Epithelial Tissue: Structure and Function
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Yousif Al-GburiEpithelial Tissue: Structure and Function
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Yousif Al-GburiUnicellular Organisms
● Unicellular (one-cell) organismsare independent entities.
○ Each cell obtains and digests its food.
○ Ejects its wastes.
○ Carries out all activities necessary to keep itself alive.
Multicellular Human Body
In themulticellular human body, cells do not operateindependently.
●
● Cells formtight communitiesthat live and work together.
Cell Specialization
● Individual body cellsare specialized, performingspecific functions that help
maintainhomeostasisand benefit the body as a whole.
● Cell specializationis easy to observe:
○ Muscle cellslook and function differently fromskincells.
○ Skin cellsare distinguishable frombrain cells.
Benefits and Hazards of Cell Specialization
C
● ell specializationallows the body to function insophisticated ways.
● However,division of laborcomes with hazards:
○ If a particular group of cells isindispensable, itsinjury or loss candisableor
evendestroythe body.
Definition of Tissues
● Tissues(from "tissu," meaning woven) are groups ofcells that are:
○ Similar in structure.
○ Perform acommon or related function.
Four Primary Tissue Types
● The four primary tissue types that interweave to form the "fabric" of the body are:
○ Epithelial tissue
○ Connective tissue
○ Muscle tissue
○ Nervous tissue
Summarized Roles of Primary Tissue Types
● pithelial tissue:Covers
E
● Connective tissue:Supports
● Muscle tissue:Moves
● Nervous tissue:Controls
Tissues and Organ Structure
T
● issues are organized intoorganssuch as the kidneysand heart.
● Most organs containall four tissue types.
● The arrangement of tissues determines an organ'sstructureand capabilities.
Study of Tissues (Histology)
H
● istologyis the study of tissues.
● It complements the study ofgross anatomy.
● Together, histology and gross anatomy provide thestructural basisfor
understanding organphysiology.
4.2Epithelial tissue covers body
surfaces, lines cavities, and forms glands
Epithelial Tissue Overview
● E
pithelial tissue(or epithelium) is asheet of cellsthat covers body surfaces or
lines body cavities.
● The term "epithelium" means "laid on" or "covering."
Forms of Epithelial Tissue
1. Covering and Lining Epithelium:
○ Forms theouter layer of the skin.
○ Lines the open cavities of theurogenital, digestive,and respiratory
systems.
○ Covers the walls and organs of theclosed ventralbody cavity.
2. Glandular Epithelium:
○ Forms theglands of the body.
Role of Epithelial Tissue
E
● pithelia formboundariesbetween different environments.
● Nearly all substances received or given off by the body must pass through an
epithelium.
○ Example: Theepidermisof the skin lies between theinside and outside of
the body.
○ Example: Epithelium lining theurinary bladderseparatesunderlying cells
from urine.
Functions of Epithelial Tissue
Epithelial tissue performs several functions, including:
.
1 rotection
P
2. Absorption
3. Filtration
4. Excretion
5. Secretion
6. Sensory Reception
These functions will be explained further in the chapter.
Special Characteristics of Epithelium
1. Polarity
● E
pithelial tissueshave two distinct surfaces thatdiffer in structure and function,
exhibitingapical-basal polarity:
○ Apical surface:
■ Not attached to surrounding tissue.
■ E xposed to theoutside of the bodyor thecavity of an internal
organ.
Basal surface:
○
■ Attached to the underlyingconnective tissue.
2. Apical Surface Features
● S
omeapical surfacesare smooth and slick, but mosthavemicrovilli, which are
fingerlike extensions of the plasma membrane.
○ Microvilli:
■ Increase surface areatremendously.
■ In tissues that absorb or secrete substances (e.g., intestines, kidney
tubules),microvilliare often so dense that the cellapices have a
fuzzy appearancecalled abrush border.
○ Motile cilia:
■ Some epithelia, such as those lining thetrachea,havemotile cilia
that propel substances along the free surface.
3. Basal Lamina
● A
djacent to the basal surface of the epithelium is thebasal lamina, a thin supporting
sheet.
○ Basal lamina:
■ Noncellular and adhesive.
■ Consists ofglycoproteinssecreted by epithelial cellsandfine
collagen fibers.
■ Functions as aselective filter, determining whichmolecules from the
underlying connective tissue can enter the epithelium.
■ Providesscaffoldingfor epithelial cells to migrateduring wound
repair.
4. Specialized Contacts
E
● pithelial cellsfit closely together to formcontinuoussheets.
● The sides of adjacent cells are connected by:
○ T ight junctions: Prevent substances from leaking through spaces between
cells.
○ Desmosomes: Keep cells from pulling apart.
5. Supported by Connective Tissue
A
● llepithelial sheetsrest upon and are supportedbyconnective tissue.
● Between the epithelial and connective tissues is thebasement membrane, which:
○ Reinforcesthe epithelial sheet.
○ Helps itresist stretching and tearing.
○ Defines theepithelial boundary.
● Thebasement membraneconsists of two layers:
○ Basal lamina(described above).
○ Reticular lamina:
■ Deep to the basal lamina.
■ Contains a layer ofextracellular materialwith afine network of
collagen protein fibersfrom the underlying connective tissue.
6. Avascular but Innervated
E
● pitheliumisavascular(contains no blood vessels).
● Despite being avascular, epithelium isinnervated(supplied by nerve fibers).
● Epithelial cellsare nourished by substances thatdiffuse from blood vessels in the
underlying connective tissue.
7. Regeneration
E
● pithelial tissuehas ahigh regenerative capacity.
● Epithelia exposed to friction or hostile external environments (e.g., bacteria, acids,
smoke) can suffer damage or lose surface cells.
● Whenapical-basal polarityandlateral contactsaredestroyed, epithelial cells
rapidly reproduce themselves.
● As long as epithelial cells receiveadequate nutrition,they can replace lost cells
throughcell division.
Classification of EpithelialTissue
Naming Epithelial Tissue
● The name of each epithelium hastwo parts, similarto a first and last name:
1. First name: Indicates thenumber of cell layerspresent.
2. Second name: Describes theshape of the cells.
First Name: Number of Cell Layers
● Simple epithelia:
○ Consist of asingle cell layer.
○ Typically found in areas whereabsorption, secretion,and filtrationoccur.
○ Athin epithelial barrieris desirable in these regions.
● Stratified epithelia:
○ Composed oftwo or more cell layers, stacked on topof each other.
○ Common inhigh-abrasion areaswhereprotectionisimportant, such as the
skin surface and the lining of the mouth.
Second Name: Cell Shape
● Squamous cells:
○ Flattened and scale-like.
○ Squammeans "scale."
○ Nucleus: Flattened disc shape.
● Cuboidal cells:
○ Boxlike, approximately as tall as they are wide.
○ Nucleus: Spherical shape.
● Columnar cells:
○ Tall and column-shaped.
○ Nucleus: Elongated, usually located closer to the cell base.
Cell Shape and Nucleus Shape
● Theshape of the nucleusconforms to the shape ofthe cell:
○ Squamous cell: Nucleus is flattened like a disc.
○ Cuboidal cell: Nucleus is spherical.
○ Columnar cell: Nucleus is elongated from top to bottom.
Simple vs. Stratified Epithelia
● Insimple epithelia, all cells usually have thesame shape, making them easier to
classify by cell shape.
● Instratified epithelia, cell shape differs in the different layers.
○ S
tratified epitheliaare named according to the shape of the cells in the
apical layer(topmost layer).
Identifying Epithelial Types
● W hen studying epithelial types, focus on identifyingindividual cellswithin each
epithelium.
● Keep in mind that cell boundaries can often beindistinctand the visibility of the
nucleus depends on theplane of the tissue cutduring slide preparation.
For further understanding, refer toFigure 4.4to examine epithelial classifications visually.
Simple Epithelia
S
● imple epitheliaare primarily involved inabsorption,secretion, and filtration.
● Consist of asingle cell layerand are usuallyverythin.
● Protectionis not a primary function of simple epithelia.
Simple Squamous Epithelium
● S imple squamous epitheliumconsists of cells thatareflattened laterallywith
sparse cytoplasm (Figure 4.4a).
● Surface view:
○ Theclose-fitting cellsresemble atiled floor.
● Perpendicular view:
○ The cells resemblefried eggsseen from the side.
○ Thecytoplasmwisps out from the slightly bulgingnucleus.
● Thin and permeable:
○ Found in areas wherefiltrationorexchange of substancesby rapid
diffusion is critical.
● Locations:
○ Kidneys: Forms part of the filtration membrane that filters blood to make
urine.
○ Lungs: Forms the walls of theair sacswheregas exchangeoccurs.
Special Simple Squamous Epithelia
Two types of simple squamous epithelia have special names based on their location:
1. Endothelium
● Endothelium(meaning "inner covering"):
○ Provides aslick, friction-reducing liningin:
■ Lymphatic vessels.
■ A
ll hollow organs of thecardiovascular system(blood vessels and
the heart).
○ Capillariesconsist exclusively of endothelium.
Itsexceptional thinnesspromotes efficient exchangeofnutrientsand
○
wastesbetween the bloodstream and surrounding tissuecells.
2. Mesothelium
● Mesothelium(meaning "middle covering"):
○ Found inserous membranes.
○ Lines theventral body cavityand covers its organs.
Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
● S imple cuboidal epitheliumconsists of asingle layerof cells that are astall as
they are wide(Figure 4.4b).
● The nuclei are generallysphericaland stain darkly.
Functions:
● Secretionandabsorptionare the primary functions of this epithelium.
Locations:
F
● orms thewalls of the smallest ducts of glands.
● Also found inmany kidney tubules.
Simple Columnar Epithelium
● S imple columnar epitheliumconsists of asingle layeroftall, closely packed
cells, aligned like soldiers in a row (Figure 4.4c).
● This type of epithelium lines thedigestive tractfrom the stomach to the rectum.
Functions:
● Primarily involved inabsorptionandsecretion.
Special Modifications for the Digestive Tract:
● D ense microvillion the apical surface of absorptivecells, enhancing nutrient
absorption.
● Tubular glandsmade primarily of cells that secretemucus-containing intestinal
juice.
Ciliated Simple Columnar Epithelium:
S
● ome simple columnar epithelia displayciliaon theirfree surfaces.
● Cilia help tomove substances or cellsthrough an internal passageway.
Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium
● P seudostratified columnar epitheliumconsists of cellsthatvary in height(Figure
4.4d).
● All cells rest on thebasement membrane, but onlythe tallest cells reach thefree
surfaceof the epithelium.
● The arrangement of nuclei at different levels gives afalse impressionof multiple
layers, hence the term "pseudostratified."
Functions:
● Primarily involved insecretionorabsorption.
Specialized Features:
S
● hort cellsare relatively unspecialized and giverise to thetaller cells.
● Aciliated versionof this epithelium containsmucus-secretinggoblet cellsand
lines most of therespiratory tract.
○ Themotile ciliapropel sheets ofdust-trapping mucusaway from the lungs.
Stratified Epithelia
S
● tratified epitheliacontaintwo or more cell layers.
● Theyregeneratefrom below, withbasal cells dividingand pushing apically to
replace older surface cells.
● Stratified epithelia aremore durablethan simpleepithelia, withprotectionbeing
their primary role, though not their only function.
Stratified Squamous Epithelium
● S tratified squamous epitheliumis the mostwidespreadof the stratified epithelia
(Figure 4.4e).
● It consists ofseveral layers, making itthickandwell-suited forprotection.
○ Free surface cellsaresquamous.
○ Deeper layersconsist ofcuboidalorcolumnarcells.
● This epithelium is found in areas subjected towearand tear:
○ Surface cells are constantlyrubbed awayand replacedby the division of
basal cells.
○ Cells farther from thebasement membrane(due to relianceon nutrients
diffusing from deeper connective tissue) arelessviable.
○ Cells at theapical surfaceare oftenflattenedandmay bedead.
Locations:
F
● orms theexternal surface of the skin.
● Extends into body openings that are directlycontinuouswith the skin.
Types of Stratified Squamous Epithelium:
● Keratinized epithelium(epidermis):
○ The surface cells containkeratin, a tough, protectiveprotein.
○ Found in the outer layer of theskin.
● Nonkeratinized epithelium:
○ Found inother body areasthat are not exposed tothe external environment,
where keratin is not needed.
Stratified Cuboidal and Columnar Epithelia
Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium
S
● tratified cuboidal epitheliumisrarein the body.
● Typically found in theducts of larger glands, suchas:
○ Sweat glands
○ Mammary glands
● Usually consists oftwo layers of cuboidal cells.
Stratified Columnar Epithelium
S
● tratified columnar epitheliumalso has alimiteddistributionin the body.
● Found in areas such as:
○ Thepharynx
○ Themale urethra
○ Lining someglandular ducts
O
● ccurs attransition areasor junctions between two different types of epithelia.
● Only theapical layerof cells iscolumnar.
Representation:
● D
ue to theirscarcity,Figure 4.4does not illustrate stratified cuboidal or columnar
epithelia.
Transitional Epithelium
● T ransitional epitheliumforms thelining of hollowurinary organsthat stretch as
they fill with urine (Figure 4.4f).
● Thebasal layercells are eithercuboidalorcolumnar.
● Apical cellsvary in appearance depending on the degreeofdistension
(stretching)of the organ.
Characteristics:
● W hen the organ isdistendedwith urine, the transitionalepitheliumthinsfrom about
six cell layers to as few as three.
● Thedome-like apical cellsflatten and becomesquamous-like.
Function:
● The ability of transitional cells tochange shape(undergo "transitions") allows:
○ A greater volume ofurine to flowthrough a tubelikeorgan.
○ In thebladder, it allows moreurine to be stored.
Glandular Epithelia
A
● glandconsists of one or more cells thatmake andsecretea particular product.
● This product, called asecretion, is typically anaqueous (water-based) fluidthat
usually containsproteins.
○ Some glands releaselipid- orsteroid-richsecretions.
Secretion Process:
● Secretionis anactive process:
○ Glandular cells obtain substances from theblood.
○ These substances are chemically transformed into a product.
○ The product isdischargedfrom the cell.
● The termsecretionrefers to both:
○ Theproductof the gland.
○ Theprocessof making and releasing the product.
Classification of Glands:
Glands are classified based on two traits:
1. Where they release their product:
○ Endocrine glands: "Internally secreting."
○ Exocrine glands: "Externally secreting."
2. Number of cells:
○ Unicellular glands: Consist ofone cell.
○ Multicellular glands: Consist ofmany cells.
Unicellular vs. Multicellular Glands:
U
● nicellular glandsarescatteredwithin epithelialsheets.
● Multicellular glandstypically form byinvagination(inward growth) of an epithelial
sheet into the underlying connective tissue (Figure 4.5).
○ Most multicellular glands haveducts, which are tubelikeconnections to the
epithelial sheets, at least initially.
Endocrine Glands
● E ndocrine glandsare often calledductless glandsbecause they lose their ducts
during development (Figure 4.5, right).
● These glands producehormones, which are chemicalmessengers secreted by
exocytosisdirectly into theextracellular space.
○ Hormones enter thebloodorlymphatic fluidand traveltospecific target
organs.
○ Each hormone prompts its target organ(s) to respond in a characteristic way.
■ Example: Hormones produced by certain intestinal cells cause the
pancreas to releaseenzymesthat help digest food.
Structural Diversity:
● Endocrine glandsare structurally diverse:
○ Most arecompact multicellular organs.
○ Someindividual hormone-producing cellsare scatteredin the digestive
tract lining (mucosa) and in the brain, contributing to thediffuse endocrine
system.
Endocrine Secretions:
● E
ndocrine secretions vary, ranging frommodified aminoacidstopeptides,
glycoproteins, andsteroids.
● N
ot all endocrine glands arise from epithelial tissue, which is further discussed in
Chapter 16.
Exocrine Glands
● E
xocrine glandssecrete their products ontobody surfaces(skin) or intobody
cavities.
○ Unicellular exocrine glandssecrete directly byexocytosis.
○ Multicellular exocrine glandssecrete via anepithelium-walledductthat
transports the secretion to the epithelial surface.
Types of Exocrine Glands:
● Exocrine glandsinclude:
○ Liver(secretes bile).
○ Pancreas(synthesizes digestive enzymes).
○ Mucous,sweat,oil, andsalivary glands.
Unicellular Exocrine Glands
● T he most important examples ofunicellular (one-celled)glandsaremucous cells
andgoblet cells.
● These glands are found in theepithelial liningsofthe intestinal and respiratory
tracts, among columnar cells with other functions (see Figure 4.4c).
Mucin and Mucus:
● U
nicellular glandsproducemucin, a complexglycoproteinthat dissolves in water
when secreted.
○ Once dissolved, mucin formsmucus, a slimy coatingthatprotectsand
lubricatessurfaces.
Goblet Cells:
● Ingoblet cells, accumulating mucin distends the topof the cell, giving it a shape
resembling agoblet(hence the name "goblet cell,"Figure 4.6).
○ This distortion does not occur inmucous cells.
Multicellular Exocrine Glands
ulticellular exocrine glands arestructurally morecomplexthan unicellular glands. They
M
have two basic components:
E
● pithelium-derived duct.
● Secretory unit (acinus), which consists ofsecretorycells.
In more complex glands,supportive connective tissuesurrounds the secretory unit,
supplies it withblood vessels and nerve fibers, andforms afibrous capsulethat divides
the gland intolobes.
Classification of Multicellular Exocrine Glands
1. Structural Classification
● Based on duct structure:
○ Simple glands: Have anunbranched duct.
Compound glands: Have abranched duct.
○
Based on secretory units:
●
○ Tubular: Secretory cells formtubes.
○ Alveolar: Secretory cells formflask-like sacs(alsoreferred to asacinar,
meaning "berrylike").
○ Tubuloalveolar: Have bothtubularandalveolarsecretoryunits.
2. Modes of Secretion
● Multicellular exocrine glands can also be classified based on their mode of secretion:
1. Merocrine glands:
■ Secrete products byexocytosisas they are produced.
■ Secretory cells arenot alteredin the process.
■ Examples:Pancreas,most sweat glands,salivary glands.
■ Think "merely secrete" to remember this type of secretion.
2. Holocrine glands:
■ Accumulate their products within the cells until theyrupture.
■ The secretion includes both thesynthesized productanddead cell
fragments.
■ Cells are replaced by the division of underlying cells.
■ Example:Sebaceous (oil) glandsof the skin.
■ Their cells "die for their cause."
3. Apocrine glands:
■ Controversy exists about whether humans have apocrine glands.
■ In apocrine glands, products accumulate just beneath thefree
surface.
■ Theapexof the cellpinches off, releasing secretorygranules and a
small amount ofcytoplasm.
■ The cell repairs itself and the process repeats.
■ A possible example in humans is therelease of lipiddropletsby
lactatingmammary glands.
■ However, most histologists classify mammary glands asmerocrine
glandsformilk protein secretion.
4.3Connective tissue is the most
abundant and widely distributed tissue
in the body
Connective Tissue Overview
● C
onnective tissueis prevalent throughout the body,but its amount varies in different
organs:
○ Skin: Consists primarily of connective tissue.
○ Brain: Contains very little connective tissue.
Classes and Subclasses of Connective Tissue
There arefour main classesof connective tissue,each withsubclasses(Table 4.1):
1. Connective tissue proper:
○ Includesfatandfibrous tissueof ligaments.
2. Cartilage
3. Bone
4. Blood
Functions of Connective Tissue
Connective tissue has a variety of functions beyond connecting body parts:
.
1 inding and supporting
B
2. Protecting
3. Insulating
4. Storing reserve fuel
5. Transporting substanceswithin the body
Examples:
● B one and cartilage: Support and protect body organsby providing the hard
underpinnings of the skeleton.
● Fat: Insulates and protects body organs, also serving as afuel reserve.
● Blood: Transports substances inside the body.
Common Characteristics of Connective Tissue
onnective tissues share two key characteristics that set them apart from other primary
C
tissues:
1. Extracellular Matrix
● U
nlike other primary tissues, which are composed mainly ofcells, connective tissues
consist largely ofnonliving extracellular matrix.
○ Theextracellular matrixseparates the living cellsof the tissue, often widely.
○ The presence of this matrix allows connective tissue to:
■ Bear weight.
■ Withstand great tension.
■ Endure physical trauma and abrasionthat other tissuescannot
tolerate.
2. Common Origin
● All connective tissues arise frommesenchyme, anembryonictissue.
Vascular Supply in Connective Tissue
● Different types of connective tissue vary in their blood supply:
○ Cartilage:Avascular(lacks blood vessels).
○ Dense connective tissue:Poorly vascularized.
○ Other connective tissues: Have arich supply of blood vessels.
Structural Components of Connective Tissue
Connective tissues consist of three main components:
. G
1 round substance
2. Fibers
3. Cells
ogether,ground substanceandfibersform theextracellularmatrix, which varies in
T
composition and arrangement, creating diverse connective tissues adapted for specific
functions. For example, the matrix can form delicate "packing" around organs or strong
"ropes" (tendons and ligaments).
Ground Substance
heground substanceis the unstructured materialthat fills the space between cells and
T
contains the fibers. It has three components:
1. Interstitial fluid:
○ L arge amounts of fluid allow nutrients and other substances to diffuse
between blood capillaries and cells.
○ Embedded fibers make the ground substance less pliable and somewhat
hinder diffusion.
2. Cell adhesion proteins:
○ Serve as a "glue" that allows connective tissue cells to attach to the
extracellular matrix.
. Proteoglycans:
3
○ Consist of aprotein coreto which large polysaccharidescalled
glycosaminoglycans (GAGs)are attached.
○ GAGs (e.g.,chondroitin sulfateandhyaluronic acid)stick out from the
protein core like fibers of a bottle brush.
○ Proteoglycans form large aggregates thattrap water,creating a substance
that ranges from fluid to viscous gel.
○ The higher theGAG content, the moreviscousthe groundsubstance.
Connective Tissue Fibers
The fibers in connective tissue areproteinsthatprovide support. There are three types:
1. Collagen Fibers:
○ Constructed from the fibrous proteincollagen.
○ Collagen molecules are secreted into theextracellularspace, where they
assemble into cross-linked fibrils, which then bundle into thick fibers.
○ Collagen fibers areextremely toughand provide hightensile strength,
resisting pulling forces. In fact, they arestrongerthan steel fibersof the
same size.
2. Elastic Fibers:
○ Long, thin fibers that form branching networks in the matrix.
○ Contain therubberlike protein elastin, which allowsthem tostretchand
recoillike rubber bands.
○ Elastic fibers snap connective tissue back to its normal shape after stretching.
○ Found where greater elasticity is needed, such as in theskin,lungs, and
blood vessel walls.
Summary of Functions:
C
● ollagen fibers: Providestrengthandtoughness.
● Elastic fibers: Allowstretchandrecoil, providing flexibility in areas that require it.
Reticular Fibers
● R eticular fibersare short, fine fibers made of adifferent type of collagen than the
thicker collagen fibers.
● They connect tocoarser collagen fibersbutbranchextensively, forming delicate
networks that support thesoft tissue of organsandsurroundsmall blood vessels.
● Abundantwhere connective tissue is next to othertissue types, such as in the
basement membraneof epithelial tissues and aroundcapillaries.
● Form fuzzy "nets" that allowmore stretchthan largercollagen fibers.
Connective Tissue Cells
ach major class of connective tissue has aresident cell typethat exists inimmature
E
(-blast)andmature (-cyte)forms:
. F
1 ibroblastsin connective tissue proper becomefibrocytes.
2. Chondroblastsin cartilage becomechondrocytes.
3. Osteoblastsin bone becomeosteocytes.
Functions of Blast and Cyte Cells:
● Immature blast cellsare activelymitoticandsecreteground substanceand
fibers that form the matrix.
● Once the matrix is synthesized, the blast cells becomemature cytes, which maintain
the health of the matrix.
● If the matrix is injured,cytescan revert toblastformto repair and regenerate the
matrix.
Special Cases in Connective Tissue Cells
● B
loodis an exception, as its immature cell type,formerly calledhemocytoblast, is
now called ahematopoietic stem cell.
○ This stem cell is not located in blood tissue and does not form the fluid matrix
(plasma).
Other Cell Types in Connective Tissue
1. Adipocytes(fat cells):
○ Storeenergy as fat.
2. White Blood Cells (WBCs):
○ Includeneutrophils, eosinophils, and lymphocytes.
○ Involved intissue response to injury.
3. Mast Cells:
○ Cluster alongblood vesselsand detectforeign microorganisms.
○ Initiateinflammatory responsesagainst foreign invaderslike bacteria and
fungi.
○ Containsecretory granulesfilled with chemicals thatmediate inflammation,
including:
■ Heparin: An anticoagulant that regulates other mastcell chemicals.
■ Histamine: Makescapillaries leaky.
■ Proteases: Protein-degrading enzymes.
■ Other enzymesinvolved in inflammation.
4. Macrophages:
○ Large, irregularly shaped cells thatdevour foreignmaterials, such as
bacteria and dust particles.
○ Dispose ofdead tissue cellsand play a key role intheimmune system.
○ Found inloose connective tissue,bone marrow, andlymphoid tissue.
C
○ an befixedto connective tissue fibers ormigrate freelythrough the matrix.
○ Some macrophages, like those in thespleen, specializein disposing ofaging
red blood cellsbut can also handle other foreign materials.
Types of Connective Tissue
ll classes of connective tissue consist oflivingcellssurrounded by anextracellular
A
matrix. The differences between them reflect variationsin:
C
● ell type
● Types of fibers
● Relative amounts of fibers
Common Origin: Mesenchyme
● M ature connective tissuesarise from a common embryonictissue called
mesenchyme.
● Mesenchyme:
○ Has afluid ground substancewith fine sparse fibersandstar-shaped
mesenchymal cells.
○ Arises during theearly weeks of embryonic development.
○ Differentiates into all otherconnective tissue cells.
○ Some mesenchymal cells remain in the body, providing a source of new cells
inmature connective tissues.
Overview of Connective Tissue Classification (Figure 4.10)
● C onnective tissue properincludes allmature connectivetissuesexcept forbone,
cartilage, andblood.
● Connective tissue proper has two subclasses:
1. Loose connective tissues:
■ Areolar
■ Adipose
■ Reticular
2. Dense connective tissues:
■ Dense regular
■ Dense irregular
■ Elastic
This classification will help orient you as we explore the various types of connective tissue.
Connective Tissue Proper — Loose Connective Tissues
Areolar Connective Tissue
● A reolar connective tissue(Figure 4.11a) is the mostwidely distributedconnective
tissue in the body.
● It serves as auniversal packing materialbetweenother tissues, binding body parts
together while allowing them to move freely over one another.
● Areolar tissueis the connective tissue that mostepithelia rest onand is present in
allmucous membranesas thelamina propria.
Functions of Areolar Connective Tissue:
.
1 upporting and binding other tissues(via fibers).
S
2. Holding body fluids(ground substance's role).
3. Defending against infection(via white blood cellsand macrophages).
4. Storing nutrients as fat(in adipocytes).
Structural Features:
T
● he most obvious feature is theloose arrangementof fibers.
● The rest of the matrix is filled withground substance,which appears to be empty
space under a microscope, hence the name "areola" (Latin for "a small open space").
● T he loose nature provides areservoir of water and saltsfor surrounding tissues,
holding more fluid than the bloodstream.
● All body cellsobtain nutrientsandrelease wastesinto this "tissue fluid."
Cell Types in Areolar Tissue:
● F ibroblasts: Flat, branching cells that appear spindle-shapedand are the
predominant cell type.
● Macrophages: Provide abarrier against invading microorganisms.
● Adipocytes: Appear singly or in clusters and storefat.
● Mast cells: Identified by large, darkly stained cytoplasmicgranules that often
obscure their nuclei.
Ground Substance:
● T he ground substance isviscous, due to the high concentrationofhyaluronic acid,
which may hinder cell movement.
● Some white blood cells secretehyaluronidase, an enzymethat liquefies the ground
substance, making it easier for them to move through it (unfortunately, some harmful
bacteria can do this too).
Adipose (Fat) Tissue
● A dipose tissueis similar to areolar tissue in structure and function but has a much
greaternutrient-storingability.
● Adipocytesaccount for90%of the tissue's mass.
● The matrix isscanty, and the cells are packed closelytogether, giving a
chicken-wireappearance.
Key Features:
● A glistening oil droplet(almost pure triglyceride)occupies most of an adipocyte's
volume, displacing thenucleusto one side (Figure4.11b).
● Mature adipocytesare among thelargest cellsin thebody.
○ As adipocytes take up or release fat, they becomeplumperor more
wrinkled.
● Adipose tissue isrichly vascularized, reflectingits high metabolic activity.
● Fat storesallow the body to survive for several dayswithout food, indicating its
essential role inenergy storage.
● Adipose tissue constitutes18%of an average person'sbody weight.
Functions of Adipose Tissue:
. S
1 hock absorber.
2. Insulation(prevents heat loss, as fat is a poor conductorof heat).
3. Energy storage.
Locations of Adipose Tissue:
● D evelops in areas whereareolar tissueis plentiful,often accumulating in
subcutaneous tissue.
● Fat depositsare found around:
○ Kidneys.
○ Behind theeyeballs.
○ Genetically determined locationslike theabdomenandhips.
○ Beneath the skin to meet thegeneral nutrient needsof the body.
○ Smaller deposits serve thelocal nutrient needsofhighly active organs, such
as:
■ Around theheart.
■ Aroundlymph nodes.
■ Within somemuscles.
■ In thebone marrowwhere new blood cells are produced.
White Fat vs. Brown Fat
1. White Fat (White Adipose Tissue):
○ Storesnutrients, mainly for use by other cells.
2. Brown Fat (Brown Adipose Tissue):
○ Containsabundant mitochondriathat use lipid fuelsto generateheat
(rather than ATP).
○ Heatis carried by the bloodstream to warm the restof the body.
○ Richly vascularbrown fatoccurs mainly inbabies(on the back) because
they cannot produce body heat by shivering.
○ Inadults, small deposits of brown fat are found:
■ Above the collarbones.
■ On theneck.
■ In theabdomen.
■ Around thespine.
Reticular Connective Tissue
● R eticular connective tissueresembles areolar connectivetissue, but its matrix
contains onlyreticular fibers.
● These fibers form adelicate networkalong whichfibroblasts,known asreticular
cells, are scattered (Figure 4.11c).
Key Features:
● R
eticular fibersare widely distributed throughoutthe body, butreticular tissueitself
islimited to certain sites.
● F
orms a labyrinth-likestroma(meaning "bed" or "mattress), which is aninternal
frameworkthat supports manyfree blood cells(primarilylymphocytes).
Locations of Reticular Connective Tissue:
● Found in areas wherefree blood cellsare abundant,such as:
○ Lymph nodes
○ Spleen
○ Bone marrow
Connective Tissue Proper — Dense Connective Tissues
The three varieties ofdense connective tissueare:
. D
1 ense regular
2. Dense irregular
3. Elastic
ecause fibers are the most prominent element in all three types, dense connective tissues
B
are often calledfibrous connective tissues.
Dense Regular Connective Tissue
● D ense regular connective tissuecontainsclosely packed bundles of collagen
fibersrunning in thesame direction, parallel tothe direction ofpull(Figure 4.11d).
● This arrangement createswhite, flexible structureswith great resistance to
tensionwhen pulling forces are exerted in asingledirection.
● Fibroblastsare crowded between the collagen fibersand continuously produce
fibersand a small amount ofground substance.
Key Features:
● C ollagen fibersare slightly wavy, allowing the tissueto stretch slightly. However,
once the fibers straighten, there isno further give.
● Unlikeareolar connective tissue, dense regular connectivetissue hasfew cells
(mainly fibroblasts) and ispoorly vascularized.
Functions and Locations:
● Dense regular connective tissuehasenormous tensilestrengthand forms:
1. Tendons:
■ Cords that attachmuscles to bones.
2. Aponeuroses:
■ Flat, sheet-like tendons that attachmuscles to othermusclesor to
bones.
3. Ligaments:
■ Bindbones together at joints.
■ Contain moreelastic fibersthan tendons, making them slightlymore
stretchy.
Dense Irregular Connective Tissue
● D
ense irregular connective tissuehas the same structuralcomponents asdense
regular connective tissue, but thecollagen fibersare:
○ Thicker.
○ Arrangedirregularly, meaning they run inmultipledirections(Figure
4.11e).
Key Features:
● T
his arrangement allows the tissue to formsheetsin areas wheretensionis exerted
from many different directions.
Locations:
● Dense irregular connective tissueis found in:
○ Thedermisof the skin (making it leathery).
○ Fibrous joint capsules.
○ Fibrous coveringsaround some organs (e.g., kidneys,bones, cartilages,
muscles, and nerves).
Elastic Connective Tissue
● E
lastic connective tissueis a specialized form ofdense regular connective
tissuethat contains a high proportion ofelasticfibers.
Key Features:
P
● rovideselasticityto structures, allowing them tostretch and recoil.
● It is found in structures that need to be flexible yet strong.
Locations:
● L igamentsconnecting adjacentvertebraeare very elasticand consist ofelastic
connective tissue(Figure 4.11f).
● Large arteriesalso containstretchy sheetsof elasticconnective tissue in their
walls to accommodate the pressure changes that occur during blood flow.
Cartilage
● C artilagestands up to bothtensionandcompression,providing qualities that are
between those ofdense connective tissueandbone.
● It istough but flexible, offeringresilient rigidityto the structures it supports.
Key Features:
A
● vascularandlacks nerve fibers.
● Receives nutrients bydiffusionfrom blood vesselsin the surrounding
perichondrium(a connective tissue layer).
● Theground substanceis firm and contains large amountsofGAGs(chondroitin
sulfate and hyaluronic acid) andcollagen fibers(andsometimeselastic fibers).
● Cartilage matrix contains anexceptional amount oftissue fluid—up to80% water.
○ This water content allows cartilage toreboundaftercompression and
nourishes the cartilage cells.
Cartilage Cells:
● Chondroblasts:
○ Predominant cell type ingrowing cartilage.
○ Produce new matrix until the skeleton stops growing at the end of
adolescence.
● Chondrocytes:
○ Mature cartilage cells found in small groups within cavities calledlacunae
("pits").
Types of Cartilage:
. H
1 yaline cartilage
2. Elastic cartilage
3. Fibrocartilage
Each type is dominated by a specificfiber type, giving it unique structural properties.
Hyaline Cartilage
● H yaline cartilage(also known asgristle) is the mostabundanttype of cartilage in
the body.
● Containscollagen fibers, but they are not visible,making the matrix appearglassy
orblue-whitewhen viewed with the unaided eye.
● Chondrocytesmake up only1–10%of the cartilage volume(Figure 4.11g).
Key Features:
P
● rovidesfirm supportwith somepliability.
● Appearsglassydue to its collagen fiber content.
Locations and Functions:
1. Articular cartilage:
○ Covers theends of long bones, providingspringy padsthat absorb
compression atjoints.
2. Nose:
○ Supports thetipof the nose.
3. Ribs:
○ Connects theribsto thesternum.
4. Respiratory system:
○ Supports most of therespiratory passages(e.g., thetrachea).
5. Embryonic skeleton:
○ Comprises most of theembryonic skeletonbefore boneforms.
○ Persists during childhood as theepiphyseal plates(growth plates), which
are actively growing regions near the ends of long bones.
Elastic Cartilage
● E lastic cartilageis similar tohyaline cartilagein structure but containsmany more
elastic fibers(Figure 4.11h).
● Providesstrengthcombined withexceptional stretchability.
Key Features:
O
● ffersflexibilitywhile maintaining shape.
● The abundance ofelastic fibersallows forstretchand recoil.
Locations and Functions:
● E xternal ear: Forms theskeletonof the external ear,providing flexibility and shape
retention.
● Epiglottis: Forms theepiglottis, the flap that coversthe opening of therespiratory
passagewaywhen swallowing, preventing food from entering the airways.
Fibrocartilage
● F ibrocartilageis structurallyintermediatebetweenhyaline cartilageanddense
regular connective tissue.
● It consists ofrows of chondrocytes(a cartilage feature)alternating withrows of
thick collagen fibers(characteristic of dense regularconnective tissue) (Figure
4.11i).
Key Features:
R
● esists both compression and tensioneffectively.
● Providesstrong supportand the ability to withstandheavy pressure.
Locations and Functions:
● Intervertebral discs: Acts asresilient cushionsbetweenthebony vertebraeof
the spine.
● S
pongy cartilage of the knee: Found in areas like the knee, where it helps the joint
withstandcompressionandheavy pressure.
Bone (Osseous Tissue)
● B one(orosseous tissue) is known for itsrocklikehardness, giving it an
exceptional ability tosupportandprotectbody structures.
● Bones also providecavitiesforstoring fatandsynthesizingblood cells.
Key Features:
● T hebone matrixis similar to that of cartilage but isharder and more rigiddue to
the presence ofinorganic calcium salts(bone salts), in addition to theabundant
collagen fibers.
● Osteoblastsproduce theorganic portionof the matrix,andbone saltsare
deposited on and between the fibers.
● Mature bone cells(osteocytes) reside inlacunaewithinthe matrix they have
created (Figure 4.11j).
Structure:
● A cross-section of bone tissue revealsosteons, whichare thestructural unitsthat
resemble tree rings.
○ Osteonsare made up of concentric rings ofbony matrix(lamellae)
surroundingcentral canalsthat containblood vesselsandnervesserving
the bone.
● Unlike cartilage, bone iswell suppliedbyblood vessels.
Functions of Bone:
S
● upport and protectionof body structures.
● Storage of fat.
● Synthesis of blood cells.
Blood
● B loodis themost atypical connective tissueas itdoes not connect things or
provide mechanical support.
● It is classified as aconnective tissuebecause itdevelops frommesenchymeand
consists ofblood cellssurrounded by anonlivingfluid matrixcalledblood plasma
(Figure 4.11k).
Key Features:
T
● hemajority of blood cellsarered blood cells (erythrocytes).
● White blood cellsandplatelets(important for bloodclotting) are also present.
● The "fibers" of blood aresoluble protein moleculesthat precipitate and form visible
fiber-like structuresduring blood clotting.
Functions of Blood:
T
● ransport vehiclefor the cardiovascular system.
● Carriesnutrients,wastes,respiratory gases, and various other substances
throughout the body.
4.4Muscle tissue is responsible
for body movement
Muscle Tissues
● M uscle tissuesarewell-vascularizedand responsiblefor most types ofbody
movement.
● Similar toepithelial tissue, muscle cells are tightlypacked together.
● M
uscle cellscontainmyofilaments, which are networks ofactinandmyosin
filamentsthat enablemovementorcontractionin allcell types.
Types of Muscle Tissue:
1. Skeletal Muscle:
○ Voluntary musclebecause its contractions are underconscious control.
○ Responsible forbody movementsthat we can control.
2. Cardiac Muscle:
○ Involuntary musclebecause its contractions arenotunder conscious
control.
○ Found only in theheart, where it helps pump blood.
3. Smooth Muscle:
○ Also aninvoluntary muscle.
○ Found in the walls ofhollow organs(e.g., the intestinesand blood vessels),
where it helpsmove substancesthrough the body.
Overview of Muscle Tissue:
S
● keletal muscleandsmooth muscleare described indetail in Chapter 9.
● Cardiac muscleis discussed in Chapter 18.
Skeletal Muscle
● S keletal muscle tissueis packaged into organs calledskeletal muscles, which are
attached tobonesof the skeleton.
● These muscles form thefleshof the body and, whentheycontract, theypull on
bones or skin, causingbody movements.
Structure of Skeletal Muscle Cells:
● Skeletal muscle cells, also calledmuscle fibers,are:
○ Long and cylindrical.
○ Contain multipleperipherally located nuclei.
○ Have abanded (striated) appearance, which reflectsthe precise alignment
ofmyofilaments(actin and myosin) (Figure 4.12).
Function:
● S
keletal muscle is responsible forvoluntary movements,allowing us to consciously
control movements like walking, lifting, and more.
Cardiac Muscle
C
● ardiac muscleis found only in thewalls of the heart.
● Itscontractionshelppropel bloodthrough the bloodvessels to all parts of the
body.
Structure of Cardiac Muscle Cells:
● C
ardiac muscle cellsarestriated, similar to skeletalmuscle cells, but they have
distinct structural differences:
○ Uninucleate: Most cardiac muscle cells containonecentrally located
nucleus.
○ Branching cells: Cardiac muscle cells arebranchingand fit together tightly
at special junctions calledintercalated discs(Figure4.12b).
Function:
● C
ardiac muscle is responsible forinvoluntary contractionsthatpump blood
throughout the body. Theintercalated discsallowthe heart cells to contract in a
coordinated way, enabling the heart to function as an effective pump.
Smooth Muscle
S
● mooth muscleis named for itslack of visible striations.
● Smooth muscle cellsarespindle-shaped(tapered atboth ends) and containone
centrally located nucleus(Figure 4.12c).
Key Features:
● S
mooth muscleis primarily found in thewalls of holloworgans(excluding the
heart), such as:
○ Digestive tract organs
○ Urinary tract organs
○ Uterus
○ Blood vessels
Function:
● S mooth muscle helpssqueeze substancesthrough theseorgans byalternately
contracting and relaxing.
● This movement isinvoluntary, meaning it is not consciously controlled, and is
essential for processes such asdigesting food,urine flow, andblood circulation.
4.5Nervous tissue is a specialized
tissue of the nervous system
Nervous Tissue
● N
ervous tissueis the main component of thenervoussystem—which includes the
brain,spinal cord, andnerves—and is responsiblefor regulating and controlling
body functions.
Cell Types in Nervous Tissue:
1. Neurons:
H
○ ighly specializednerve cells that generate and conductnerve impulses.
○ Typicallybranching cellswithcytoplasmic extensionsorprocesses.
○ Neurons have two key types of processes:
■ Dendrites: Respond tostimuli.
■ Axons: Transmitelectrical impulsesover substantialdistances
within the body (Figure 4.13).
2. Supporting Cells(Glial Cells or Neuroglia):
○ Non-conductingcells.
○ Support,insulate, andprotectthe delicate neurons.
Function:
● N euronsare responsible forresponding to stimuliandtransmitting electrical
impulsesthroughout the body.
● Supporting cellsplay a crucial role in maintainingthe health and function of
neurons, ensuring the nervous system operates effectively.
A more detailed discussion of nervous tissue is found inChapter 11.
4.6The cutaneous membrane is dry;
mucous and serous membranes are wet
Body's Covering and Lining Membranes
ow that we have covered the four primary tissues, we can examine the body'scovering
N
and lining membranes, which are classified assimpleorgansbecause they incorporate
more than one tissue type.
Types of Covering and Lining Membranes:
. C
1 utaneous Membrane(Skin)
2. Mucous Membranes(Mucosa)
3. Serous Membranes(Serosa)
Key Characteristics:
A
● ll membranes arecontinuous multicellular sheets.
● Composed of at least two primary tissue types:
○ Epithelium.
○ Underlying layer of connective tissue proper.
Note on Synovial Membranes:
● S ome considersynovial membranespart of this group,but they consistonly of
connective tissue.
● Synovial membranes will be discussed inChapter 8.
Cutaneous Membrane
● T
hecutaneous membrane(also known as theskin) isan organ system composed
of:
○ Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium(epidermis).
○ A thick layer ofconnective tissue(dermis).
Key Features:
● Unlike other epithelial membranes, thecutaneous membraneis:
○ Exposed to the air.
○ Considered adry membrane.
hecutaneous membraneis discussed in detail inChapter5, as it is a unique and
T
complex organ system.
Mucous Membranes
● M
ucous membranes(ormucosae) line allbody cavitiesthat open to theoutside
of the body.
○ Examples include thedigestive,respiratory, andurogenitaltracts(Figure
4.14b).
Key Features:
● M
ucous membranesare "wet" ormoistmembranes, typicallybathed by secretions
(orurinein the case of the urinary mucosa).
● T
he termmucosarefers to thelocationof the membrane, not itscell composition,
which varies.
Composition:
M
● ost mucosae contain eitherstratified squamousorsimple columnarepithelia.
● The epithelial sheet lies over a layer ofareolarconnective tissuecalled thelamina
propria("one’s own layer").
● In some cases, thelamina propriarests on a third,deeper layer ofsmooth muscle
cells.
Function:
● Mucous membranesare often adapted forabsorptionandsecretion.
○ Many mucosaesecrete mucus, but this is not a requirement.
○ The mucosae of thedigestiveandrespiratory tractssecrete large amounts
oflubricating mucus, while theurinary tractdoes not.
Serous Membranes
● S erous membranes(orserosae) aremoist membranesfound inclosed ventral
body cavities(Figure 4.14c).
● Serous membranes have two layers:
1. Visceral layer(covers organs)
2. Parietal layer(lines cavity walls)
● These layers are separated byserous fluid(Figure1.11, p. 49).
Structure:
● E ach layer consists ofsimple squamous epithelium(calledmesothelium) resting
on a thin layer ofareolar connective tissue.
● Mesothelial cellsaddhyaluronic acidto the fluidfiltered from capillaries, resulting
inserous fluid.
● Serous fluidlubricates the parietal and viscerallayers, allowing them toslide easily
across each other.
Locations and Names of Serous Membranes:
P
● leurae: Line thethoracic walland cover thelungs.
● Pericardium: Encloses theheart.
● Peritoneum: Encloses theabdominopelvic viscera.
4.7Tissue repair involves
inflammation, organization, and
regeneration
Body's Defense Mechanisms
he body employs multiple techniques to protect itself fromuninvited "guests"orinjury,
T
including:
1. Mechanical Barriers:
S
● kin: Acts as a physical barrier preventing harmfulagents from entering the body.
● Mucosae: Line various body cavities and provide protectionat external boundaries.
● Cilia: Epithelial cells lining the respiratory tracthaveciliathat help trap and move
harmful particles out of the airways.
2. Chemical Barriers:
● S
tomach acid: The strong acid produced by stomachglands acts as achemical
barrier, destroying pathogens that enter via ingestion.
Inflammatory and Immune Responses
hentissue is injured, these barriers can bepenetrated,triggering the body's
W
inflammatoryandimmune responses:
● Inflammatory response:
○ Anonspecific reactionthat developsquicklywherevertissues are injured.
○ It helps limit the damage and begins the healing process.
● Immune response:
○ A morespecificdefense mechanism that takeslongerto activate.
○ It targets specific pathogens or threats in the body.
hese responses primarily occur in theconnectivetissuesof the body, where most of the
T
immune cells and inflammatory processes are concentrated.
(Detailed discussion on immune responses inChapter 21).
Steps of Tissue Repair
issue repair involves thedivisionandmigrationof cells, processes initiated bygrowth
T
factors(wound hormones) released by injured cells.Tissue repair occurs in two major ways:
1. Regeneration:
○ Replacesdestroyed tissuewith thesame kindof tissue.
2. Fibrosis:
○ Replaces destroyed tissue withscar tissue(denseconnective tissue).
Determining Factors:
● The type of repair (regeneration or fibrosis) depends on:
1. Thetype of tissuedamaged.
2. Theseverityof the injury.
Example of Skin Repair
In skin, tissue repair involves bothregenerationandfibrosis. The steps are detailed in
Figure 4.15.
Granulation Tissue
● In the early stages of wound healing,granulationtissueforms.
● G ranulation tissueis a delicate, pink tissue containingcapillariesthat grow from
nearby areas and lay down a newcapillary bed.
● Thesecapillariesprotrude nublike from the surface,giving the tissue agranular
appearance.
● Granulation tissue isfragileandbleeds freely, asseen when someone picks at a
scab.
Healing Process:
● F or minor wounds (like cuts, scrapes, or punctures that breach an epithelial barrier),
healing involves bothregenerationandfibrosis.
● Forsimple infections(like a pimple or sore throat),healing occurssolely by
regeneration.
● Onlysevere infectionsor injuries lead toclot formationorscarring(fibrosis).
Regenerative Capacity of Different Tissues
Tissues vary significantly in their ability toregenerate:
Tissues with High Regenerative Capacity:
● pithelial tissues.
E
● Bone.
● Areolar connective tissue.
● Dense irregular connective tissue.
● Blood-forming tissue.
These tissues regenerateextremely well.
Tissues with Moderate Regenerative Capacity:
S
● mooth muscle.
● Dense regular connective tissue.
Tissues with Weak Regenerative Capacity:
S
● keletal muscle.
● Cartilage.
Tissues with Virtually No Regenerative Capacity:
C
● ardiac muscle.
● Nervous tissuein thebrainandspinal cord.
hese tissues are typically replaced byscar tissueafter injury. However, recent studies
T
have shown that someselective cellular divisionmayoccur after damage, and
researchers are exploring ways toencourage regeneration.
Fibrosis in Nonregenerating Tissues
● Innonregenerating tissuesand insevere wounds, thelost tissue is completely
replaced byfibrosis(scar tissue).
● Over time, the fibrous massshrinksand becomes morecompact, resulting in a
pale, shiny scarcomposed mostly ofcollagen fibers.
● Scar tissueisstrong, but it lacks theflexibilityandelasticityof normal tissue and
cannot perform the functionsof the tissue it replaces.
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