andtheCardamomHillsortheEalaimalaito
the south.
Eastern Ghats:
● The Eastern Ghats run parallel totheeastcoastofIndialeaving
broad plains between their base and the coast.
● It is a chain of broken and detached hills starting from the
Mahanadi in Odisha to the Vagai in Tamil Nadu. They almost
disappear between the Godavari and the Krishna.
● Theyneither have structural unity nor physiographiccontinuity.
● Eastern Ghatsexhibittruemountaincharacteronlyinthenorthern
part,betweentheMahanadiandtheGodavari.Thispartcomprises
theMaliya and the MadugulaKonda ranges.
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● Mahendra Giri(1,501 meters) is the tallest peak here.
● The Madugula Konda range. Jindhagada Peak in Araku
Valley, Arma Konda, Gali Konda and Sinkram Gutta are
important peaks.
● Between the Godavari and the Krishna rivers, the Eastern
GhatslosetheirhillycharacterandareoccupiedbyGondwana
formations.
● They reappear as more orlessacontinuoushillrangeinthe
CuddapahandKurnooldistrictsofAndhraPradeshwherethey
are called asNallamalai Range.
● The southern part of this range is called thePalkonda range.
● Tothesouth,thehillsandplateausattainverylowaltitudes;
only Javadi Hills and the Shevroy-Kalrayan Hills form two distinct features of 1,000
meters in elevation.
● Further south, the Eastern Ghats merge with the Western Ghats.
Origin and Types of Plateaus:
● Formation because of Downwarping and Upwarping.
● Note:Plateau is an elevated land with flat top withat least one steep slope.
● Because ofEpeirogenetic Upliftment.
● Because of the Upliftment ofadjacent fold mountains.
● Deposition of sand particles done by winds. They are called as‘Loess Plateau’
● Types of Plateaus:
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○ GlaciatedPlateaus:Theyarenotrealplateausbuttheyareformedasaresultof
modification of ‘Hill Peaks’.It is done by glaciers.
○ Volcanic Plateaus: Deposition of Basaltic lava over a long period of time forms
highland.Example: Deccan lava plateau.
○ Dome-Shaped Plateau:They are of dome shape.Example:Ozark Plateau of USA.
○ Continental Plateau:They are the largest type ofplateau
○ Aeolian Plateau:Example:Loess plateau of China andPotwar plateau of Pakistan.
○ Intermontane Plateau: Plateaus surrounded by Mountain ranges on either side.
Example:Tibetan Plateau, Mexican Plateau.
○ Piedmont Plateau: Plateau found on the foothills of the mountain ranges.
Example:Patagonia Plateau
Latitude and longitude:
Number of Latitudes:(181)
● The Earth is divided into 181 latitudes. These
include:
○ 90 latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere
ranging from 0° (Equator) to 90°N (North
Pole).
○ 90 latitudes in the Southern Hemisphere
ranging from 0° (Equator) to 90°S (South
Pole).
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○ 1 latitude at 0°, which is theEquatoritself.
Number of Latitudinal Lines: (179)
● The number oflatitudinal linesthat physically encircle the Earth is179. This is because:
○ The Equator (0°) is a complete line encircling the globe.
○ The latitudinal circles become progressively smaller as they approach the poles.
○ The 90°N (North Pole) and 90°S (South Pole) represent single points rather than
full circles; thus, they do not count as complete latitudinal lines.
Distance Between Two Latitudes:
● The distance between any two consecutive latitudes is approximately111 kilometers. This
value is derived from the circumference of the Earth, which measures around40,075 km
along the equator:
○ The Earth is divided into180 equal segmentsfrom 0° to 180°, making the distance
between each degree of latitude about111 km(40,075 km / 360° × 2).
Distance Variation Near the Equator:
● While theaverage distancebetween two latitudes is roughly 111 km, theactual distance
varies slightlydue to the Earth'soblate spheroidshape:
○ The Earth bulges at the equator and flattens at the poles. This shape makes the
distance between latitudinal lines at theequatorslightly lessthan 111 km.
○ The difference, however, is minor and typically ignored in general calculations
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Geography
Chapter 04: Indian Physiography
Lecture 07: India’s Location (Part 04)
Equator
● Latitude: The Equator is
located at0 degrees
latitude, serving as the
starting point for measuring
latitudes north and south.
● Divides the Earth: It
divides the Earth into two equal halves – theNorthern Hemisphereand theSouthern
Hemisphere.
● Climate Influence: Regions near the Equator experience atropical climatewith high
temperatures and heavy rainfall year-round due to constant sunlight.
● Countries it Passes Through: The Equator passes through13 countries, including:
○ South America: Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil
○ Africa: São Tomé and Príncipe, Gabon, Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic
of the Congo, Uganda, Kenya, Somalia
○ Asia: Maldives (atoll), Indonesia
○ Oceania: Kiribati (atoll)
● It passes through the mouth of the Amazon River.
● It cuts the Congo River twice.
● It passes through the ‘Victoria Lake.’
● The gravitational attraction is minimum at
the equator and maximum at the poles.
Tropic of Cancer:
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● Tropic of Cancer(231⁄2° N) in theNorthern Hemisphere.
● It passes through Asia, Africa, and Central America.
● It passes through water bodies like,
○ Indian Ocean
○ Pacific Ocean
○ Atlantic Ocean
● It passes through Nasir Lake in Egypt.
● It passes through India.
● Mahi River cuts it twice.
● The Tropic of Cancer passes through eight statesin India.
○ Gujarat (Jasdan)
○ Rajasthan (Kalinjarh)
○ Madhya Pradesh (Shajapur)
○ Chhattisgarh (Sonhat)
○ Jharkhand (Ranchi)
○ West- Bengal (Krishnanagar)
○ Tripura (Udaipur)
○ Mizoram (Champhai)
Tropic of Capricorn
● Tropic of Capricorn(231⁄2° S) in theSouthern Hemisphere.
● It passes through Australia, South America, and Africa.
● Note:OnlyAfricais the continent from which all three latitudes (Equator, Tropic of
Cancer, and Tropic of Capricorn) pass.
● Note: Brazilis the only country from where the tropic of Capricorn and Equator passes
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Arctic Circle:
● Arctic Circleat 661⁄2° in thenorth of the equator.
● It passes through ‘Great Bear Lake’ of Canada
● Iceland is situated south of theArctic Circle
● It passes through,
○ Norway
○ Sweden
○ Finland
○ Russia
○ the United States (Alaska)
○ Canada (Yukon, Northwest Territories, and Nunavut),
○ Denmark (Greenland)
Antarctic Circle:
● It passes through Antarctica.
Longitude:
● It's theangular distance east or west of the Prime Meridian.It is alsomeasured in
degrees.
● The longitudes varyfrom 0° to 180° eastward and westwardof thePrime Meridian.
(Also called meridian).
● Prime Meridian:This is the baseline to measure othervertical lines.
● Grid: Grid is the area between 2 longitudes and 2 latitudes.
● The distance betweenlongitudes decreases from theequator towards the poles
(Maximum at the equator).
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● The distance betweenlongitudes reaches zero at thepoles as the lines of meridian
converge at that point i.e. the degree of longitude decreases in length from the
equator to the pole.
● Two longitudes form a circle that cuts the earth into two halves.
● There are360 longitudes.
● Prime Meridian:
○ In 1884, it was decided to choose azero meridian, the one that passes through
the Royal Astronomical Observatory at Greenwich, near London,as aPrime
Meridian.
○ They have one very important function: They determine local time in relation to
G.M.T.,or Greenwich Mean Time, which is sometimesreferred to as World Time.
● To coverone degree longitude, the earth takes 4 minutes.
● Earth covers15 degrees in 60 minutes.
● Earth rotates fromwest to east.
● The eastern part witnesses the sunrise first.
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Indian Standard Time:
● The local time of places that are on different meridians is bound to differ.
● In India, for instance, there will be a difference of about 1 hour and 45 minutes in the
local times ofDwarka in Gujarat and Dibrugarh inAssam.
● In India, the longitude of 82° 30’Eis treated as the standard meridian. The local time at
this meridian is taken as the standard time for the whole country. It is known as the
Indian Standard Time (IST).
● States through whichIndian Standard Time (IST) passes areUttar Pradesh, Madhya
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and Andhra Pradesh.
● Note: Indian Standard Time (Meridian) cuts the Tropic of Cancer at Koriya in
Chhattisgarh.
● Therefore, we must add 82.5 degrees on Prime meridian time to get IST. 82.5 degrees
means82.5*4= 5 Hours 30 min.
International Date Line (IDL):
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● The International Date Line is an imaginary line where the date changes by exactly one
day when it is crossed.
● The International Date Line in the mid-Pacific curves from the normal 180° meridian at the
Bering Strait, Fiji, Tonga, and other islands to prevent confusion of day and date in some
of the island groups that are cut through by the meridian.
● Why IDL is Zig Zag?
○ Some groups of Islands (Polynesia, Melanesia, Micronesia) fall on either of the
datelines. So, if the dateline was straight, then two regions of the same Island
Country or Island group would fall under different date zones.
○ Thus, to avoid any confusion of date, this line is drawn through where thesea lies
and not land. Hence, the IDL is drawn in azig-zagmanner.
○ If a person moves east of IDL, then he will gain a day.
○ If a person moves west of IDL, then he will loose a day.
India as a Geographical Unit:
● The mainland extends between:
○ Latitudanal extent: Between
8°4’North and 37°6’North.
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○ Longitudinal extent: Between 68°7’East and 97°25’East.
● The Southernmost Point of thecountryisthePygmalionPointorIndiraPoint,located
at 6° 45' North latitude.
● North-South extent from Indira ColinKashmir to Kanniyakumariis 3,214 km.
● East-West width from the Rann of Kachachh to Arunachal Pradesh is 2,933 km.
● The easternmost point of India is‘Kibithu’ (ArunachalPradesh)
● The distance of the coastal boundary (including islands in India) is 7516.6 Km
● The distance of coastal boundary (without including islands in India) is 6100 Km
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Geography
Chapter 04: Indian Physiography
Lecture 08: India’s Location (Part 05)
India as Geographical Unit:
● Coastal Boundary: Gujarathas the longest boundaryamong the states, andAndaman &
Nicobar, as an island, has the largest boundary.
● Land Boundary:India’s land boundary is around15200km.
● The Indian Standard Meridian Passes through Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and Andhra Pradesh.
● Maritime Boundary of India:
○ The boundary is as per the United Nations Convention on the Laws of Sea
(UNCLOS)
○ Baseline:An imaginary line joining the attachmentpart of the coastal areas.
○ InternalWater:Internal(orinland)watersarethewatersonthelandwardsideof
thebaselinefromwhichthebreadthoftheterritorialseaismeasured. Thecoastal
State has fullsovereigntyoveritsinternalwatersasiftheywerepartofitsland
territory and may exclude foreign flag vessels from its internal waters subject to
the right of entry of vessels in distress.
○ TerritorialSea:EachcoastalStatemayclaimaterritorialseathatextendsseaward
up to 12 nautical miles (nm) from its baselines. The coastal State exercises
sovereigntyoveritsterritorialsea,theairspaceaboveit,andtheseabedandsubsoil
beneath it.
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○ Innocent Passage: It is sea travel that will not harm or disturb the peace of
coastal nations.It is allowed in the Territorialsea but not in Internal water.
○ ContiguousZone:EachcoastalStatemayclaimacontiguouszoneadjacenttoand
beyonditsterritorialseathatextendsseawardupto24nmfromitsbaselines.
In its contiguous zone, a coastal State may exercise the control necessary to
prevent the infringement of its customs, fiscal, immigration, or sanitarylawsand
regulations within its territory or territorial sea, andpunishinfringementofthose
laws and regulations committedwithinitsterritoryorterritorialsea. Additionally,
to control the trafficking of archaeological and historical objects found at sea, a
coastal state may presume that their removal from the seabedofthecontiguous
zone without its consent is unlawful. Air and space rights are not provided
though.
○ Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ): Each coastal State may claim an Exclusive
Economic Zone (EEZ) beyond and adjacent to its territorial sea that extends
seawardupto200nmfromitsbaselines(orouttoamaritimeboundarywith
another coastal State).Within its EEZ, a coastalState has,
■ Sovereign rights for exploring, exploiting, conserving, and managing natural
resources, whether living or nonliving, of the seabed and subsoil and the
superjacent waters and about otheractivitiesfortheeconomicexploitation
and exploration of the zone, such as the production of energy from the
water, currents, and winds
■ Jurisdictionasprovidedforininternationallawabouttheestablishmentand
use of artificial islands, installations, and structures, marine scientific
research, and the protection and preservation of the marine environment
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■ Other rights and duties are provided for under international law.
○ HighSea:ItisthewaterbeyondEEZ.Itisthecommonheritageofallmankind.
Every nation can use it for peaceful purposes. Freedom on flights moving over here.
● In conditions where the maritime zones oftwoormorecountriesoverlap,theconcerned
countries must resolve the situation. In the case of India and Sri Lanka, a bilateral
agreement would be made. UNCLOS has nothing to say in bilateral agreements and
disputes.
● ArchipelagicWaters:Inthecaseofislandnationstheoutermostpointsoftheoutermost
island are connected and declared as the Baseline for those islands. Examples: Japan,
Andaman & Nicobar, Bahamas, Philippines, etc.
● Principle of Transit Passage: In this area, the ships are not required to declare
themselves. It is like innocent passage but the movement of the ship must be within
prescribed speed with no slowing, no stalling, and no docking.
Zones in India:
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● India is divided into 6 zones
Some Facts about India:
● IST and Tropic of Cancer meet each other inChhattisgarh.
● Area wise the largest state isRajasthan.
● Area wise the smallest state isGoa.
● Area wise the largest UT isJammu & Kashmir
● Area wise the smallest UT isLakshadweep.
● PuducherryismadeupofMahe(Kerala),Karaikal(TamilNadu),Puducherry(TamilNadu),
Yanam (Andhra Pradesh)
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● Uttar Pradesh is a state whose boundary touches with highest number of states (8
states). Which are, Bihar, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Uttarakhand,
Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Haryana.
● The Sonbhadra district of UP sharesboundarieswithmaximumstateslikeBihar,Madhya
Pradesh, Jharkhand, and Chhattisgarh.
● Landlocked states of India:Haryana, Madhya Pradesh,Jharkhand, Chattisgarh, Telangana
● Landlocked UT of India:Delhi, Chandigarh.
● Regions that India got from Portuguese control,
○ Dadra & Nagar Haveli (1954)
○ Daman & Diu (1961)
○ Goa (1961)
● Regions that India got from French control,
○ Chandranagar (Before Independence in 1946)
○ Mahe (Kerala), Karaikal (Tamil Nadu), Puducherry (Tamil Nadu), and Yanam
(Andhra Pradesh) in 1954.
● The sea level of India is measured fromChennai.
● According to a Survey of India, Mumbai is considered as the meansealevelregionof
India.
● India is the7th largest country in the worldin terms of geographical area.
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● India accounts for about2.4 percent of the totalsurface areaof the world.
● India accounts for about17.5% percent of the populationof the world.
● Area wise largest district in India isKutch.
● Area wise boundary of India with other nations,
● Five Indianstates,namelyLadakh,HimachalPradesh,Uttarakhand,Sikkim,andArunachal
Pradesh, share a boundary with China.
● Five states of India, namely Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, WestBengal,andSikkim
touch the Nepalese border with India.
● West Bengal, Assam, Tripura, Mizoram, and Meghalaya share a boundary with Bangladesh.
● Ladakh, J&K, Punjab, Rajasthan, and Gujarat share a boundary with Pakistan.
● Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, and Mizoram share a boundary with Myanmar.
● Assam, West Bengal, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh share a boundary with Bhutan.
● International Boundary lines:
○ Durand Lines:India and Afghanistan
○ Mac Mohan line:India and China
○ Radcliffe line:India and Pakistan, India and Bangladesh
○ Zero line:Tripura and Bangladesh
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Geography
Chapter 4: Indian Physiography
Lecture 09: India’s Location (Part 06)
Certain key terms:
● Strait:A narrow water body that separates two land masses and connects two larger
water bodies.Example:Gibraltar Strait
● Channel: A wider water body that separates two landmasses and connects two larger
water bodies.
● Isthmus:A narrow strip of land separates two waterbodies and connects two bigger
land masses.Example:Panama Isthmus, Senai isthmus
● Canal:It is the artificial water body that connectstwo water bodies.Example:Suez
Canal
Geological Structure of India:
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Archaean Rock System (Pre-Cambrian Rocks):
● These are the Rocks formed before the Cambrian system.
● It is the oldest structure in India
● The Archaean Rock System includes:
○ Archaean System
○ Dharwar System
Archaean System (4 Billion Years):
● These rocks are devoid of any form of life
(Unfossiliferous)
● The oldest rocks (Pre-Cambrian era) formed about 4
billion years ago.
● Theyarethoroughlycrystalline,faulted,anddevoidof
any sediments.
● TheyareknownasBasementComplexorFundamental
Gneisses.
● Rocks formed due to the solidification of molten magma covertwo-thirdsofpeninsular
India. They are the foundation of all the ancient plateaus and the core of all the fold
mountain ranges of the world.
● Aravalis, Satpura ranges, and Eastern ghats were formed at this time.
Dharwar System (4-1 Billion Years):
● The formation period ranges from 2500 to 1800 Mn
years ago.
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● These are the oldest metamorphosed rocks comprising largely of igneous debris
schists and gneisses.
● Location:DharwardistrictofKarnataka,ChotaNagpurPlateau,MeghalayaPlateau,
Aravallis, Delhi series (Delhi to South of Alwar).
● Economically themostimportantrocksarebecausetheypossessvaluableminerals
like high-gradeiron-ore, manganese, copper, lead, gold, etc.
Purana Rock System (1400 - 600 Million Years)
● The Purana Rock System includes
○ Cuddapah System
○ Vindhyan System
Cuddapah System:
● Slates, Sandstones, and Limestones were deposited in synclinal
basins (depressions between two folds).
● Outcrops are best observed in the Cuddapah district of Andhra
Pradesh.
● Devoidfossilsbecausetherewasnooriginofspeciesduringthat
period.
● These rocks contain ores of iron, manganese, copper, cobalt,
nickel, etc.
● They contain large deposits ofcement-grade limestones.
Vindhyan System (1300-600 Million Years):
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● This system derives its name from the great Vindhyan mountains.
● The system comprises ancient sedimentary rocks (4000 m thick) superimposedonthe
archaean base. The rocks are unfossiliferous.
● The extent isChittorgarh in Rajasthan to Sasaramin Bihar.
● Large areas of this belt are covered by the Deccan Trap.
● The Vindhyan system has diamond-bearing regions from which Panna and Golconda
diamonds have been mined.
● It is devoid of metalliferous minerals but provides large quantities of durable stones,
ornamental stones, limestone, pure glass-making sand, etc.
● Historical Buildings such asQutubMinar,SanchiStupa,Humayun’sTomb,RedFort,etc.
have been constructed from the red sandstone of Vindhyas.
Dravidian Rock System (Palaeozoic):
● Formed about600 – 25 million years ago.
● FoundintheExtraPeninsularregion(theHimalayasandGangaPlain)andisveryrarein
PeninsularIndia.Foundin–SaltRange,PirPanjal,LidderValley(J&K),Spiti,Kangra,Simla
(HP), Garhwal & Kumaon (UK).
● During this period,Pangea was broken & Tethys Seacame into being.
● The rocks of the Carboniferous periods fall under the Dravidian system.
● Rocks:Shale, Sandstones, Clay, Salts, Marbles.
● Carboniferous Rocks (350 Million Years):
○ The Carboniferous rocks (350 million years) comprise mainlylimestone, shale and
quartzite.
○ Mount Everest is composed of Upper Carboniferous limestones.
○ Coal formation started in the Carboniferous Age.
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○ Carboniferous in geology meanscoal-bearing.(Most of the coal found in India is
not from the Carboniferous period, and the High-quality coal of the Great Lakes
Region- USA, U.K, and Ruhr region is Carboniferous coal).
Gondwana System:
● The Gondwana System (derives its name from Gonds, the
most primitive people of Madhya Pradesh).
● During the formation of these rocks coalfields of India were
getting formed.
● Fresh water and sediments accumulated in these troughs and
terrestrial plants and animals thrived.
● This has happened since thePermian period (250 million
years ago).
● Gondwana Coal is Good Quality coal, i.e,Bituminous& Anthracite
● GondwanacoalismuchyoungerthantheCarboniferouscoalandhenceitscarboncontent
is low.
● They have rich deposits of iron ore, copper, uranium, and antimony.
● Sandstones, slates, and conglomerates are used as building materials.
Aryan Rock System (Upper Carboniferous to the Recent):
● The Upper Carboniferous period-Himalayan Region is covered with a vast geosyncline known
as theTethys Sea.
● They are mainly formed during the tertiary period.
● Areas of Kashmir Himalayas:Pir Panjal (North West) to Ladakh (North East)witnessed
violent volcanic activity.
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Quaternary Period Holocene Epoch (‘Anthropocene’ (Man started dominating))
Pleistocene Epoch (Plains started forming)
Tertiary Period Pliocene Epoch
Miocene Epoch
Oligocene Epoch
Eocene Epoch
Paleocene Epoch
Cretaceous Period Formation of Deccan lava
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Geography
Chapter 04: Indian Physiography
Lecture 10: India’s Location (Part 07)
Drainage System:
Classification of Streams / Drainage Systems Based on Slopes and Geological Surface:
1. Sequent Streams: These follow the slope and are well-adjusted to the geological
structure. They are of the following type:
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2. Insequent Streams:These are those that are not adjusted very well to the geological
structure and do not follow the present-day natural slope. They are of the following types:
Drainage Patterns:
The Drainage Pattern means the ‘geometrical forms’ of the drainage systems and spatial
arrangement of streams in a particular locality or region. Generally divided into the following types:
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Trellis:
● They are formed bynetwork of tributaries and master consequent streams which follow
the regional slope and are well adjusted to the geological structures.
● Such patterns are developed in areas of simple folds characterized by parallel anticlinal
ridges alternated by parallel synclinal valleys.
● Generally formed in cuesta topography wherehard beds become escarpmentsand soft
ones are eroded to become valleys and lowlands.
● It can be seen in Himalayan rivers and also in Chottanagpur area.
Rectangular Pattern:
● Itshowssomedegreeofresemblancetothetrellispatternas
both have tributaries joining master streams at right angles.
● But in trellis, the confluence is guided by strikes and dip
angles of rock beds while in the Rectangular pattern, it is
guided bylines of weakness.
● Thesecondlineofdifferenceisthatinthetrellis,thespacing
between the streams joining the mainstream is less than
that of the rectangular pattern.
● The main river here bends at right angle and tributaries joins the main river at right angle.
● Example:Colorado river of USA.
Dendritic Pattern:
● It is the most common and widespread pattern and resembles
the branches, roots and rootlets of a tree.
● It is associated with areas of homogenous lithologies, horizontal
and very gently sloping strata and areas of extremely low reliefs.
● Uniform lithology presents the most ideal condition for its
development. E.g.Basins of Mahanadi, Krishna, Cauvery etc.
Radial or Centrifugal Pattern:
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● It isformedbystreamswhichdivergefrom
a central higher point in all directions.
● Domes. volcanic cones, residual hillsetc.aid
in its development.
● These streams resemble the spokes of the
wheels.
● The best example is the entire drainage
network of Sri Lanka, South Koel, and
Subarnarekha rivers of Odisha and Jharkhand.
● Example:Rivers at Amarkantak hills and Mikir hills.
Centripetal Drainage Pattern:
● All the streams from different direction converge here at one point.
● Example:Bhagmati river.
Parallel Drainage Pattern:
● It can be seen on the western slope of Western ghats and western coast of India.
● It is pattern when two or more rivers drain at sea before they merge with each other.
Herringbone Pattern:
● The name come from Herring fish.
● Herringbone drainage patternischaracterizedbyaseriesofstreamsthatflowinaseries
ofV-shapedpatterns.Herringbonedrainagepatternsaretypicallyfoundinareaswithareas
with a regular pattern of faults or joints.
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Geography
Chapter 04: Indian Physiography
Lecture 11: India’s Location (Part 08)
Classification of Indian Drainage System:
Classification Criteria Categories Rivers/Details
Water Discharge Outflowing into Indus, Narmada, Tapi, Zuari, Mandovi, Netravati,
Arabian Sea Kumardhara, Bharatpuzha, Periyar
Outflowing into Around 77% of the river water of India discharges
Bay of Bengal into Bay of Bengal. Ganga, Brahmaputra,
Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery
Size of Catchment Major River Basin Catchment area is greater than 20000 sq km.
Area
Medium River Catchment area is between 2000-20000 sq km.
Basin
Minor River Basin Catchment area is less than 2000 sq km.
Origin of River Himalayan River Indus River System, Ganga River System,
Brahmaputra River System
Peninsular River West Flowing Peninsular River, East Flowing
Peninsular River
Drainage Type Himalayan Rivers
Deccan Rivers
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Coastal Rivers
Inland Rivers
Himalayan vs Peninsular Rivers:
Peninsular Rivers Himalayan Rivers
● Source of water:Monsoon rain. ● Source of water:Rainfall, melting of
glaciers and ice sheets.
● Seasonal riverwithlesser volume of ● Perennial riverwithlarger volumeof
water. water.
● Older riversoriginating fromPeninsular ● Young riversoriginating from the
plateaus. Himalayas and Trans-Himalayas.
● They havelesser tributaries. ● They havemore tributaries.
● These aremostly not navigable, only ● Most of the part of river isnavigable.
coastal areas are navigable.
● These are relativelysmallerand carry ● These are relativelylargerand carry
less sediments thereforesmaller deltas more sediments and formbigger
are formed. deltas.
● Flow overhard rockstherefore ● Flows oversoft sedimentstherefore
absence of meanders and ox-bow form meander and ox-bow lakes.
lakes.
● Noriver course shifting. ● Infamous forriver course shift/change.
Example:Kosi, Teesta, Gandak, etc.
● Himalayan rivers are responsible for ● Peninsular rivers are associated with
deep and narrow valleyslike V-shaped broad and shallow valleys.This is
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valleys like gorges and canyons. This is because these are seasonal rivers with
because of the high water amount, low water volume, hard resistant rocks
presence of sedimentary rocks and thus less erosion and less steep slopes.
steep slopes.
Ranking of Rivers on basis of Catchment Area in India:
1. Ganga
2. Godavari
3. Krishna
4. Brahmaputra
5. Mahanadi
6. Narmada
7. Cauveri
8. Tapi
9. Pennar
10. Brahmini and Baitarni
11. Barak
12. Mahi
13. Subarnarekha
Indus River System:
Indus River:
● In Sanskrit, it is calledSindhu. In Greek, it iscalled Sinthos. In Latin, it is called Sindus.
● The river basin has been the cradle of one of
the oldest civilizations (Indus Valley
Civilization).
● Origin:Bokhar Chu Glacier in Kailash Range
(Trans-Himalayas) in Tibet, China.
● Mouth:South of Karachi in Arabian Sea
(Pakistan).
● In Tibet, it is calledSingge Khambab.
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● Initially, it moves in north-west direction tillNanga Parbat.
● It enters throughDamchok, Ladakhinto India and encirclesLehand here it is joined by
the Zaskarriver.
● NearSkardu, it meets withShyok river, which originatesfromSiachen glacier.
● Before forming a deep gorge inBunjii.e. north ofNanga Parbat, it is joined byGilgit,
Gartang, Dras, Shizar, Hunza rivers.
● From Nanga Parbat, it takes a sharp southward turn and continues to flow tillAttock,
where its Himalayan journey gets over.
● Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Satluj, together calledPanchnadmeet Indus near
Mithankot, Pakistan.
● The Indus river flows only through theUnion Territoryof Ladakhof India.
● Indus river is conjoined byDhar riverat India-Chinaborder.
● Blind Indus River Dolphin, a sub-species of Dolphin,is found in Indus river.
● The total length of the Indus river is2880 km, outof which 708/709 km falls in India.
● It is thesecond largest riverin the world.
● Right Hand Tributaries:Kabul, Kurram, Tonch, Zhob-Gomal,Shyok, Hunza-Gilgit
● Left Hand Tributaries: Zaskar,Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi,Beas, Satluj
Indus Water Treaty, 1960:
● Indus Waters Treaty, treaty, signed on September19, 1960, betweenIndiaandPakistan
and brokered by theWorld Bank.
● The treaty allowed:
○ India to use80% of waters of Ravi, Beas, Sutlej and20% of waters of Indus,
Jhelum and Chenab rivers.
○ Pakistan to use80% of waters of Indus, Jhelum andChenab rivers and 20% of
waters of Ravi, Beas, Sutlej rivers.
Tributaries of Indus River:
Jhelum:
● It is composed of two words i.e. ‘jal’ meaning ‘pure water’ and ‘hum’ meaning ‘snow’.
● Origin:Verinag Spring (Sheshnag Lake)
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● Ancient Name:Vitasta
● Right Hand Tributaries:Lidder, Neelum in Pakistanor Kishanganga in India (Kishanganga
Hydroelectric Project), Sind
● It flows throughWular Lake of Kashmir,which is thelargest freshwater lake of India.
● Important Hydroelectric Project:Uri Project, KishangangaProject
● It forms anatural boundaryof approximately 170 kmsbetween India and Pakistan.
● In 1967,Mangla damwas built on this river.
● Uri damin J&K is located on this river.
● It joins theChenab river.
Chenab:
● Origin:NearBaralacha La. Two streams namelyChandraandBhagu/Bhagaoriginate from
Zaskar Range,Lahaul-Spiti, Himachal Pradesh. Thesetwo rivers confluence atKeylong
Valleyof Himachal Pradesh, from where it is knownas Chenab.
● Ancient Name:Asikini/ Asikni
● It is thelargest tributaryof Indus.
● It flows throughIndiaand Pakistan. Most of the Chenabriver lies inPakistan.
● It forms adeep gorge at Kishtwar.
● Tributaries:Marusudhar
● JhelumandRavirivers join Chenab.
● It merges with Satluj in Pakistan to formPanchnad.
● Dams built on the river includeSalal dam, Baglihardam, Dul-Hasti dam,Pakal Dul dam
(on Marusudhar river).
Ravi:
● Origin:Kullu Hills, west to Rohtang Pass (HimachalPradesh).
● Ancient Name:Parushni (Battle of Ten KIngs mentionedin Rig Veda) or Iravati
● It flows throughIndia and Pakistan.
● Dams built on this river includeShahpur Kandi Project,Chamera Multipurpose Project,
Ranjit Sagar dam(also known asThein dam).
● It flows throughChamba Valley, Madhopur, and nearAmritsar(Punjab) before entering
into Pakistan.
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● It joins theChenabRiver in Pakistan.
Beas:
● Origin:Beas Kund, which is to the east of RohtangPass (Himachal Pradesh).
● Ancient Name:Bipasa/ Vipasa or Argikiya
● It passes through Kullu Valley and joinsSatlujatHarike, Punjab.Harike Barrage and
Indira Gandhi Canal (longest and largest canal ofIndia) are built here.
● Only Panchnad River whichflows only in India.
● Dams built on this river include thePong dam or theBeas dam.
● It is known for its tiny population ofRiver Dolphin.
NOTE:
● The IndusRiver flows throughIndia, Pakistan, andChina.
● Sutlejflows throughIndia, Pakistan, and China.
● Jhelumflows throughIndia and Pakistan. It passesthroughWular Lake(India’s largest
freshwater lake) of Jammu & Kashmir.
Sutlej:
● It is thelongest tributaryof the Indus river andjoins it nearMithankot.
● Origin:Rakstal near Mansarovar Lake in Tibet.
● Ancient Name:Satadru or Satudri
● It enters into India throughShipki La passof HimachalPradesh where it forms a
beautifulShipki La Gorge.
● Left Hand Tributary:Baspa
● Right Hand Tributary:Spiti, Beas
● In Tibet, it is known asLangchheb Khambab or LangchenKhambab.
● Bhakra (Himachal Pradesh)-Nagal (Punjab) Projectisbuilt on this river.Govind Sagar
Lake, named after Guru Gobind Singh, is an artificiallake near this project.
NOTE:
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Ghaggar:
● Origin:Sirmaur (Shiwalik Range) near Ambala
● It is often referred asfabled Saraswati.
● It is aninland drainage system.
● It flows throughHimachal Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthanand Punjab.
● It enters Rajasthan fromGanganagardistrict.
● Itdisappears in the plainsbut againresurfaces inKarnal, Haryana.
● It is known asHakra riverin Bikaner anddisappearsat Bhatner near Hanumangarh,
Rajasthan(desert region). The land in Rajasthan isalmost arid.
● It is themain river of Haryana.
● It is an ephemeral drainage system (water is very seasonal).
● It passes throughPatiala, Hisar, and Ambala.
Ganga River System:
● Length: 2525 km.
● It is thelongest and largest
riverof India.
● It is thenational riverof India
(2008).
● Gangetic Dolphinsare found in
this river.
● It flows throughBangladesh
before discharging into the Bay
of Bengal.
● The maximum distance coverage
of this river is inUP (28 districts).
● It is formed by the confluence of two head streams namelyBhagirathi and Alakhnanda.
Both rivers meet atDev Prayag.
● It enters fromBijnordistrict in UP and exits fromBaliadistrict of UP.(UP> West
Bengal> Bihar> Uttarakhand)
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Geography
Chapter 04: Indian Physiography
Lecture 12: Indian Rivers
Ganga River System:
● It originates as Bhagirathi (rises at the foot of Gangotri Glacier, at Gaumukh,) from
Gangotri in the Uttarkashi district of Uttarakhand.
Left Bank Tributaries of Ganga:
● Ramganga
● Gomati
● Sharda (Kali)
● Gandak
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● Burhi Gandak
● Ghaghra
● Kosi
1. Ramganga River:
● The Ramganga River rises in the Garhwal hills (Gairsain) from the slopes of
Dudhatoli Hill in the Chamoli district of Uttarakhand.
● It drains thesouthwestern Kumaun.
● It also flows through theDun Valley of Corbett National Park.
● Itjoins Ganga near Kannauj.
● It flows through thecities of Bareilly and Ramnagar.
● The annual festival of Ganga Dussehra is organised on itsbanksannuallyduring
September and October atChaubari village near Bareilly.
2. Sharda River:
● TheShardaoriginatesfromtheGreaterHimalayasatKalapaaniatanaltitudeof
3600minthePithoragarhDistrictofUttarakhand.ItisknownastheKaliRiver
here.
● The Sarda River rises in the Milam glacier in the Nepal Himalayaswhereitis
known as theGori Ganga.
● The river borders theNepalese-Mahakali Zone and Uttarakhand.
● The river flows in a gorge section in the upper region.
3. Ghaghra River:
● Ghaghra (Alternatively known as Karnali or Kauriala) originates (source is near
Gurla Mandhata peak, Mapchachungo glacier)south of Mansarovar lake in Tibet.
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● ItcutsthroughtheHimalayasinNepal(KnownasKarnali)andisjoinedbythe
(Kali) Sharda at Brahmaghat in India.
● Itjoins Ganga at Chhapra in Bihar.
● Sarda (Kali) and Saryuare its important tributaries.
4. Sarayu River:
● Ayodhya is on the bank of this river
● It is the tributary of Sharda river
● It is the replica of its contemporary of Ghaghara river.
● It originates from Central Kumaon region of Uttarakhand.
5. Gomti River:
● TheGomtiriveroriginatesfromGomatTaal,whichwasformallyknownasFulhaar
jheel, U.P.
● It extends for 900km through Uttar Pradesh and meets the Ganges River in
Ghazipur.
● AttheSangamofGomtiandGanga,thefamousMarkandeyMahadeotempleis
situated.
● The cities of Lucknow, Lakhimpur Kheri, Sultanpur and Jaunpurarelocatedon
the banks of the Gomti river.
● Sai river is tributary of Gomti.
6. Gandak River:
● It is formed by the unionoftheKaliandTrisuliriversoriginatingintheNepal
Himalayas between Annapurna, Dhaulagiri & Mount Everest near the
Tibet-Nepal border.
● From this junction to the Indian border, the river is called theNarayani.
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● Important City located on the river is Champaran.
● ItenterstheGangariveroppositePatnainaplacecalledSonepurafterawinding
course of 765 km.
● Burhi Gandakflows parallel to and east of the Gandak River.
7. Kosi River:
● It is an antecedent river with its sourceto
thenorthofMountEverestinTibet,where
its mainstream Arun rises.
● The total length of the river is729 km.
● Itconsistsofsevenstreamsandispopularly
known as Saptakaushki. (Sut Kosi, Tamba
Kosi, Talkha, Doodh Kosi, BotiaKosi,Arun
and Tamber).
● Seven streams mingle with each other to form three streams namedtheTamur,
Arun and Sun Kosi.
● They unite asTriveni north of the Mahabharata Rangeto form the Kosi.
● Itjoins Ganga near Kursela.
● It is called the“Sorrow of Bihar”.
8. Mahananda River:
● Mahananda originates in theHimalayasPaglajhoraFallsonMahaldiramHillnear
Chimli, east of Kurseong inDarjeelingdistrictatanelevationof2,100metres
(6,900 ft).
● It joins theGanga as its last left bank tributary in West Bengal.
Right Bank Tributaries of Ganga River:
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● Yamuna
● Son
● Tamsa
● Damodar
● Punpun river
Yamuna River:
● Yamuna(1376kms)isthe
largest and most
important tributary and
originatesfromYamunotri
Glacier near Bandar
punchin Garhwal district.
● It flows along the states
ofUttarakhand,Himachal
Pradesh, and Haryana and enters Delhi and merges with the Ganga near Triveni
Sangam, Allahabad (Prayagraj).
● It cuts across the Nag Tibba, the Mussoorie and the
Shiwalik ranges.
● At its right bank, itisjoinedbytheChambal,theSind,
the Betwa and the Ken & Tons.
● Hindan,theRind,theSengar,theVaruna,etc.joiniton
its left bank.
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● Yamuna covers a length of 1376 kms.
● Major Tributaries of Yamuna River:
○ Tons
○ Giri
○ Hindon
○ Chambal
○ Sind
○ Betwa
○ Ken
Chambal River:
● The 960 km long river is also known asCharmanwati or Charmawati.
● It rises near (S
ingar Chouri peak in the northern slopes of the Vindhyan mountains)
Mhow and moves North through the Malwa plateau.
● Itjoins Yamuna near Etawah.
● It is infamous for its ravines which it has carved all along in lowerChambal Valley.
● Alligators are found here.
● Major projects on the river:Gandhi Sagar, Rana Pratap Sagar, Jawahar Sagar dam.
● Major tributaries areBanas, Kalisindh and Parbati.
Son River:
● It rises fromtheAmarkantakplateaunotfarfromNarmada’soriginandpassesthrough
theKaimur ranges.
● Itjoins Ganga near Danapur.
About Ganga River:
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● At Farraka the Ganga river bifurcates into Bhagirathi-Hugli in West Bengal and
Padma-Meghna in Bangladesh(it ceases to beknown as the Ganga after Farraka).
● Padma river isjooinedbyBrahmaputrariverinBangladeshandflowsasPadmariver.But
aftertheconfluenceofMeghnariver,itisknownasMeghna.Eventually,itdrainsintoBay
of Bengal as Meghana.
Brahmaputra River System:
● It rises in the Kailas range (Chemayungdung Glacier) around 150 Km away from the
source of the Indus, and only 35 km from that of Sutlej.
● The Mariam Laseparates the source of theBrahmaputra from the Manasarovar Lake.
● It is known asTsang Po(The Purifier) inTibetandYarlung Zangbo in Chinese.
● It is known as Dihang/Siang in Arunachal Pradesh
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● In Assam it is known as Brahmaputra
● In Bangladesh it is known as Jamuna.
● Its Left Bank Tributaries:Dibang, Lohit, Dhansiri, Kolong, Kopili,
● Its Right Bank Tributaries:Kameng, Manas, Raidak, Jaldhaka, Teesta, Subansiri etc.
Teesta River:
● It originates fromTso Lamo lake (Zemu Glacier) in Sikkim.
● It flows through the states of Sikkim and West Bengal.
● Rangeet Riveris the major tributary of the Teesta River, & is the largest river in Sikkim.
● It joins Teesta at a place known asTribeni.
● Its tributaries are Rangpo, Rangeet, Ringyochu, Rongni khola, Rongni Chu.
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Geography
Chapter 04: Indian Physiography
Lecture 13: Indian Rivers( Part 02)
West Flowing Rivers:
Narmada River:
● It is the largest of all west-flowing rivers of
peninsular India.
● It rises from the western flanks of Amarkantak near
Maikala Range at 1057 meters in Madhya Pradesh.
● It flows westward in a rift valley between the
Vindhyas and the Satpuras.
● It forms famous falls like Dhuandhar Falls (known as
Marble Falls) near Jabalpur, Kapildhara Falls near
Amarkantak,andSahasradharaFallsnearMaheshwar,
both in Madhya Pradesh.
● ItsriverbasinisspreadoverMadhyaPradesh,Gujrat,
Maharashtra, and Chattisgarh.
● It meanders through alluvial plains past Bharuch
(Gujrat) and forms an estuarybefore falling intotheGulf of Khambhat.
● Narmada’s estuary has several riverine islands, and Aliabet is the largest.
● Major hydropower projects in the basin include Indira Sagar, Sardar Sarovar,
Omkareshwar, Barg, and Maheshwar, etc.
● Orang (right bank), Kolar (right bank), and left bank tributaries like Tawa, Banjar,
Tawa, and Shakkar.
Tapi River or Tapti River:
● It is also known as the twinorhandmaidofNarmada,itoriginates(fromSatpura)in
Betul district, Madhya Pradesh.
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● Tapti or Tapi River is thesecond largest west-flowingriver in peninsular India.
● It flows for about 724 km from its source to the estuary in theGulf of Khambhat.
● Tapi River along with its tributaries flows over the plains of Vidharbha, Khandesh, and
Gujarat and over large areas in thestateofMaharashtraandasmallareainMadhya
Pradesh and Gujarat.
● ItissituatedintheDeccanplateau,thebasinisboundedbytheSatpurarangeonthe
north,theMahadevhillsontheeast,theAjantaRangeandtheSatmalahillsonthe
south,and the Arabian Sea on the west.
● It makes anestuary near Suratand falls into theGulf of Khambhat.
● Tributaries of the Tapi River
➢ Right Bank:the Suki, the Gomai, the Arunavati and the Aner.
➢ Left Bank:theVaghur,theAmravati,theBuray,thePanjhra,theBori,theGirna,
the Purna, the Mona and the Sipna.
● Projects on the Tapi River
➢ Hathnur Dam of Upper Tapi Project (Maharashtra)
➢ Kakrapar weir and Ukai Dam of Ukai Project (Gujarat)
➢ Girna Dam and Dahigam Weir of Girna Project (Maharashtra)
Luni River:
● TheLuniortheSaltRiver(LonariorLavanavari
in Sanskrit) is named so because its water is
brackish belowBalotra.
● Luniistheonlyriverbasinofanysignificancein
Western Rajasthan, which forms the bulk of
the arid zone.
● Luni originates from the western slopes ofthe
Aravalli ranges at an elevation of 772 meters
near Ajmer flowing in the southwest direction
and traversing a course of511kminRajasthan,
it finally flows into the Rann of Kachchh (it
gets lost in the marsh).
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● Its tributaries are Sukai, Sukri, Jawai.
● The upper part of this river is of fresh water and the lower part is of saline water.
Sabarmati River:
● The Sabarmati is the name given to thecombined streams of the Sabar and Hathmati.
● The total length of the river from its origin in Aravalli Hills from Tepur in Udaipur
(Rajasthan) to outfall into the Arabian Sea is 371 km.
● The Sabarmati basin extends over the statesof Rajasthan and Gujarat.
● The industrial city of Ahmedabad & Gandhinagaris located on its banks
● ThebasinisboundedbyAravallihillsonthenorthandnortheast,byRannofKutchon
the west, and by the Gulf of Khambhat on the south.
● It falls in theGulf of Khambhat and has a few tributaries: Sedhi, Wakul, Meshwa.
Mahi River:
● The Mahi basin extends over the states ofMadhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Gujarat.
● It originates in Vindhyas in the Dhar district of Madhya Pradesh and drains into the
Arabian Sea through the Gulf of Khambhatcovering 580 km.
● The Mahi basin extended over the states ofMadhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Gujarat.
● Hydro Power stations are located atMahi Bajaj Sagar Dam and at Kadana Dam.
● It crosses theTropic of Cancer twice.
● Its main tributaries are Som, Anas, and Panam.
Shetrunji River:
● Its origin is at Dalakhawa in the Amreli district of Gujarat.
● Its mouth is in the Gulf of Khambat.
Vaitarna River:
● Origin atTryambak Hills in Nashik district.
● Its mouth is in theArabian Sea.
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Mandovi River:
● It originates atJamboti Ghat (Part of Western Ghats), Belgaum district, Karnataka
● Mouth is at Arabian sea
● It is called as lifeline of Goa
● Panjimis on the bank of this river.
● It separates Goa into North and South Goa.
Zuari River:
● It originates at the Western Ghat of Goa.
● Its mouth is in theArabian Sea.
Kalinadi River:
● It originates in the Western Ghats of Karnataka.
● The mouth is in the Arabian sea.
Sharavati River:
● TheSharavati River originates from the Shimoga district of Karnataka.
● Sharavati flowsentirely in Karnataka.
● TheJogFallscreatedbytheSharavatiRiver,locatedabout24kmfromSagara,areformed
by this river
Bedti River:
● Origin is at Central Western ghat of Karnataka
● The mouth is in the Arabian Sea.
Netravathi River:
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● It originates at Bangrabaligee Valley, Yelaneeru Ghat.
● The mouth is in the Arabian Sea.
Periyar River:
● It is theWest Flowing Peninsular River.
● Periyar is the longest river and the river with the
largest discharge potential in the Indian State of
Kerala.
● It is one of the few perennial rivers in the regionand
provides drinking water for several major towns.
● The sources of the Periyar lie high in the Western
Ghats.
● ItgeneratesasignificantproportionofKerala'selectrical
power via the Idukki Dam and flows along a region of
industrial and commercial activity.
Bharatpuzzha River:
● It is the second most important river in Kerala after the Periyar River.
● It originates at Annamalai Hills.
East Flowing River:
Subarnarekha River:
● TheSubarnarekha(395km)originatesfromtheRanchi
Plateau in Jharkhand forming the boundary between
WestBengalandOdishainitslowercoursebeforejoining
the Bay of Bengal.
● It forms an estuarybetweentheGangaandMahanadi
deltas.
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● It flows through the states of Jharkhand, West Bengal and Odisha.
● Tributaries:
➢ Left bank: Dulang River
➢ Right bank: Kanchi River, Kharkai, Karkari River, Raru River, Garru River
● Hundru Fallsis created on the course of the Subarnarekha River.
Baitarni River:
● It originates in the hill ranges of the Keonjhar district of Orissa near Mankarancho
villageat an elevation of about 900 meters.
● River Baitarani isone of six major rivers of Odisha, India.
● A major portion of its catchment lies in the state of Odisha and a small patch ofthe
upper reach falls in Jharkhand.
Brahmani River:
● The Brahmani (800 km)comesintoexistencebytheconfluenceoftheSouthKoeland
Sankh (originating in the Chotanagpur plateau) near Rourkela, Odisha.
● The basin issurrounded by the Chhotanagpur plateau and the Mahanadi basin.
● ThebasinflowsthroughJharkhand,Chhattisgarh,andOrissaStatesanddrainsintothe
Bay of Bengal.
● Brahmani is thesecond longest river in Orissa after the Mahanadi.
Mahanadi River:
● It has its source in the northern foothills of
Dandakaranya in Raipur, Chhattisgarh.
● The Mahanadi basin extends over thestatesof
Chhattisgarh and Odisha and comparatively
smaller portions of Jharkhand, Maharashtra,
and Madhya Pradesh.
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● It is bounded by the Central India hills on the north, by the EasternGhatsonthe
south and east, and by the Maikal range on the west.
● Puri, at one of its mouths,is a famous pilgrimage site.
● The Mahanadi is one of the major rivers of the peninsular rivers, in waterpotentialand
flood-producing capacity, it ranks second to the Godavari.
● OthersmallstreamsdrainingdirectlyintotheChilkaLakealsoformpartoftheMahanadi
basin.
● ItenterstheOdishaplainsnearCuttackandenterstheBayofBengalatFalsePointby
several channels.
● Left bank Tributaries: Seonath, Hasdeo, Mand and Ib, etc.
● Right bank Tributaries: Ong, Tel Jonk, etc.
● Important Cities on the river are Sambalpur, Cuttak
Godavari River:
● It emerges near theTriambak plateau of Nashik in Maharashtra.
● The Godavari basin covers the states of Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh and Odisha in addition to smaller parts in Madhya Pradesh,Karnataka,
and the Union territory of Puducherry (Yanam).
● ThebasinisboundedbySatmalahills,theAjantarange,andtheMahadeohillsonthe
north,bytheEasternGhatsonthesouthandtheeast,andbytheWesternGhatson
the west.
● It is the largest system of the peninsula and is revered as Vridha Ganga or Dakshin
Ganga.
● Below Rajmundry, it divides itself into two streams, Gomati Godavari and Vashishta
Godavari, before forming a delta and falling into the Bay of Bengal.
● Left bank tributaries are Penganga, Wardha joins Wainganga and becomes Pranhita,
Pench, Kanhan, Sabari, Indravati, etc.
● The right bank tributaries are Pravara, Mula, Manjra, Peddavagu, Maner, etc.
● Manjra is the only important one and it joins the GodavariafterpassingthroughNizam
Sagar.
● Major Projects on the river are Polavaram and Jayakwadi.
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● It is 1465 km long.
● It is also known as Dakshin Ganga.
Kaveri (Cauvery) River:
● TheKaveriRiver(800km)risesinthe(Talkaveri)Brahmagiri
range, Kodagu (Coorg) district of Karnataka.
● The Cauvery basin extends over the states of Tamil Nadu,
Karnataka, Kerala, and the Union Territory of Puducherry.
● Also, a revered river of the south and calledGanga of South.
● Left bank tributaries are Harangi, Hemavati, Shimsha and
Arkavati, etc.
● The right bank tributaries areLakshmantirtha, Kabbani, Bhavani, Noyil, Amravati, etc.
● Projects:Krishnarajasagar in Karnataka, Mettur dam in Tamil Nadu.
● Its upper catchment area receives rain by Southwest monsoon during summer and the
lower catchment area receives rain by Northeast monsoon during winter.
● Its drainage Basin:
○ Tamil Nadu and Puducherry has 56%
○ Kerala: 3%
○ Karnataka: 41%
Krishna River:
● The Krishna is thesecond-largest east-flowing river of the Peninsula.
● It rises in the Western Ghats just north of Mahabaleshwar andflowsintotheBayof
Bengal.
● The Krishna Basin extends over Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and
Karnataka.
● Left bank tributaries: Don, Bhima, Musi (Hyderabad located on its banks), Dindi,
Munneru etc.
● Right bank tributaries: Ghatprabha, Koyna, Malprabha, Tungabhadra (largest, formed
by the combination of Tunga and Bhadra), etc.
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Geography
Ch 04: Indian Physiography
Lecture 14: Soil
Soils:
● Soils are natural things and natural ecosystems, where various elements are interdependent.
● Soils are not dust and dirt particles.
● Soils consist of sediments, air, water/moisture, organic materials, nutrients including various
minerals.
Genesis of Soil (Soil Formation)
● Soil formation was first talked about by ‘Jenkins’.
Pedology: Study of soil
Pedogenesis : Origin of soil
Russians were the first to study soil in the regions of steppe grassland of Ukraine-Russia.
Factors impacting the Soil Formation :
1. Parent Rock :
● They are the source of nutrients. E.g. Basalt rocks are iron and magnesium rich thus they
will also create ferromagnesium rich soil, Limestone rock- Calcium rich soil.
● The color of soil is dependent upon parent rock. E.g. Basalt rocks are dark in color and
contribute to the formation of black soil. Granite rocks, being reddish, lead to the
development of red soil, while limestone results in whitish or yellowish soil.
● Texture also depends upon the hardness of rock. E.g. Hard rock (Granite rocks)
disintegrates into coarse grain rock, Soft Rock (Basalt) disintegrates into fine coarse soil.
● Basicity and Acidity : E.g. Black soil is basic in nature (pH>7) as it contains
Ferromagnesium and Red soil is acidic (pH<7) as it has more silica content, thus they are
not suitable for Agriculture.
● Porosity and permeability :
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○ Porosity is the ability of material to hold water. If porosity is high then water retention
capacity is also high. Fine sediments are highly porous or water retention capacity is
high. E.g. Clay soil, Black Soil.
○ Permeability is the ability to allow water to percolate down. Coarser particles have high
permeability.
○ Permeability and porosity have an inverse relationship.
2. Role of Topography :
● In depressed or low-lying areas, such as basin topographies, specific bacterial activities and
chemical reactions occur in the absence of oxygen (anaerobic reactions). These processes
lead to the formation of potassium glauconites, which create green-blue patches on the soil
surface. This phenomenon is known as “Gleiying” or “Gleisation,” and the resulting soils
are referred to as Gley soils or Rog soils.
● Nature of Slope: In the steep slope region, because of gravitational pull and resultant mass
movement there will be absence of soil or a very thin layer of soil will be found.
3. Climate and role of denudation agents :
● It decides the rate of weathering i.e. Humid regions have more weathering, then more soil
development and vice versa in dry regions.
● It decides the nature of weathering and the resultant texture of soil. E.g. Dry/Arid/desert
regions dominated by mechanical weathering. Thus, coarser sediments soil is formed.
○ In cool and dry climate : Mechanical weathering will develop coarser sediment soil.
○ In Hot and Humid Climate: Chemical Weathering will develop finer sediment soil.
● It decides which agent of denudation would be effective.
○ In the Humid region, due to the presence of rivers, depositional features and Alluvial
soil will be observed.
○ In dry/Arid Region, due to wind movements, depositional features and Loessic soil will
be observed.
○ In alpine ice cap regions, glacier movements lead to the formation of depositional
features, including Karewa soils or plains, which are highly suitable for saffron
cultivation.
● Climate controls certain soil forming mechanisms.
○ Capillary Action: It happens in dry and warm regions. Water moves upwards in the soil
and evaporates. This leads to accumulation of salt like magnesium, sodium, calcium on
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the surface of soil. Extreme capillary action would lead to salinization of soil. E.g. In
Western U.P, Punjab, Haryana, Northern Rajasthan, Delhi etc.
○ Leaching: It is the removal of nutrients or downward movements from the soil and soil
particles. Leaching is not the same as percolation. Leaching is a very slow process
compared with percolation where soil nutrients move down in suspension with water.
Leaching is a chemical process that occurs only in moist and wet conditions. They are
of two types :
■ Cool and Humid Conditions:
1. The process occurs in regions with coniferous forests, such as the taiga forests
of Siberia, Canada, the Scandinavian regions, and Alaska.
2. The leaves of coniferous trees, such as Chir, Deodar, Juniper, Fir, and Spruce,
contain chelating agents that extract metal ions from minerals, soil, and rocks.
3. The litter from these trees facilitates the removal or downward transport of
iron and other oxides to the lower layers of the soil, leaving silica concentrated
at the surface. This process is known as Podzolisation, and the resulting soil
is called podzol soil. Podzol soil is light grey in color due to its silica content
and is acidic in nature.
■ Warm and Humid Conditions:
1. Silica is more mobile and thus leaches down and at the surface the oxides of
Iron and Aluminium remain. This process is known as “Laterization” or
laterite soil or latosols.
2. Laterite soil is reddish-orange in colour and is acidic in nature because of
Aluminium ions. Presence of Iron and aluminium ions form “Hard Pans”
famous for Bauxite mining.
4. Biota:
● Climate decides biota or flora and fauna and processes related to them.
● It decides the type of forest E.g. Coniferous forest and podsol soil.
● Climate also controls bacterial actions E.g. Tropical Humid Climate. Regions where
bacterial actions are more will have less Humus (Organic Material), Tropical and Equatorial
regions, alluvial soil are poor in Humus content.
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● In cooler conditions with lower humidity, bacterial activity is reduced, resulting in higher
humus content. For example, the black soil found in steppe grasslands, known as
Chernozem soil or Black Earth soil, has a rich humus content.
● Biota has a role in ‘bioturbation’ i.e. mixing of soil vertically by micro organisms and
animals.
● Biota also improves soil fertility. E.g. Rhizobium bacteria fixes the atmospheric nitrogen and
is found at the roots of the leguminous plants.
5. Time :
● Time decides the maturity and thickness of the soil.
● It also decides the formation and number of layers in the soil and degree of leaching.
● Old soils are thicker, more layered thus more leaching and less nutrients. Therefore they
are poor fertility soils. E.g. Oxisols found in equatorial rainforest regions.
● Younger soils are thinner, less layered thus less leaching and more nutrients. Therefore
they are relatively more fertile soils. E.g. Alluvial soil of Khadar Plains.
Summary :
Factors impacting formation of soil :
1. Parent rock
2. Topography
3. Climate
4. Biota
5. Time
There are certain mechanisms also involved in the formation of soil. They are-
1. Weathering
2. Capillary Action
3. Leaching Process
4. Gleying/Gleisation Process
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Geography
Chapter 04: Indian Physiography
Lecture 15: Soil Classification
Soil Horizon & Soil Profile:
● The thickness of soil can vary significantly, reaching up to 4-5 meters in some areas.
● The layers and thickness of soil are not the same everywhere. They can vary based on
factors like location, climate, and vegetation.
● Therearedistinctverticallayersinthesoil,whichareknownas“Horizons”.Eachhorizon
has its own set of characteristics and composition.
● Theverticalcross-sectionofsoil,whichdisplaysallthedifferenthorizons,isknownasthe
“Soil Profile”. It provides a comprehensive view of the soil’s structure and composition
from the surface down to the bedrock.
Soil Horizon:
● The O layer is an organic layer. It consists of
humus. It acts like a mulch and helps in retaining
moistureinthesoil.Itreducessoilerosionandgives
a dark color to the top layer.
○ The organic layer is superficial, meaningitis
located at the surface of the soil.
○ This layer contains undecomposed organic
matter, which is material that has not yet
broken down.
○ As the organic matter breaks down, it
becomes decomposed organic matter.
○ This is a part of the organic layer, often
referred to as the“litter layer”. It contains deadand decomposing organic matter.
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○ The decomposed organic matter eventually turnsintohumus,adark,nutrient-rich
material that is very beneficial for plant growth.
○ The process of forming humus is known as “humification”. This process adds
nutrients to the soil, enhancing its fertility.
○ Despiteitsimportance,theorganiclayerisnotalwaysconsidereda“proper”layer
of soil due to its variable presence and thickness depending on the location and
conditions. It may be absent in some soils, especially those in harsh climates or
heavily cultivated areas.
● Alayeriscalledthetoplayer.ItisjustbelowtheOhorizonandduetothisithassome
amount of organic matter. This is the most important layer from the point of fertility.
● The E layer is consideredtobethepartoftheAlayer.Theeluviationprocesstakes
place.Eluviation is nothing but the leaching of silicatesor iron and aluminum oxides.
○ The E Horizon serves as a transition zone betweenthetopandbottomlayersof
soil.
○ Many pedologists (soil scientists) consider the E Horizon to be part of the A
Horizon, which is the topmost layer of soil.
○ The EHorizonissignificantlyaffectedbyaprocesscalledleaching.Thisiswhere
water-soluble substances are washed out from the soil.
○ Duringleaching,nutrientsfromthesoilarelostastheygetwashedawaywiththe
water.
○ This nutrient loss or leaching process is also known as “eluviation”. It’s a key
factor in soil formation and fertility.
● B-layer accumulation of leached nutrientsthat aresilicates and sesquioxides.
● The C layer isalso called the regolith layer. Itis thefirst stage of soil formation.
Soil Classification:
● GeneticApproach:Thisapproachclassifiessoilbasedonitsorigin.Thefactorsconsidered
include Climate (C), Topography (T), Time, Parent Material (PR), and Biological
Factors (B).This approach was popularized by theMarbut Scheme.
○ Marbut Scheme: Marbut classified soils based on various factors. Oneofthekey
factors was the climate. Based on climate, Marbut divided soils into two categories:
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■ Soils of Dry Region: These are soils found in areas with low rainfalland
high evaporation rates.
■ Soils of Wet & Humid Region: These are soils found in areas with high
rainfall and low evaporation rates.
● EmpiricalApproach:Thisapproachisbasedonobservation,particularlytheobservationof
the physical properties and nutrient content of the soil. It was developed by theUnited
States Department of Agriculture (USDA).
○ The usefulness of this approach lies in its application to agriculture. This
classification is based on the physical and chemical properties of the soil. These
properties include:
■ Acidity/Alkalinity: The pH level of the soil.
■ Color: The color of the soil, can indicate its mineral content and organic
matter.
■ Porosity: The amount of pore space in the soil,affectsitsabilitytohold
water and air.
■ ClayContent:Theproportionofclayparticlesinthesoil,affectsitstexture
and nutrient-holding capacity.
Marbut Scheme:
According to Marbut, there are three types of soil:
● Zonal soil is based on climate and latitude.
● Intra Zonal soil based on local factors.
● Azonal soil is based on the transportation and deposition of sediments.
Zonal soil ( Based on Climate and Latitude)
There are two conditions:
● PEDOCAL (Dry conditions)
○ Chernozem: This is a type of soil found in temperategrasslands.
■ It is common in the steppes of Russia and Ukraine, which have cool and
semi-arid conditions.
■ The soil is formed through bacterial action, leading to the creation of
humus, a nutrient-rich organic matter.
■ Chernozem is fertile soil if irrigated properly.
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■ It is rich in calcium.
■ The soil is black in color.
■ It is good for growing cotton, grains, and wheat.
■ Variants of Chernozem arefoundintheDownsofAustralia,thePampas
of Argentina, andthesteppegrasslands.AvariantofChernozemisalso
foundintheprairiesofNorthAmerica,aregionthatreceivesrelativelymore
rainfall.
○ Chestnut Soil
■ It is characterized by a dark maroon or dark red color.
■ It is found in drier and relatively warmer parts of the world.
■ Similar to Chernozem soil, which is known for its high fertility and dark
color.
■ Rich in calcium.
■ It can be found in some eastern parts of Canada and parts of Britain.
○ Desert Soil (also known as Seriozem)
■ It is found in very sandy and dry areas.
■ It contains a lot of salt.
■ It is generally poor in nutrients due to harsh conditions.
■ Experiences severe moisture stress due to low rainfall.
■ The soil is Yellow in color.
■ It is found in regions like the Sonoran and Mojave deserts in California.
■ Low in humus content, which is the organic component of soil.
■ ExamplesofregionswithdesertsoilincludeRub-Al-KhaliandAl-Nafudin
the Arabian Deserts, the Iranian Desert Dast-e-kavir, and the Sahara
Region,Dast-e-lut.
● Pedalfers (Humid Conditions):
○ PodsolSoil:Thisisatypeofsoilthatundergoesaprocesscalled“Podsolization”.
It is commonly found in Taiga regions, whicharecharacterizedbypinetreesand
cool, humid conditions. The soil is acidic and generally poor in nutrients.
○ Red-Yellow Soil: This is a transitional soil foundin various regions.
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○ LateriteSoil:Thissoilundergoesaprocesscalled“Lateralization”andistypically
found in warm and humid regions, specifically tropical humid regions.
○ Laterite soils, a type of Latosol, are found in wetter regions and are a
source of Bauxite, an aluminum oxide.
○ The soil is acidic, has a reddish-brown color, and is generally poor in
nutrients.
■ Examples of regions with Latosol soil includethePatlandsofThar
Desert and Odisha. Extent: the Vindhya and Amarkantak peaks,
the western slopes of the Western Ghats, Meghalaya, the
northeastern hills, and the Konkan coast.
Azonal Soils:
● Types of Azonal Soils ( Based on transportation and deposition):
○ By river action:These soils are called alluvial soil.
○ By wind action: These soils are called Loess soil. Mainly found inChina,Potwar
place in Pakistan
○ By slope gradient:These soils are called Lithosols.
● Azonal Soilsare a type of soil with specific properties:
○ YoungandImmature:Azonalsoilsarerelativelynewandhavenothadmuchtime
to develop. This means they are not fully formed or mature.
○ Thin Layers: These soils are not very thick. This could be duetovariousfactors
such as the type of parent material or the climate of the region.
○ LackofHorizonProfile:Ahorizonprofileinsoilreferstothedifferentlayersthat
can be seen in a soil sample. Azonal soils do not have a distincthorizonprofile,
which means you cannot see different layers in the soil.
○ Regularly Replenished: These soils are regularly renewed or replenished, which
meanstheyhaveagoodsupplyofnutrients.Thiscouldbeduetofactorssuchas
regular rainfall or the type of vegetation in the area.
○ RichinNutrients:Azonalsoilsarerichinavarietyofnutrients,makingthemvery
fertile. This means they are good for growing crops.
○ BestforCultivation:Duetotheirhighnutrientcontentandregularreplenishment
of nutrients, Azonal soils are considered some of the best soils for cultivation.
Intra Zonal (Classification based on local factors):
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● BadDrainageConditions:Thisreferstoareaswherewaterdoesnotdrainwell,leadingto
swamps or bogs. These areas are often waterlogged.
○ Thesoilsintheseregionsareknownashydromorphicsoils,whicharealsoreferred
to as Swamp, Marshy, or Bog soils.
○ These soils are found inTerai regions and Mangroveregions.
○ TheprocessofsoilformationintheseareasisknownasGleying,whichresultsin
green-bluepatchesinthesoilduetoanaerobicconditions.Thisisoftenassociated
with the presence ofPotassium Glauconites.
○ In Kerala, these soils are found along the banks of backwaters and are locally
known asKarri soils.
● VeryHotDryConditions:Theseareareaswithhighevaporationratesandintensecapillary
action, leading to a high accumulation of salts in the upper soil layer.
○ The soils in these conditions are known asHalomorphicsoils.
■ Solonchakis a type of Halomorphic soil that is whiteand rich in Calcium.
■ Solonetz is another type of Halomorphic soil that is black and rich in
Sodium.
○ These soils are typically found in regions where capillary action is very strong.
● Parent Rocks: This refers to the original rock fromwhich the soil is formed.
○ Calcimorphic Soilis formed from limestone rocks.Varieties include:
■ Rendzina soil: Dark soil rich in organic matter.
■ Terra Rossa: Red soils found in Italy and Brazil. These soils aregoodfor
coffee cultivation and are a result of a chemical process known as
Kaolinization.
○ Lava Soilor Black Cotton Soil is another type ofsoil formed from parent rocks.
Important Soils as per USDA:
● Mollisols
○ Found ingrassland environments, mollisols are richinorganic matter.
○ They have adark colorand are highly fertile, makingthem suitable for agriculture.
○ Commonly found in regions like the prairies of North America and steppes of
Eurasia.
● Ultisols
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○ Found inhumid temperate and tropical regions.
○ Thesesoilsareacidicandtypicallyhaveaclay-richprofile,whichresultsfromthe
leaching of bases.
○ While they are less fertile, they are found in forests and support crops when
treated with fertilizers.
● Aridisols
○ Aridisols develop indryordesertenvironments withlow rainfall.
○ They often have ahigh salt contentand may bealkaline.
○ Found in regions like the Middle East, North Africa, andpartsoftheAmerican
Southwest.
● Vertisols
○ Vertisols are heavy clayey soils that experience continuous expansion and
contractiondue to changes in moisture.
○ These soils can be foundinsemi-aridregionsandareimportantforgrazingand
agriculture, particularly for crops likecotton.
○ Vertisols are commonly found in areas likeIndia,Australia, and parts ofAfrica.
● Inceptisols
○ Inceptisolsareyoungsoilsthathavejustbeguntoformandaretypicallyfoundin
regions withrecent geological activity.
○ They are more developed than Entisols.
○ They are characterized by immature horizons and are found in a variety of
environments, includingmountain slopesandriverbanks.
● Entisols
○ Entisols areyoung soilsthat showlittle to no horizondevelopment.
○ They are found in areas where soil formation is ongoing due to frequent
disturbanceslike floods, or in areas withconstant deposition.
○ Common inriverbeds,glacial deposits, andsand dunes.
● Types of Soils in India
○ AlluvialSoils(Azonal),RedSoil,BlackSoil,LateriteSoils,AridSoils,SalineSoil,Hilly
Soil, Peaty and Marshy Soil (Hydromorphic Soil)
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Indian Geography
Chapter 04: Indian Physiography
Lecture 16: Soil (Part 03)
Indian Soil
● India has significant physical (mountains, plains, volcanoes, coastal plains) and climatic
(tropical and subtropical) diversity, which influences the types of soil found across the
country. The soil in India is affected by various geographical and climatic factors, leading to
a wide variety of soil types.
Types of Soils in India
Soils in India can be classified into two:
● Major Soils:
○ Alluvial Soil (40-42%)
○ Red Soil (20-22%)
○ Black Soil (10-15%)
○ Laterite Soil (4%)
● Minor Soils:
○ Mangrove Soil
○ Mountain or Hill Soil
○ Desert Soil
○ Saline and Alkaline Soil
● The Indian Council of Agricultural
Research (ICAR) and the National
Bureau of Soil Survey (NBSS) have
put Indian soils into four groups based
on where they came from, what they
are made of, what colour they are, and
where they are found.
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○ Alluvial soils, Black soils, Red and Yellow soils, Laterite soils, Arid soils, Saline soils,
Peaty soils, Forest soils.
Alluvial Soil
● Alluvial soil is a transported soil—meaning it’s moved
and deposited by natural forces like rivers. This
happens when rivers carry soil and sediment from
higher areas and deposit them in places like flood
plains, river valleys, deltas, and coastal plains.
● Alluvial soil is found in the river valleys and flood
plains of several important rivers, such as:
Mahanadi, Krishna, Kaveri, Godavari.
● It falls in the category of azonal soil.
● It contains a high amount of nutrients, which is
why it's so great for farming. The nutrients are a
mix of macro and micro nutrients. Comparatively
high minerals are found in it. As a result, it is
super fertile soil.
● They are less developed soils with low maturity.
This soil tends to be a thin soil and less mature, which means it hasn't developed over a
long time compared to other more stable types of soil.
● Alluvial soil tends to be rich in lime, which is great for plants because it helps neutralize
acidity, creating a more balanced environment for growth.
● It has less amount of nitrate.
● It is poor in humus, which is the decayed organic matter that helps retain moisture and
nutrients.
● Alluvial Soil found in the flatter parts of the Himalayas.
Types of Alluvial Deposits
● Bhabar: Bhabar soil is found in the foothills of the Himalayas. It is not fertile and is
more of a stony area with boulders, gravel, and pebbles. These deposits are not good for
agriculture due to the presence of large stones.
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● Terai: Terai soil lies just south of the Bhabar
region. This area is prone to waterlogging, which
can sometimes hinder agricultural activities. It is
classified as hydromorphic Soil, meaning it is
associated with wet, swampy conditions, and rich
in nitrate. This soil type is beneficial for certain
crops, as nitrates are important for plant growth.
● Banger Soil: Banger soil is older alluvial soil found
further away from the river. It is not as fertile as other types of alluvial soil. The soil
often contains kankars (calcium concretions), which can make it less suitable for farming
without proper treatment or amendment.
● Khadar Soil: Khadar soil is found in flood plains. It is very fertile, as it gets replenished
with nutrients during regular flooding. This makes it one of the most fertile soils in India.
It is highly suitable for agriculture, especially in flood-prone areas. This type of soil is
common in areas like Eastern UP, Bihar, and West Bengal, and Assam Valley of
Brahmaputra.
Significance of Alluvial Soils
● Alluvial soil is considered the most fertile soil in India. Alluvial soil is often referred to as
the lifeline of Indian agriculture. Nearly half of India’s population is engaged in
agriculture, and the availability of fertile alluvial soil in many regions directly supports their
livelihoods.
Challenges with Alluvial Soil
● Prone to salinisation (evaporation > precipitation) in
case of improper management in dry areas. This
problem is more common in areas where there is
excessive irrigation and inadequate drainage. It is
particularly prominent in the Punjab, Haryana,
Western UP, Delhi, and Northern Rajasthan due to
less rainfall.
○ In dry regions, evaporation rates are much
higher than precipitation. This leads to the
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upward movement of water through the soil due to capillary action (the ability of
soil to draw up water). When water evaporates from the surface, it leaves behind
the salts that were dissolved in it. Over time, this leads to the accumulation of salt
on the soil surface. This is known as salinisation.
● More soil erosion occurs when the soil is overused. Mono cropping (the practice of growing
the same crop repeatedly on the same land) leads to a reduction in soil fertility. In dry
areas, this issue leads to crop failure ultimately leading to increase in fallow land (lacks
vegetation and crop cover, making it more exposed to rainfall erosion and surface runoff).
As erosion continues, the upper fertile part of the soil is lost, reducing the soil's ability to
support plant growth.
● Fertile land tends to have high population concentrations. As fertility declines, this land is
often diverted for non-agricultural uses, reducing the available space for farming. The result
is a decline in agricultural production, which poses a challenge to food security in the
long term.
Black Soil/ Regur Soil
● Black soil constitutes about 10-15% of the total soil in India.
● It is also known as cotton soil (because it is particularly
well-suited for cotton cultivation).
● Black soil is mainly found in regions formed by volcanic activity,
particularly on the basaltic lava plateau like regions of Gujarat
plains (Kathiawar Plateau, parts of Saurashtra, Rajkot), parts of
Malwa, almost entire Maharashtra, North-western Telangana,
Northern Karnataka. These plateaus are rich in minerals, making
them fertile for agriculture.
● Formation of soil is due to weathering and disintegration of
basaltic lava rocks. Over time, these rocks break down into soil rich
in minerals like iron, calcium, and magnesium. This process of
weathering occurred mainly during the Cretaceous Period (around
60-65 million years ago), when volcanic activity was high,
particularly from the Reunion hotspot.
● It is rich in lime.
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● This soil is rich in titaniferous magnetite, a mineral that is high in iron (Fe) and
magnesium (Mg), which contributes to its fertility and its dark colour.
● Black soil has a fine texture, and it is typically clayey, making it excellent at retaining
water.
● These are different from black earth (chernozem).
● It is very fertile in nature. Cash crops like cotton, sugarcane, groundnut, etc. are grown.
● They are ploughed before rain as they get very sticky when they are saturated.
● They are also known as self ploughed soil.
○ During the rainy season, this soil absorbs water, it
swells and becomes sticky. After the rainy
season, this swelling reduces, leaving the soil
loose for cultivation forming deep cracks. These
cracks help with aeration (increasing the amount
of air in the soil), which is crucial for root growth
and nitrogen fixation (with the help of
rhizobium). Hence, black soil has more nitrates.
● It is also known as vertisol.
Significance of Black Soils
● Black soil is considered ideal for cotton cultivation because of the following conditions:
○ Black soil requires water, but not too much rainfall. It holds moisture well, making
it suitable for cotton, which needs consistent moisture.
○ It can retain water deep beneath the surface.
○ It requires a certain amount of lime, which helps neutralise acidity and provides
essential nutrients.
○ The soil thrives in dry conditions, particularly in the range of 70-100 cm of depth,
providing the perfect environment for cotton growth.
● In recent years, it has supported crop diversification, which has helped in reducing the risk
of crop failure.
○ Example- sugarcane cultivation in Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu, oilseeds cultivation,
groundnut cultivation, horticulture, viticulture (grapes, etc), oranges, etc are easily
cultivated.
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● While black soil is ideal for many crops, the cotton soils of uplands are often low in
fertility.
Challenges of Black Soil
● The Deccan lava plateau is generally poor in groundwater, meaning water is supplied
through canals. This reliance on canal water increases the chances of over-irrigation, which
is problematic for the soil and crops.
○ When too much water is applied, the soil absorbs it to a greater depth. This excess
water leads to salinisation. Sugarcane cultivation requires a good amount of
water, but excessive irrigation can accelerate salinisation in these areas.
● In many regions, the evaporation rate is higher than precipitation, leading to dry
conditions that require more water for cultivation which again increases the problem of
salinisation.
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Geography
Chapter 04: Indian Physiography
Lecture 17: Soil (Part 04)
Laterite Soil
● Distribution:4%
● Also Called as:Laterite has been derived from theLatin word ‘later’ which means brick.
○ Laterite is also referred to as "Brick Soil" duetoitshard,compacttextureand
reddish-browncolor, which is similar to the appearanceof bricks.
● Formation: Laterite soilformsthroughaprocessknownas‘laterization,’whichinvolves
leaching. In this process, silica is washed away from the topsoil, resulting in the
accumulation of iron and aluminum.
○ Theinteractionoftheseelementswithatmosphericoxygenleadstotheformation
ofiron oxides (rust) and aluminum oxides (bauxite).
○ This type of soil forms in regions withhigh temperaturesand heavy rainfall.
● Characteristics: Laterite soil is typically acidic due to the presence of Al³⁺ ions, which
contribute to its acidic nature.
● Location:
○ Peninsular plateau
○ Konkan Coast (Maharashtra) and northern part of Kanara coast (Karnataka)
○ Higher peaks of Vindhya, Satpura, northeast hills
○ Western Slope of the Western Ghats (South of Wayanad, Kerala)
○ Peaks of Meghalaya, Peaks of Chota Nagpur Plateau
○ Some part of peaks of Aravallis
● HardPan:Lateritesoiloftenformsahardlayerknownasthe"hardpan"duetointense
weathering and leaching. Hard Pan are significant for bauxite mining due to their
aluminum content
○ Patlands, found in regions likeRanchi (Jharkhand)and Odisha.
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● ImpactofBauxiteMining:Keralaiswitnessingmorelandslidesastheforestsaregetting
cleared for bauxite mining.
● Plantation Agriculture: Laterite soils are idealforplantationagriculture,supportingcrops
liketea, coffee, spices, cashews, and coconut.
Red Soil:
● Distribution:20 to 22/23%
● This has thesecond largest extension in India.
● Colour:It isredin colour, but it is not the sameas laterite soil.
● Formation: Red soil forms through the disintegration of granitic and gneiss rocks
(metamorphicrocks),whicharerichinsilica.Thisresultsinsoilthatisacidicinnature
due to the composition of its parent rocks.
● Location:Itisfoundthroughoutthepeninsularhighlands,exceptinareaswithlateriteor
black soil.
● Properties:
○ Texture: Coarser (due to
disintegration of hard rocks),
with a dry and well-drained
texture.
○ Permeability: High
permeability, making it
well-drained.
○ Fertility: Low natural fertility,
but with fertilizer application,
it cansupport diverse crops.
■ Agriculture:Drought-resistant crops likemillets,maize, and groundnuts.
○ Potash Content: Richin potash
● Agriculture:Over-irrigation can lead tosalinityissues.
Granite rocks, which contain high amounts of feldspar minerals, typically have a light grey
color. When these rocks undergo a process called kaolinization, the feldspar minerals oxidize,
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causing a chemical change that converts the soil's color from grey to red. This process is
responsible for the characteristic red color of red soil.
Minor Soils:
Mangrove Soil:
● Also Known As:Peaty and MarshySoil,HydromorphicSoil,Histosol, BogSoil.
○ InKerala, it is locally known asKarriSoil.
● Formation and Characteristics: Mangrove soil forms in waterlogged areas, especially in
coastalwetlandswherethesoilundergoesthegleizationorgleyingprocess,leadingtoa
high accumulation of organic matter.
○ Colour:Itishighlyacidicandrichinvegetation,makingitdarker,oftenappearing
blackin color.
● Properties: Heavysoil withpoor drainagedue to waterlogging.
○ Deficientin essential nutrients likepotash and phosphate.
○ High organic matter content, derived from the decay of plant material.
● Agriculture: Though challenging for regular agriculture, mangrove soil is used for paddy
cultivationduring the dry seasonwhen water levelsrecede.
● Location: Mangrove soils areprimarilyfoundincoastalregionsandwetlands,supporting
mangrove vegetation and providing unique ecosystems for coastal biodiversity.
Mountain Soil (Hilly Soil):
Mountain soils are found inhilly and mountainousregionsand are classified into types:
● Lithosol:
○ Location:Found on thesteeper slopesof hills andmountains.
○ Characteristics: Lithosol is a thin, easily erodible soil, not suitable for general
crop cultivation. However, it can supportfruit orchards.
● Podsol:
○ Location: Common in coniferous forests, particularly in the Himalayan and
Trans-Himalayan regions.Trees likedeodar, cedar,and juniperare found here.
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○ Leaching:Podsolformsthroughtheleachingprocesswhereironandaluminumare
leached away, and silica accumulates in the topsoil. This makes the soil
silica-rich,light in color, and acidic.
■ Chelation: Organic acids from decomposing coniferous needles act as
chelating agents,reacting with metalsin the soil.
○ Properties:Itisaresultofacoolandhumidclimate,wherethelowtemperature
reduces bacterial activity, leading to a higher concentration of humus and
organic content.
○ Agricultural Use:
■ Tropical regions: Mountain soils in tropical areas are used for tea and
coffee plantations,though less than laterite soils.
■ Temperate regions (e.g., Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Kashmir):
These soils are well-suited for fruit orchards (e.g., apples, cherries),
vegetables (e.g.,cabbage,carrots),andflowers(e.g.,rhododendron,locally
known as Buraans).
● Horticultural crops are diverse which include all kinds of fruits, vegetables, flowers,
medicinal and aromatic crops.
⇒
● Floriculture the cultivation offlowers
● Olericulture⇒ the cultivation ofvegetables
Desert Soil
● Location:DesertsoilisprimarilyfoundinRajasthan,particularlyintheGreatIndianThar
Desert.
● Characteristics:Desertsoildiffersfromsierozem(alsoknownaschestnutsoil),whichis
a type of pedocal soil.
○ Desert soil is partly Loessic, formedbythedepositionofsandparticlesbywind,
andpartly alluvial,with sand deposits carried by(Luni) River.
○ Desert soil hasnegligible humus or organic contentdue to the dry, arid climate.
● Agriculture:Desert soil, whenproperly irrigated,can becomefertile and support crops.
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○ Common crops grown through dry farming techniques include barley, maize,
millet, and oilseeds.
○ Livestock rearingis a significant agricultural activityin desert regions.
Saline and Alkaline Soil:
● Local Names: Known byvariouslocalnamessuchasReh,Kallar,Thur,Usar,Karal,and
Chopan.
● Location:FoundmostlyinnorthwesternIndia,includingPunjab,Haryana,westernUttar
Pradesh, Delhi, and northern Rajasthan.
● Formation: These soils are often the result of human activities such as over-irrigation,
canalirrigation,andnaturalprocesseslikeevaporationbeinghigherthanprecipitation,and
capillary action that brings salts from lower soil layers to the surface.
● Rectification:Enhancingdrainageandreducingwaterloggingcanhelplowerbothsalinity
and alkalinity.
○ Adding gypsumhelps neutralize sodium in the soil.
○ Planting daincha (atypeofgreenmanure)orgrowingfoddercropsfromcotton
or paddy cultivation can help improve soil structure and fertility.
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Salinity: The soil is dominated by chlorides and sulphates of sodium, magnesium, and
calcium.
Alkalinity:The soil is dominatedbysodium salts,particularlysodium carbonate.
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Geography
Chapter 04: Indian Physiography
Lecture 18: Agriculture
Agriculture: Meaning
● Agriculture is the science, art and practice of cultivating soil (like increasing fertility),
growing and harvesting crops, domestication and rearing livestock and animals.
Agricultural Regions in the World: Five Criteria
● In1936,D.WhittleseydefinedmajoragriculturalregionsoftheEarth.Whiletheseregions
have evolved, his concepts remain relevant. The five criteria that help demarcate
agricultural regions are:
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○ Crop and Livestock Combination:
■ Some regions focus more on crops, while others may focus more on
livestock. For example, in Rajasthan (a dry region), animal rearing is
more prominent duetothechallengingenvironmentforcropcultivation.In
contrast, the Gangetic plains, where soil fertility is high, favor crop
cultivationover livestock.
○ Intensity of Land Use:
■ This refers tohow much of the land is cultivated.
■ In some regions,landisusedintensively,meaningeveryavailablespaceis
utilized for farming (e.g., intensive rice farming). In other regions, land
use may be more extensive, with large areas left fallow or used less
intensively.
○ Processing and Marketing of Farm Produce
■ Proximity to urban areas influences agricultural practices.
■ In cities or regions close to urban centers, farmers may focus on
horticulture (perishable goods)because of theproximityto markets.
■ In more distant areas, farmers might grow grains or millets
(non-perishable)due tolimited access to markets.
○ Degree of Mechanization
■ Mechanization refers to theuse of machines in agriculture.
■ InPunjab,mechanizationishigh,withlargefarmsbenefitingfrommodern
equipment. In contrast, in regions like Bihar, smalllandholdingsresultin
less mechanization,relying more on labor-intensivemethods.
○ Building and Other Structures Associated with Agriculture
■ Agriculturethrivesinregionswithadequateinfrastructure,includingstorage
facilities, roads, and market connectivity.
■ Theseelementshelpintheprocessingandmarketingofagriculturalproduce,
making it easier to sell products and transport them efficiently.
Truck Farming:
Truck farming refers to atypeofcommercialagriculturethatfocusesongrowingfruitsand
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vegetables near urban areas for local consumption. Farmers transport their produce by
trucksdirectlyto nearby markets, where it is soldfresh on a daily basis.
World Agricultural Regions:
1. Nomadic Herding:
● Nomadic herding is a primitive and ecological agricultural system that involves the
rearing of livestock (such as sheep, goats, cattle, reindeer, camels, and horses) of the
region.
● This practice is often based on a subsistence economy, where the herders primarily
produce food for their own families, and secondaryproductslikeclothing(fromanimal
skins and wool) andshelter(using animal productslike hides).
● Key Characteristics:
○ PrimitivePractice:Itisconsideredoneoftheoldestformsofpastoralism,involving
minimal reliance on modern technology or intensive farming practices.
○ Dependence on Local Animals: Nomads typicallydependontheanimalsthatare
adapted to the harsh conditions of their environment.
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● Locations: Nomadic herding is most commonly found in regions where agriculture is not
viable due toharsh climates.These include:
○ Saharan Africa(Libya, Chad, Niger, Mauritian, Mali, Algeria)
○ Southwest and Central Asia (Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Syria, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan,
Israel)
○ Tundra Regionof North America, Siberia, Europe
● The regions covered by nomadic herders are shrinking rapidly. Their population is also
reducing fast.
● Nomadic herding is now seen only in some isolated regions of Tundra and Sahara.
Tundra Region:
TheTundraregionischaracterizedbycold,harshclimates,wheretraditionalcommunitiesrely
on reindeer and fish for survival.
● North America: The Inuits (historically called Eskimos, a term now considered
derogatory).
● Europe:The Lapps
● Siberia:The Yakuts
2. Livestock Ranching:
● Livestock Ranching is a form of animal husbandry (dependent on animals) that differs
from nomadic herding in several ways:
● Key Features:
○ No Movement of Animals: Unlike nomadic herding, livestock ranching involves
settled farming, where animals remain on a fixed piece of land.
○ Flat, Grass-Rich Land: It takes place on flat plainsorgrasslandswithabundant
grazing resources.
○ TechnologyUse:Ranchingoftenincorporatesmoderntechnologytoimproveanimal
productivity, such as feeding techniques, breeding, and health care.
○ Fattening for Slaughter: Animals are typicallyraisedtobefattenedbeforebeing
sent to slaughterhouses.
● Animals Involved:
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○ Cattle (e.g., Jersey cows, Friesian cows, Hereford cows)
○ Sheep
○ Goats
● Locations:Grasslands
○ Temperate Grasslands:
■ Steppe Grasslands:Russia-Ukraine border
■ Prairie:USA (e.g., Wyoming) and Canada
■ Pampas:Argentina and Uruguay (notable for alfalfagrass)
■ Velds:South Africa
■ Downs:Australia
■ Canterbury:New Zealand
■ Puszta:Hungary
○ Tropical Grasslands:
■ Savanna:Africa, India
■ Llanos:Venezuela
■ Campos:Brazil and Paraguay
■ Patana:Sri Lanka
3. Shifting Cultivation (Slash and Burn Cultivation):
● The history of shifting cultivation is as old as the history of agriculture.
● This is aprimitive way of soil cultivation.
● Location:FoundusuallyintropicalrainforestsliketheAmazon,Congo,northeastofIndia
and Mekong Basin.
○ InIndia, it can be found indeciduous forests as well.
● Features:
○ Community Land Ownership: Land is typically owned by the community rather
than individuals, and the land is used collectively.
○ Subsistence Farming: Farmers grow food primarily for family and community
consumption.
○ Tools and Techniques: The farming is done using simple tools like a hoe, sickle,
and fire. Trees are slashed, and the remainder is burned to clear land for farming.
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○ No Draught Animals or Fertilizers: This method does not involve the use of
draught animals, manure, or fertilizers.
○ Mixed Cropping: Multiple crops are often grown together, which helps with
biodiversity and soil fertility.
○ Frequent Field Rotation: The settlements are fixed, but the fields are rotated
frequently, usually every 1-2 years.
■ Long Fertility Cycle: The rotationcycleforeachfieldiscompletedovera
period of 10-25 years, allowing the soiltoregainitsfertilitybeforebeing
used again.
● The intensity of shifting cultivation is low. Therefore it isnotsuitableandsustainable
for the present world.
4. Sedentary Agriculture:
Sedentary Agriculture isafarmingsystemwherefarmersremainsettledinonelocationrather
than moving frequently.
● CropRotation:Insteadofrotatingfields,cropsarerotatedinthesamefield.Thishelpsin
maintainingsoilfertilitybyplantingdifferentcropsthathavevaryingnutrientrequirements
and replenishing the soil naturally.
● LandControl:Farmershavecontroloverafixedpieceofland,allowingthemtomanageit
more efficiently.
● Sedentary Settlements: As the practice involves staying in onelocation,itleadstothe
establishment of permanent settlements and sedentary working space.
● Locations:
○ Tropical south Asia
○ Southeast Asia
○ Central America
5. Intensive Subsistence Farming:
● Subsistence Nature: The main goal of subsistence farmingistogrowfoodforpersonal
consumption, not for commercial sale. The produce is mainly consumed by the farmer
and their family.
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● IntensiveUseofLand:Intensivefarmingmeansthatalmosteverypartofthelandisused
for cultivation, leaving very little land fallow.
● Locations:Commonly practiced inmonsoon Asia andAfrica.
● Features:
○ Small Land Holdings: This type of farming is typically practiced by marginal
farmers who have small plots of land that are intensively worked.
○ Scattered Fields: Fields are often small and scattered, rather than large,
continuous tracts of land.
○ Labor-Intensive: It relies heavily on manual labor or domesticlabor,anddraught
animals are often used.
○ Limited Use of Technology: There is a lack of advanced farmingtechnologyand
mechanized tools.
○ Indebtedness: Poor farmers often face economic challenges, leading to general
indebtedness
○ Dominance of Cereal Crops: The primary crops grown are cereals, such as rice,
wheat, maize, millet, and barley.
● Types of Intensive Subsistence Farming: Depending upon the amount of moisture, this
typology of agriculture can be divided intotwo groups:
○ Intensive Paddy Cultivation:High moisture
○ Intensive Non-Paddy Cultivation: Growing maize, millet, barley, wheat ,and
sometimes oil seed.
PW Web/App:[Link]
Geography
Chapter 04: Indian Physiography
Lecture 19: Agriculture (Part 02)
6. Mixed Subsistence Farming:
● It is common in Northern Europe.
● Central and eastern parts of Mexico.
● Along with crop cultivation, livestock rearing is also done.
● Produce is for family consumption.
● Not much surplus is left for the market.
7. Plantation Agriculture:
● This was initially started in the British settlements of America.
● Later on, it was introduced to the tropical and subtropical humid regions of Latin America.
● It was slowly and gradually introduced to parts of Africa and Southeast Asia.
● The labour working on these lands were from Asia, including India, and Africa.
Plantation Crops (Cash Crops):
Features of Plantation Agriculture:
● Grown in subtropical and tropical humid lands.
● These arecash crops.
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● They are grown onextensive lands.
● It requiresspecialized skills, and wherever essential,machinerycan also be used.
● Heavy application offertilizers, pesticides, andinsecticidesis common.
● Thesame stand of plants gives yield for multipleyears; therefore, cultivation, including
ploughing, is very sensitive and should not damage the plants.
● In most estates,factories are installedto producemarket-ready products.
Plantation Agriculture in India:
● Nilgiris– Tea estates.
● Karnataka– Coffee plantations.
● Coorg– Coffee.
● Baba Budan Hills– Coffee.
● Kerala– Coconut, cashew, tapioca, rubber, spices,etc.
● Assam Hills and Darjeeling– Tea estates.
Coastal Belts:
● Western coastal plains– Coconuts, cashew nuts.
● Deccan plateau– Cotton cultivation.
● Sugarcane cultivation– Also practiced inUttar PradeshandMaharashtra.
8. Extensive Cultivation (Extensive Farming):
● It is done incontinental lands(far from the sea)ofmid-latitudes(temperate
grasslands).
● Found in regions like:
○ Central Steppesnear Central Asia, Europe, Ukraine,Russia (Prairies, Pampas).
○ Western plains of North America.
○ Canada and USA.
○ Argentina.
● Areas receivingless than 60 cm of annual rainfall.
Features:
● Large-sized land holdingsranging from240 hectaresup to 60,000 hectares.
● Less labor-intensiveandhighly mechanized.
● However,per hectare yield is low.
● Practiced insparsely populated areas.
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● Monocultureis dominant —wheatin particular.
● Apart from wheat,maize, oilseeds, rye, flaxseedsare also grown.
● Most of the produce issold in the market and exported.
9. Mediterranean Agriculture (Farming):
Location:
● Found between30° to 45° latitudeson thewesternparts of continents.
Areas:
● Mediterranean countriesof Asia, Europe, and Africa.
● California(USA).
● Southern Chile.
● South Africa.
● Southern parts of Australia.
Features:
● Specializes inorchards of citrus fruits;cereal cropsare subordinate to tree crops.
● Wheat and barley(grown in winter season) are themain cereal crops.
● Medium to largesize land holdings.
● Irrigationis mainly done during thesummer season,as summers aredry.
Major Crops and Activities:
10. Mixed Farming (Commercial Farming):
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● It is amixed type of farming, combiningcrop cultivation and livestock rearing, butfor
commercial purposes.
● Commonly practiced inEurope and North America.
Features of Mixed Farming:
● Practiced inhighly densely populated areas(urbanizedareas of developed countries, and
now even around urban centers of developing countries).
● Large-sized land holdings.
● Highly mechanizedand modern methods used.
● High yield per hectareandhigh agricultural returns.
● Apart from commercial crops,fodder cropslikehempand hayare grown for livestock.
● During winters,animals are fedwithforage, hay,etc.
11. Dairy Farming:
● Dairy farmingis thekeeping of cattle for milk andmilk products.
Milk Products:
Regions Practicing Dairy Farming:
Temperate Countries (Europe):
● Denmark, Belgium, Netherlands, Poland, Germany, Hungary
North America:
● Canada, USA
Other Regions:
● Southern Australia, New Zealand, Argentina
Most of these areas have a “wet marine climate”.
PW Web/App:[Link]
Features of Dairy Farming:
● It iscapital-intensive farming.
● Requireshuge investment in infrastructure(like sheds,cooling systems, transport, etc.).
● Highly mechanizedfor processes like milking, feeding,and storage.
● Farmers need tolook after milch animals for longhours.
● Usually practicednear big towns and citiesto ensurequick delivery of fresh milk and
products.
12. Truck Farming (Horticulture):
● Specialized cultivationofvegetables, fruits, andflowers.
● These farms arewell-connected with roads (metalledroads).
● Locatednot very far(overnight distance) from cities,and the produce iseasily
transported to urban markets via trucks.
● Agriculture is done on scientific linesusing moderntechniques.
● Land holdings are smaller in size.
● Highly mechanized and capital-intensivefarming.
● However,harvesting of vegetables, fruits, and flowersis mostly done manuallyto avoid
damage.
● Also known asprecision farming, focusing on efficiencyand quality.
PW Web/App:[Link]
Geography
Chapter 04: Indian Physiography
Lecture 20 : Types of Crops and Irrigation
Agriculture in India:
● More than 50% of the Indian workforce is associated with agriculture and its allied
activities.
● Agriculture contributes approximately 18% to India's GDP.
Cropping seasons in India:
● KharifSeason:Sownwiththeonsetofthesouthwest
monsoon (June–July) and harvested by
September–October. Major crops include rice, maize,
cotton and sugarcane—these need warm, wet
conditions and ample rainfall.Somecropscaneven
grow in less humidity like millets, sorghum, pulses
(arhar, urad), oilseeds (groundnut), etc.
● Rabi Season: It is sown after the monsoon is over
(October–November) and harvested in spring(March–April).
Cooler conditions are needed during sowing time. Winter
rainfallduringDecember-Januaryduetowesterndisturbances
helps incultivationofthesecrops.Cropslikewheat,barley,
chickpeas (gram), oats and mustard thrive in cool, dry
weather and rely on irrigation.
● Zaid Season: A short cropping season between
RabiandKharif(March–June),mainlyinirrigated
areas. Crops like watermelon, cucumber,
muskmelon, fodder crops and vegetables are
grown—requiring warm, dry weather with longer
daylight hours and availability of groundwater.
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Irrigation in India
● Irrigation is the supply of water to the land artificially.
● Indian agriculture is often referred to as a "Gamble of Monsoon" because the monsoon
rains are highly variable and not predictable. With around 51% of rainfed agriculture,
this variability can lead to challenges in farming, particularly with water availability.
● Irrigation playsacrucialroleinovercomingthesechallengesbyensuringwateravailability
and making cultivation more reliable.
● Italsoallowsagriculturetoreachitsfullpotentialbymakingfarmingmorepredictableand
sustainable.
● Drought is a commonphenomenoninIndia,andirrigationsystemsarevitalinmitigating
the impact of droughts.
● The monsoon season may be delayed, which can impact crop growth. Irrigation helps
bridge this gap.
● Wintercropsareoftenheavilydependentonirrigationasthenaturalrainfallisinsufficient
during this time.
● To solve all these problems, irrigation is needed.
● India is ranked 1st in terms of irrigated area.
● Based on the intent, irrigation can be classified into two categories:
○ Protective(orProtection)Irrigation:Thistypeofirrigationhelpsinpreventingcrops
fromdryingupduringtimeswhentheyareunderthreatfromalackofwater,suchas
during hot weather or dry spells.
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○ ProductiveIrrigation:Thistypeofirrigationaimstoincreasetheproductivityoryield
of crops. Some plants can survive with less water, but their productivity is limited
unless they receive a continuous and adequate supply of water. Productive irrigation
ensures that crops can grow optimally, leading to a better yield.
Types of irrigation
1. Canal Irrigation
● Canal irrigation is one of the oldestandmost
important sources of irrigation in India.
● It is mostlyusedintheGreatPlainsofIndia
and the coastal plains of India due to
availability of rivers and water bodies.
● Important irrigation Projects:
○ Indira Gandhi Canal project→ This
canal originates from Harikebarrageat
the confluence of the Sutlej and Beas
rivers. Its construction commenced in
1958 and irrigation facilities started in
1961. It primarily irrigates Rajasthan
(Punjab is not included).
○ Bhakra Canal: The water comes from
theBhakraDambuiltonSatlujriverin
Himanchal Pradesh. It was started in
1954. It mainly benefits areas of
Punjab.
○ Sharda Canal: The canal originates
from the Banbasa area, located at the India-Nepal border. It startedin1928.It
providesirrigationtoUttarPradesh(UP),particularlytheregionsofPilibhit,Bijnor,
and Muzaffarnagar, etc.
○ Upper Ganga Canal: It originates from Kankhal (Haridwar) and was started in
1954. It provides irrigation to Uttar Pradesh (UP), particularly the regions of
Roorkee, Ghaziabad, Meerut, Saharanpur, and Kanpur.
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○ Sirhind Canal: It comes from Ropar (Ropar Main) in Punjab. It serves Punjab
(Ferozpur, Patiala, etc.), and parts of Haryana (Hisar, Faridabad, etc.) andUttar
Pradesh.
○ Lower GangaCanal:ItisinNarora,
Bulandshahr region.
○ Bist Doab Canal: Originates from
partoftheBhakraproject,especially
theNangalProject.Itcoversareasin
Punjab, especially around Jalandhar
and Hoshiarpur.
○ Western Yamuna Canal: It
originates from the Tejawala (Feroz
Tughlaq) area. It irrigates mostly
Haryana and some parts of Uttar
Pradesh.
○ Upper Bari Doab Canal: It starts
from Madhopur in Punjab and irrigates areas of Gurdaspur, Amritsar, etc.
○ Tawa Canal: It is on the Tawa River and irrigatesNarmadapuram.
○ Mettur Canal:ItisconnectedtotheMetturdaminTamilNaduandservesareas
such as Salem, Trichy, and Tiruchirappalli.
Merits/ Benefits of Canal Irrigation
● Perennialsourceofirrigation:Canalirrigationprovidesaconsistentandcontinuouswater
supply for crops throughout the year.
● Cheap source of irrigation: It is acost-effectivemethodascomparedtootherformsof
irrigation like groundwater pumping.
● Increase fertility: Canals carry sediments from rivers, which helps in increasing the
fertilityofthesoil,makingitmoreproductiveforagriculture.Example-IndiraGandhicanal
increased fertility of Jaisalmer.
● Makes agriculture sustainable: Canal irrigation ensures that crops can be grown
consistently, contributing to long-term agricultural sustainability.
● Helps control floods during the rainy season: Canals help manage excess water during
heavy rains, preventing flooding.
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Demerits of Canal Irrigation
● Overuse and misuse of canal irrigation: Excessive use can lead to waterlogging issues,
where water accumulates and stagnates in the soil.
● Salinityofsoil:Overuseandmismanagementofwatercanincreasethesalinityofthesoil,
reducing its fertility and productivity.
● Excessive irrigation: It can raise the groundwater table, which leads to alkalinisation of
the soil, especially in semi-arid regions leading to usar and kallar Formation.
● Health impact: Overuse may create waterlogged areas, which favor the breeding of
mosquitoes, contributing to the spread ofwater-bornediseases.
● Limitedtoplainareas:Canalirrigationispossibleonlyinplainorflatareas,wherewater
can be easily distributed
● Overflow in the rainy seasondue to excess water thanholding capacity.
2.Wells and Tubewell Irrigation
● Approximately 64% of irrigated areas receive
water from groundwater. 90-95% of tubewell
irrigation in IndiaisinUttarPradesh,Haryana,
Punjab, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal,
Andhra Pradesh, Odisha.
● Merits of Tubewell Irrigation:
○ Quick Installation: Tubewells can be installed in a short period of time, making
them a fast solution.
○ ConvenientLocation:Canbeinstalledinconvenientlocationsforfarmersandthe
government as per the required purpose.
○ Independent Source of Irrigation: Tubewellsprovideanindependentwatersupply,
not reliant on rainfall or external sources.
○ Flexible Usage:They can be used anytime, dependingon the needs of the crops.
○ LowInstallationCost:Tubewellsarerelativelycheapertosetupcomparedtoother
irrigation methods.
○ Fertility Boost: Tubewells carry minerals and nutrients that can enhance soil
fertility.
● Demerits of Tubewell Irrigation:
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○ Limited Area:Tubewells can only irrigate limitedareas due to their capacity.
○ GroundwaterDepletion:Thegroundwatertablemaygodown,especiallyduringdry
seasons, leading to water scarcity.
○ Monsoon Failure Impact: During summers or in the case of a monsoon failure,
there may not be enough groundwater for irrigation.
○ Expensivemodeofirrigation:Tubewellsrelyonelectricityordieseltopumpwater,
making it an expensive method of irrigation.
3. Tank Irrigation
● Tank irrigation is common in theDeccan Plateau.
● This method involves collecting water from smallrivers
(rivulets) by damming them to create artificial lakes,
which are then used for irrigation purposes.
4. Micro Irrigation
● Micro irrigation is atechniquethatoptimisestheuseofwaterbydeliveringitdirectlyto
the plant roots, reducing water wastage.
● Benefits:
○ ReducesWaterWaste:Thewaterissupplieddirectlytotheroots,optimisingusage
of water.
○ ImprovesEfficiency:Byfocusingontheroots,itincreasesoverallwaterefficiency
for the plants.
● Common Methods:
○ Drip Irrigation:Delivers water drop by drop to thebase of plants.
○ Sprinklers:Water is sprayed over the crops, simulatingnatural rain.
○ Foggers/Humidifiers:Used for creating a humid environmentfor plants
Drip Irrigation
● Itisamethodinwhichwaterissupplieddirectly
to the base of the plant. It is done through a
network of connected pipes and emitters.
● It is highly focused onprecise water application.
● Advantages:
○ Reduces Water Wastage:Waterisapplied
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directly to the root zone, minimising water wastage and losses.
○ Focusonrootzones:Fertilizerscanbemixedwiththewater,allowingnutrientsto
reach the roots efficiently.
○ LowEnergyCost:Thismethodisenergy-efficientcomparedtootherssinceithas
low wastage.
○ Sustainability: Helps in achieving sustainable agriculture by reducing waterusage
and chemical usage.
● Disadvantages:
○ High Initial Setup Cost:Setting up the system canbe expensive initially.
○ Clogging of Pipes: The emitters can become clogged if not maintained properly,
especially in regions of hard water.
○ Water Supply Issues:Difficulties may arise in areaswith hard water.
Sprinkler Irrigation
● Water is sprayed through rotating or fixed
sprinklers that mimics natural rain over a large
area.
● Advantages:
○ Suitable for All Soil Types: Works
effectively on all types of soil.
○ Reduces Land Leveling:This method reduces the needfor leveling the field.
○ Uniform Water Distribution:Provides even distributionof water across the field.
● Disadvantages:
○ Impact of wind:Wind can cause uneven water distribution.
○ Water Loss in Air:Water is lost due to evaporation,especially in hot climates.
Foggers
● Foggers, also known as misters or humidifiers,
are devices that spray a fine mist or fog of
waterovercrops.Itprovidesmoistureintheair,
generally used in nurseries and greenhouses.
● Advantages:
○ It provides direct moisture to plants
without waterlogging
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○ It is ideal for delicate plants which require a certain amount of moisture.
● Disadvantages:
○ Less application in open fields due to evaporation.
○ Controlling moisture in the air is difficult.
○ Regular maintenance is required to keep the foggers working effectively.
PW Web/App:[Link]
Indian Geography
Lecture Ch04_L21: Types of Crops and Irrigation
(Part-02)
Major Crops
Rice
● Grows well inclayey soil(which contains finer particles).
● Requires more than 100cmofrainfallperyear.(Indiareceivesrainfallrangingfrom100
to 300 cm per year).
● Theidealtemperatureforricecultivationisbetween20°Cto25°C(butitcanalsogrowin
temperatures more than 25°C and even upto 30°C in India).
● Rice isnative to Southeast Asia.
● China, India, Bangladesh, Indonesia, and Vietnam are the top producers of rice in the
world.
Rice in India:
● Rice is a staple food for over half the
world's population.
● West Bengal (WB) is a major
rice-growing state in India, where riceis
grown in all three seasons.
● Othermajorrice-producingstatesinIndia
include Uttar Pradesh (UP), Andhra
Pradesh (Krishna-Godavari Basin) and
Bihar (Andhra Pradesh is noted for
contributing to the Green Revolution,
whichsignificantlyboostedriceproduction
in the region)
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Wheat
● Wheat grows well in temperatures between15°C to 25°C.
● Requires50 cm to 75 cm of annual rainfall.
● It prefers well-drained, loamy soil.
● Needsbright sunlightduring its ripening phase andlow temperature during sowing season.
● Leading Producers→ China, EU, India, Russia and theUSA.
● Leading Exporter→Russiais the top exporter of wheat.
● Wheat is native to Southwest Asia.
● Wheat is the 2nd most staple food
worldwide after rice.
Wheat in India
● Winter rainfall(from western disturbances)
is beneficial for wheat cultivation.
● Favorable Regionsfor wheat cultivation
includePunjab,Haryana,Western Uttar
Pradesh,Northern Rajasthan,Delhiand
Madhya Pradesh (MP).
● Max Production→ Uttar Pradesh (UP).
● Max Productivity→ Punjab
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Maize (Corn)
● Temperature→ Grows best in temperatures between
15°C - 25°C.
● Rainfall→Requires about 40 - 70 cm of rainfall.
● Soil→Grows well in well-drained loamy soil.
● Leading Producers→ USA, China, Brazil, EU,
Argentina.
● Leading Exporter→ Brazil
● Native Region→ Central America
and Mexico
● It can be used for human food,
animal fodder, industrial uses, to
producebiofuelslikebiodieseland
ethanol.
● In the USA, the Corn Belt
includes regions like the Prairie
and Great Plains.
● It thrives in hot climates and is
efficient in such an environment.
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● Maize producing regions in India include Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra
Pradesh, Telangana.In India it can be grown of versatilesoil types.
Barley
● Temperature→Grows well in temperatures between 15°C- 25°C.
● Rainfall→Requires about 50 - 75 cm of rainfall.
● Soil→Prefers well-drained loamy soil.
● Crop Type→Rabi crop (winter crop in India).
● Native Region→North America and some parts of Asia.
● Leading Producers→EU, Russia, Canada, Australia,Turkey.
● Leading Exporter→Australia.
● Production in India→ India is not a global leader, but barley is grown in significant
quantities, especially in Rajasthan, Punjab, and Haryana.
Millet
● Millet is a group of drought-tolerant cereal crops.
● It is mostly native to African
countries and the Indian
sub-continent.
● Grows well in warm
temperatures, ranging from
20°C - 27°C.
● Requires50 - 70 cmof
rainfall.
● Preferswell-drained loamy
soil.
● Leading Producers→ India,
Niger, Chad, Mali, Nigeria.
● Leading Exporter→USA
Pearl Millet (Bajra):
● Drought resistant crop.
● Temperature:20°C - 30°C.
● Rainfall:40 - 70 cm.
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● Soil:Black soil and loamy soil.
● Main Growing Regions in India:Rajasthan, Maharashtra,Uttar Pradesh, Haryana
Jowar (Sorghum)
● Temperature:20°C - 30°C.
● Rainfall:40 cm.
● Soil: It can grow on black, alluvial and red soils.
● LeadingProducersinIndia→Maharashtra(>50%oftheproduction),Karnataka,Madhya
Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana.
● It is grown in both Kharif (monsoon) and Rabi (winter) seasons, particularly in South
India.
● Uses→ It can be used as biofuel, animal fodder.
Soybean
● Grows well in temperatures between
15°C - 20°C to 28°C.
● It requires 20 - 60 cm of rainfall.
● Preferswell-drained loamy soil.
● Leading Producers→ Brazil, USA,
Argentina, and India.
● Leading Exporter→ Brazil.
● Native Region→ Soybean is native
to East Asia.
● Uses→ food (Soy milk, Tofu (Soy
paneer)), animal fodder, biofuel.
● Growninaridandsemi-aridregions
in India (such as Rajasthan,
Maharashtra, Telangana, Karnataka,
and Madhya Pradesh). It is considered a versatile crop.
Sugarcane
● Temperature→ Best grown in temperatures between 20°C- 27°C.
● Rainfall→Requires 100 - 150 cm of rainfall or more.
● Itpreferswell-drainedloamysoilandcangrowinareaswithsandandclay(withcoarser
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particles like sand, and finer particles like
clay).
● It is a water-intensive crop, similar to
rice.
● It is native to New Guinea.
● Leading Producers→ China, India, Brazil,
Cuba, Pakistan, Myanmar, Philippines,
Thailand
● Leading Exporter→ Myanmar
● Uses→ It is used in the production of
sugar,jaggeryandalcoholicdrinks(suchas
rum).
Cotton
● Temperature→ Best grown in temperatures between 15°C- 25°C.
● Rainfall→Requiresapprox100cmofrainfall,howeveritcanalsogrowinregionswith50-
75 cm of rainfall.
● Soil→ Prefers black soil and basaltlavasoil.InIndia,cottonisknownasregursoil.It
can also grow in Steppe areas with
chernozem soil(also known as black
earth soil). Cotton cultivation is good
in clayey soil due to high water
retention capacity.
● Cotton cultivation in India requires
about 180 frost-free days.
● Leading Producers→ China, India,
Brazil, Pakistan, USA.
● Leading Exporter→China.
● It is a cash crop and fibre crop
Cotton Cultivation in India
● Major states→ Maharashtra, Gujarat,
Telangana and some parts of Uttar
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Pradesh (UP).
● Cotton in India includes both American and Indian varieties. It is native to black soil
regions of India.
● It is a kharif crop in India.
● India also cultivates BT cotton which is a genetically modified (GM) variety of cotton.
Rubber
● Temperature→ Best grown in
temperatures between 25°C - 27°C.
● Rainfall→ Requires 150 - 200 cm or
more rainfall.
● Soil→Growswellinwell-drainedalluvial
loamy soil.
● Rubber is native to Brazil.
● LeadingProducers→Thailand,Indonesia,
Vietnam, China, India.
● Leading Exporter→ Thailand.
● Uses→ Latex is extracted from rubber
trees.
● Tropical rainforests are being cut down for rubber tree plantations.
● Cultivation in India→ Major rubber producing statesare Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
Tea
● Tea is bothabeveragecropandacash
crop. The leaves of the plant are
consumed.
● It is native to China (although many
believe it existed in North-East India
and was reintroduced by the British).
● Tea requires well-drained hilly slopes
which provides the ideal base for tea
cultivation.
● Temperature→ Best grown in 15°C -
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20°Cto22°C.
● Rainfall→ Requires about150-300cmof rainfall
● Leading producers→China, India, Sri Lanka, Kenya,Turkey
● Leading exporter→China
● Key tea-growing regions inIndiaincludeNilgiriHills(TamilNadu),AssamHills(Assam),
Darjeeling Range (West Bengal).
Coffee
● Coffee is native to Africa
(specifically Ethiopia) and is a
beverage crop and cash crop. The
seeds of the coffee plant are
consumed.
● Temperature→ Best grown in
20°C - 25°C.
● Rainfall→ Requires 100 - 150 cm
of rainfall.
● It prefers well-drained alluvial/
loamy soil.
● Coffee is ashade-loving plant.
● Leading Producers→ Brazil (grows in Terra Rosa soil), Vietnam, Cambodia, Ethiopia,
Yemen, India.
○ São Paulo(Brazil) is one of the largest coffee marketsin the world.
○ Santos(Brazil) is known as the "coffee harbour."
○ Coffee is transported via the"Coffee Rail"fromSantostoSão Paulo.
● Leading Exporter→ Brazil
● Major coffee-growing regions in India include Karnataka (mostly), Coorg Hills
(Karnataka), Baba Budan Hills (Chikmagalur, Karnataka), Malnad (Karnataka).
PW Web/App:[Link]
Indian Geography
Chapter 04: Indian Physiography
Lecture 22: Types of Crops and Irrigation (Part-03)
Major Crops:
Cacao (Cocoa):
● Cocoa is a type of bean that grows well in temperatures between20°C to 27°C.
● Cocoa beans are fermented and then roasted to extract cocoa
butter. This cocoa butter is used to make chocolate, used in skin
therapy and also used in skin therapy and cosmetic products.
● Requires150 cm to 200 cm of annual rainfall.
● It prefers well-drained, alluvial soil.
● Leading producers→ Ivory Coast, Ghana, Ecuador, Indonesia,Mexico, some parts of Brazil,
Cameroon and Argentina.
● Leading exporter→ Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast)
● It is native to Central and South America.
Tobacco
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● Tobacco grows best in temperatures between18°C to 25°C.
● It requires75 to 100 cmof rainfall.
● Tobacco grows well in well-drained
alluvial soil.
● It is native to Mexico and Central
America.
● Leading Producers→ China, India,
Brazil, Indonesia and the USA
● Leading Exporter→ Brazil is the
leading exporter of tobacco.
● Uses:
○ Tobacco is primarily used incigarettes.
○ Medicinal Uses→ Tobacco has been used since ancient and medieval times. It has
been used for treating pain and digestive issues.
○ Analgesic Properties→ Tobacco is known to have analgesic(pain-relieving) properties.
Some Important Pulses and Oilseeds of India:
Chickpea (Chana):
● Chickpea is aRabi crop(grown in the winter season).
● It requiresless waterfor growth compared to manyother crops.
● ItisgrowninstateslikeMadhyaPradesh,UttarPradesh,Punjab,Haryana,Rajasthan,
Andhra Pradesh, andTelangana, etc.
● The cultivation of chickpea was displaced in North-West India during the Green
Revolution.
Pigeon Pea (Tuar/Arhar):
● Pigeon pea is adrought-resistant cropbut it is stillrainfed.
● Approximately one-third of the production comes from the state of Maharashtra. In
addition to Maharashtra, pigeon pea is also cultivated in Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka,
Madhya Pradesh,Chhattisgarh.
Groundnut:
● GroundnutisarainfedKharifcrop,butinSouthIndia,groundnutisalsogrownasaRabi
crop(winter season crop), highlighting its flexibility in different regions.
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● Groundnut is grown in various states such as Gujarat, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Andhra
Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, etc..
Sunflower:
● Sunflower is primarily grown for theproduction of edible oil.
● Sunflower cultivation→SunflowerismostlygrowninSouthIndia,withkeystatesbeing
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and parts of Maharashtra.
Rapeseed and Mustard:
● Both rapeseed and mustard are Rabi
crops.
● Theyaresensitivetofrost,whichcan
impact their growth and yield.
● Regions of Cultivation→ A significant
portion of the production comes from
Rajasthan, where 1/3rd of the
production takes place. They are also
grown in Madhya Pradesh and
Haryana.
Cashew Nut:
● The ideal temperature for growing
cashew nuts is between20°C to 30°C
(tropical).
● Cashews require100 to 200 cmof rainfall for optimalgrowth.
● Cashews grow well inlateritic soil, which is naturallynot good for cultivation. However,
with the application of fertilizers, the soil becomes more suitable for growing cashews.
● It is grown in areas of Konkan Coast (Maharashtra and Goa), northern parts of Canara
Coast (Northern Karnataka), etc.
● Leading Producing States→ Maharashtra, Goa, Kerala,Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh,
Telangana.
● In Goa, cashew nuts are also used to produce Feni, a traditional alcoholic beverage.
Banana:
● Bananas grow best in a temperature range of20°C to 25°C.
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● It requires around 100 cm of rainfall.
● Bananas thrive in well-drained alluvial soil, which is fertile and suitable for their growth.
Hence, they can be easily found near rivers.
● Bananas are rich in potassium.
● Bananas arenative to Southeast Asia (SE Asia).
● Leading Producers of Banana→ India, China, Southeast Asia, Ecuador, Mexico and Central
American countries, Brazil
● Leading exporter→ Ecuador
Agro-climatic Regions of India:
● An agro-climatic region is a geographical area exhibiting similar climate, soil type,
topography and water availability, which influences the type of crops that can be grown
and the agricultural practices to be followed.
● In1988,India’sPlanningCommissionintroducedastrategicapproachtolong-termresource
efficiency and sustainability by delineating15 Agro-ClimaticZones (ACRs).
1. Western Himalayan Region
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● The Western Himalayan Region includes areas in the states of Jammu and Kashmir,
Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttarakhand.
● Key Climatic Features:
○ The region hashigh altitudes, with significant featureslike glaciers.
○ The region receives rainfall from perennialrivers,whichmaintainacontinuousflow
throughout the year.
○ Theregionexperiencescoldwinters.Summersaregenerallymild,makingtheclimate
temperate.
○ Theareaismarkedbysignificantsnowfall,especiallyduetowesterndisturbances,
which bring moist air leading to snowfall.
● The main crops growninthisregionincludewheat,maize,barleyandfruitslikeapples,
apricots,kinnu,walnutsandalmonds.
● Kesar (saffron) is grown in Kashmir and thecropsarecultivatedmainlyintheKarewa
formations, which areglacial moraines(debris left by glaciers)
2. Eastern Himalayas:
● IncludesSikkim,WestBengal,Assam,NortheasternIndia,andPurvanchal(easternpartof
Uttar Pradesh).
● The region experiences highrainfall,whichsupportsdiversevegetation.Thisistheregion
where evergreen forests are found.
● It has arugged topography with steeper slopes comparedto the Western Himalayas.
● The region practices shifting cultivation, where agricultural land is usedforafewyears
and then abandoned for new land.
● This region is comparatively warmer than the Western Himalayas, making it suitable for
crops likerice, maize, tea, and various fruits.
3. Upper Gangetic Plains:
● The climate issub-humid, with moderate levels ofhumidity.
● ThisincludeswesternUttarPradeshandpartsofUttarakhand.Itincludestheregionsof
Awadh (Lucknow and surrounding areas), Rohilkhand (regions of Bareily, Badayun,
Rampur, Moradabad. Bhur deposits are found in these regions)
● Winters are cooler and summers are extremely hot, which influences the type of crops
grown in this area.
● Major crops include rice, wheat, pulses, cereals and sugarcane. This area is a
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canal/tubewell irrigated area.
4. Middle Gangetic Plains:
● This region includes Eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
● The area hasfertile alluvial soil,making it suitablefor agriculture.
● Most of the region consistsoffloodplainsofmajorriverslikeGanga,Ghagra,Gandakand
Kosi.
● The region receives a good amount of rainfall, ranging from150 to 800 cm annually.
● Major crops includerice, wheat, gram and sugarcane.
● Here, summers are hot and winters are cooler.
5. Lower Gangetic Plains:
● This region is located in West Bengal, Assam (Brahmaputra valley) andSoutheastern
Bihar. It includes both floodplains and deltaic plains.
● It receives about200 cmof rainfall annually.
● Summers are hot, while winters are mild.
● Theregionhaswaterloggedareas,makingitsuitableforricecultivation.Riceisgrownin
all three seasons. Other crops include wheat, pulsesand jute.
6. Trans-Gangetic Plains:
● It includes Punjab, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh, Delhi and parts of Northern Rajasthan.
● It is asemi-arid region.
● Theregionreceives50to70cmofrainfall,mainlyduetowesterndisturbancesduringthe
winter season.
● Thesoil is generally coarser,not as fertile as thealluvial plains of the Ganges.
● The region is mostly irrigated, with irrigation sources like canals and tube wells.
● The region has benefitted from the Green Revolution, leading to improved irrigation
facilities and the use of fertilizers, pesticides and insecticides. Better irrigation and the
introduction of high-yielding crop varieties have further improved productivity.
● Major crops grown in this region includewheat, sugarcane,rice and cotton.
7. Eastern Plateau and Hills:
● The Eastern Plateau and Hills include the Chotanagpur plateau regions in Chhattisgarh,
Odisha, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh (MP), and Eastern Maharashtra.
● It is known forhigh terrain and hard rock regions.
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● The area is drought-prone due to insufficient water availability. Hence, dry farming is
commonly practiced here due to the lack of irrigation.
● Major crops include groundnut, millet, and rice. The Mahandi Basin is knownforpaddy
production.
8. Central Plateau Regions and Hills:
● The Central Plateau includes areas in Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Uttar Pradesh and
Maharashtra.
● The region hasred and yellow soil.
● The area is asemi-arid region,meaning it experiencesrelatively dry conditions.
● There aremoderate irrigation facilitiesavailablein the region.
● Jowar, sorghum, pulses and oilseedsare the majorcrops cultivated in the region.
9. Western Plateau and Hills:
● TheWesternPlateauandHillsaremostlylocatedinMaharashtra,particularlyintheMalwa
region of Madhya Pradesh .
● The areawitnessed lava eruptions, which led to theformation of unique soil types.
● The region is dominated by black cotton soil and basalt layer soil, which is rich in
magnesium (Mg) and iron (Fe).Itislocallyknownasregursoil.Itismadefromparent
rock.
● It is also known as Tropical Chernozem soil, which is also black and ideal for cotton
cultivation.
● Major crops→cotton, sugarcane, groundnuts, oilseeds,millets, soybeans and pulses.
10.Southern Plateau and Hills:
● This region includes Karnataka, Telangana, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.
● The area is adrought-prone regionwithmoderate rainfall.
● The soil here is mixed (red, laterite, etc), making it suitable for a variety of crops.
● Dry farmingis common in this region.
● Major crops includemillets, groundnut, oilseeds andpulses
11. Eastern Coastal Plains and Hills:
● This region includes Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Odisha.
● The area receivesadequate rainfall, around 150 cm annually.
● The region has fertile alluvial soil, especially along the Kaveri, Krishna, Godavari and
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Mahanadi river basins.
● Major crops grown in this region includerice, sugarcane, groundnut and coconut.
12.Western Coastal Plains and Hills (Konkan Coast):
● This includes regions in Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka and Kerala.
● The region experienceshighrainfallandatropicalclimate.Thesoilundergoesaprocess
oflaterisation(soil formation under high rainfallconditions).
● The predominant soil type isred lateritic soil.
● Common crops include cashew nuts, banana, rubber, coconut, and tapioca(alsocalled
sago or sabudana)
13.Gujarat Plains:
● This region consists ofarid and semi-arid areas.
● The soil in this region issaline in nature.
● Major crops include so rghum, cotton, bajra (pearl millet) and millets. The Tapi and
Narmada basins are significant for agriculture in this region.
● Theregionhasblacksoil,whichisknownforitsabilitytoretainmoisture,benefitingcrops
like cotton.
14.Rajasthan Plains:
● This region is adesert (arid) area.
● Thesoilisdesertsoil,whichcanbecomefertileifwellirrigated.Thereforegreenpatches
cannowbeseenintheJaisalmerregionduetotheIndiraGandhiCanal.Thesoilisrichin
lime and calcium.
● Major crops includerice, wheat, bajra, millets andgroundnut.
15.Island Regions:
● These are humid tropical regions.
● Major crops grown here are coconut, rubber, banana, etc.
PW Web/App:[Link]
Geography
Chapter 04: Indian Physiography
Lecture 23: Industries
Industries:
● Before independence, India was dominated by cottage industries that mainlycateredto
localmarkets.DuringEuropeancolonization,Indianproductssuchascotton,muslincloth,
spices, and indigo were heavily exploited, and Indiaprimarilyservedasasupplierofraw
materials to European industries.
● After the Industrial Revolution in Britain, India’srolechanged,anditbecameamarket
for British finished goods, leading to the decline of indigenous industries. The Swadeshi
Movement later gave an impetus to Indian industries bypromotingindigenousgoodsand
boycotting British products.
● After independence, the governmentfocusedonindustrialgrowththroughtheadoptionof
Five-Year Plans,with an emphasis on building basicand heavy industries.
● The 1991 Liberalization, Privatization, and Globalization (LPG) reforms further
acceleratedindustrialization,openinguptheeconomytoprivateandforeigninvestmentand
leading to rapid growth across various sectors.
Industrial Policy of 1991:
● Duringthisperiod,Indiacameveryclosetoaneconomicdisasterastheforeignexchange
reserves dipped to an all-time low, barely enough to finance imports for three weeks.
● Topreventaneconomiccollapse,theInternationalMonetaryFund(IMF)providedabailout,
but imposed certain conditions that required changes in India's industrial and economic
policies.Asaresult,Indialiberaliseditseconomyandintroducedmajorreformsthroughthe
Industrial Policy of 1991.
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Key Changes Introduced
● Relaxation of Industrial Licensing: The policy abolished the requirement of industrial
licensingformostindustries.Licensingwasretainedonlyforsectorsthathadimplications
for national security, environmental safety, or involved hazardous chemicals.
● Promotion of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI): To attract foreign capital and new
technologies, the government allowed up to 51% foreign equity participation in selected
sectors that required high investment and advanced technology.
● Encouragement of Privatisation: Privatisation was promoted by limiting public sector
investmentonlytostrategicareassuchasdefense,spaceresearch,andmineralexploration.
Mostothersectorswereopenedtoprivateplayers,reducingthedominanceofpublicsector
enterprises.
● Relaxation of the MRTP Act:TherestrictiveprovisionsoftheMonopoliesandRestrictive
Trade Practices (MRTP)Actwererelaxed.Earlier,largeprivatefirmswerepreventedfrom
expanding freely.Afterthereforms,companiescouldgrowandachieveeconomiesofscale
without needing prior government approvals.
Liberalisation Of Economy:
Liberalisation of the economy refers to the removal of unnecessary, unwanted, and excessive
government control over economic activities, allowing the economy to function more freely and
efficiently.
Features of LPG Reforms (Liberalisation, Privatisation, and Globalisation):
● Reduction of Bureaucratic Control and Red Tape: Bureaucratic hurdles and excessive
regulations were minimised, including the removal of licensing requirements for most
industries.
● Liberalisation of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI): FDI policies were made more
attractive and flexible, allowing foreign companies to hold up to 51% equity in Indian
industries, thereby encouraging foreign investment.
● Easing of Import andExportRestrictions:Restrictionsandrulesonimportsandexports
were relaxed for tradable products, helping integrate India into the global market and
fostering trade.
● Reduction of Import Tariffs: Import tariffs were significantly reduced, making foreign
products more affordable and increasing competition among domestic producers.
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● Disinvestment in Public Sector Industries: The government began disinvesting inpublic
sector enterprises, allowing the private sector to take over and manage industries more
efficiently, leading to better productivity and growth.
● Focus on Socio-economic Development: Government investment was redirected towards
socio-economicdevelopment,suchasinhealth,education,andinfrastructure.Privatesector
involvement in infrastructure development was also encouraged.
● Government Agencies as Facilitators and Regulators: Government control was reduced,
and it now acted more as a facilitatorandregulator,ensuringthesmoothfunctioningof
the market through apex bodies, while encouraging competition and efficiency.
● Encouraging Market Forces: The reforms allowed market forces to operate freely, with
businesses driven by profit motives, encouraging innovation, competition, and efficiency
across sectors.
Types Of Industries
Type of Industry Investment in Plant, Machinery, and Annual Turnover
Factories
Micro Industries Not more than ₹1 crore Not more than ₹5 crore
Small Industries Not more than ₹10 crore Not more than ₹50 crore
Medium Industries Not more than ₹50 crore Not more than ₹250 crore
Large Industries More than ₹50 crore More than ₹250 crore
Types Of Industries Based On Nature
● PrimaryIndustries:Primaryindustriesarefocusedonobtainingrawmaterialsdirectlyfrom
nature, such as agriculture, forestry, fisheries, and mining. An example of this is wheat
cultivation on farms, where raw wheat is produced.
● Secondary Industries: Secondary industries, on the other hand, use the raw materials
obtainedfromprimaryindustriestocreatenewproducts.Forexample,wheatcultivatedon
farms is processed into packaged flour in mills.
● TertiaryIndustries:tertiaryindustriesprovideservicesratherthantangiblegoods,suchas
those found in call centers, banking, insurance, education, and advertising.
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Location Of Industries
● Raw Material: The availability and characteristics of raw materials play a criticalrolein
determining the location of industries. Weber's theory outlines three key scenarios:
○ Weight-losing raw materials: If raw materials are bulky and lose weight during
processing (e.g., iron ore or bauxite ore),industriesaregenerallylocatednearthe
source of raw materials to minimize transportation costs.
○ Pure, non-weight-losing raw materials: If the raw materials do not loseweight
afterprocessing,theoptimalindustrylocationisatthemidpointbetweentheraw
material source and the market.
○ Raw materials available everywhere: If raw materials are readily available in
variousregions,industriesshouldbelocatednearthemarkettoreducethecostof
distribution.
● Power:Industriesthatarepower-intensive,suchassyntheticnitrogenmanufacturingorthe
aluminum industry, require a consistent and reliable power supply. Therefore, these
industries are typically located close tothesourceofelectricitytominimizeenergycosts
and ensure uninterrupted production.
● Market Proximity: Industriesthatrelyonnon-weight-losingrawmaterialsoftenprioritize
proximitytothemarket.Thisisespeciallytrueforindustrieslikecottontextilemills,which
arelocatedincitieslikeMumbai,Surat,andAhmedabad,wherethereisalargeconsumer
base and lower transportation costs.
● Transportation Linkages: Access to efficient transportation networks such as railway
junctions, airports, and shipping ports plays a vital role in industrial location. Cities like
Mumbai,Chennai,Kolkata,andVisakhapatnamareprimeexamplesofindustrialhubsdueto
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their strong transportation links, facilitating the movement of rawmaterialsandfinished
goods.
● Labour:Theavailabilityofaffordable,skilledlabourisanotherdeterminingfactor.InIndia,
where labour is highly mobile, industries often relocate to areas where there isasteady
supply of workers. This helps reduce labour costs and ensures smooth production processes.
● Historical Factors: Historical factors also influence the location of industries. Many
industrial centers in India were established in capitals and trading centers during the
British colonial period, and these locations continued to attract industries even after
independence.
● Industrial Policy and Government Incentives: Government policies and initiatives also
affectindustriallocation.ThegovernmentmaycreateindustrialzonesorSpecialEconomic
Zones (SEZs) to promote
specific sectors and stimulate
economic growth. Additionally,
industries are sometimes
established in locations that
maynotbeidealforindustrial
growth due to political
considerations. For example,
locomotive manufacturing was
set up in Varanasi, and coach
manufacturing factories were
established in Kapurthala,
Punjab, even though these locations were not the most advantageous for industry.
Major Industrial Regions In India:
● Kollam-Thiruvananthapuram Belt: This region, which includes Alwaye, Kollam, and
Alappuzha, is primarily agro based due to its distance from mineral belts.Theindustries
here are centered around agriculture, fisheries, plantation, and hydropower. The area also
hosts seafood manufacturing, Ayurvedic medicines, and paper manufacturing.
● Bangalore-TamilNaduBelt:SpanningacrossmostofKarnatakaandTamilNadu,thisbelt
includes regions like Salem and Madurai, known for their cotton textile industries.
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● The Pykara Hydroelectric
Project has boosted local
cotton production. BHEL,
HAL,andMMTarelocatedin
Bangalore, which is also
recognized as the Silicon
Valley of India.
● Additionally, Chennai has a
petroleum refinery, while
Salem is known for its steel
industry.Thebeltalsohouses
locomotive, leather, rubber,
matchbox, soap industries, and a flourishing automobile industry in Bangalore.
● Guntur-Visakhapatnam Belt: This belt includes areas such as Kurnool, Prakasam, Vizag,
andGuntur.Vizagisakeyindustrialhub,hostingashipbuildingindustryandasteelplant.
Guntur is known for its petroleum, sugar, and textile industries.
● Chhota Nagpur Plateau: Located in Jharkhand, Odisha, and West Bengal, the Chhota
Nagpur Plateau is well known for its iron and coal industries, making it a hub for
metallurgical industries.
● Important industrial cities in this region include Gurugram, Bokaro,Jamshedpur,Rourkela,
Kulti, and Burnpur, all of which are prominent for their steel plants.
● Gurugram Region: This region is focusedonlightandmarket-orientedindustries,suchas
electronics, lightning equipment, fertilizers, cement, and sugar.
● The NCR region is also home to a booming software industry and ITES (Information
Technology Enabled Services). Additionally, Agra and Kanpur are known for their leather
industries, while Mathura hosts oil refineries.
● Ahmedabad-Surat Belt: The Ahmedabad-Surat Belt includes major industrial cities like
Ahmedabad, Surat, Valsad, Vadodara, Rajkot, and Jamnagar. This belt is known for its
textile industry, with raw materials readily available.
● The Kandla port has played a significant role in thegrowthofthisregion,supportingoil
refineries and petrochemical industries in cities like Jamnagar, Ankleshwar, and Vadodara.
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● Mumbai-Pune Industrial Belt: Stretching from Mumbai to Pune, including neighboring
areas like Nasik and Solapur, this belt has witnessed tremendous industrial growth. The
opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 contributed to the expansion of Mumbai.
● Initially dominated by cotton textile industries, Mumbai also became a key hub for
machinery imports via its ports. Hydropower projects in the Western Ghats and nuclear
power plants like Tarapur and Trombay further bolstered industrial development.
● Mumbai High oil fields
contributedtothegrowth
of oil refining, while
shipbuilding also
flourished. Pune isknown
for its IT industry, and
Nasikisrecognizedforits
vineyards and viticulture
(Sula Wine).
● Hooghly Industrial Area:
This region, which
includes Howrah,
Medinipur, Hooghly, and
Kolkata,islocatedalongtheHooghlyRiverandwasanimportantindustrialhubduringthe
British era.
● Historically,itwasknownforjutecultivation,alongwithindigoandtea.Thefirstjutemill
was established in Rishra (WestBengal)in1885.Otherindustriesincludecoalminingin
the Raniganj-Jharia coal belt and petroleum refining at Haldia.
● HindustanMotors(nowclosed)waslocatedinKonnagar,andtheregionwasalsohometo
the locomotive factory at Chittaranjan.
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