Module 2

Energy Devices
Electrochemical and electrolytic cells
Electrode materials with examples (Semi-conductors)
Classification of Batteries
Chemistry of Li ion secondary batteries
Fuel cells: H2-O2 and solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC)
Solar cells: Photovoltaic cells (silicon based), Photoelectrochemical
cells and Dye- sensitized cells.
 Electrochemical Cell
▪ A device that is used to generate electricity from a spontaneous redox reaction
or, conversely, that uses electricity to drive a non-spontaneous redox reaction.
▪ An electrochemical cell typically consists of
• Two electronic conductors (also called electrodes >> anode and cathode)
• An ionic conductor (called an electrolyte)
• the electron conductor used to link the electrodes is often a metal wire,
such as copper wiring
▪ The electrochemical cells are broadly classified into two types:
• Galvanic or voltaic cell: Converts the energy released by a spontaneous
chemical reaction to electrical energy. ΔG < 0
• Electrolytic cell: Consumes electrical energy from an external source to drive
a non-spontaneous chemical reaction. ΔG > 0
 Galvanic or voltaic cell
▪ A galvanic cell uses the energy released during a spontaneous redox reaction
(ΔG < 0) to generate electricity.
▪ This type of electrochemical cell is also called a voltaic cell after its inventor, the
Italian physicist Alessandro Volta.
▪ Anode is written on the left-hand side >> oxidation occurs
▪ Cathode is written on the right-hand side >> reduction occurs
Electrode on the left Electrode on the right
Metal (or solid phase)| Electrolyte (whole Electrolyte (whole formula or ion) | Metal
formula or ion) (or solid phase)
Zn|Zn(NO3)2 (1M) Cu(NO3)2 (1M)|Cu
Oxidation: M1 → M1n+ + n e- Reduction: M2n+ + n e- → M2
Overall representation of Galvanic cell
M1 | M1n+ (C1) ║ M2n+ (C2) | M2
 Daniel Cell
▪ Invented by British chemist John Frederic
Daniell.
▪ Zn Electrode dipped in ZnSO4 solution:
• Oxidation: Zn → Zn2+ + 2 e-
▪ Cu Electrode dipped in CuSO4 solution:
• Reduction: Cu2+ + 2 e- → Cu
▪ Each electrode is referred to as half cell which
are connected through a salt bridge
▪ Salt bridge: KCl or NH4Cl in a gelatine form
▪ Maintains the charge balance in the two half
cells
▪ Minimizes or eliminates the liquid junction
potential
 EMF of Electrochemical Cell
▪ The electromotive force (EMF): Maximum potential difference between two electrodes of
a galvanic or voltaic cell.
▪ This quantity is related to the tendency for an element, a compound or an ion to acquire
(i.e. gain) or release (lose) electrons.
▪ Cell reaction is feasible when Ecell has positive value.
▪ Cell EMF in terms of Nernst Equation:

E0M1 = Standard reduction potential cathode

E0M2 = Standard reduction potential anode
For equimolar solution of electrolytes corresponding to M1 and M2:
1. Write the half cell reaction, the net reaction and cell EMF of the following cell:
Cd|Cd2+ (0.01 M)║Cu2+ (0.5 M)|Cu
The standard reduction potentials are ̶ 0.40 V and 0.34 V respectively.
 The Electrolysis of Molten NaCl
▪ Here Na+ ions gain electrons and are reduced
to Na at the cathode.
▪ As Na+ ions near the cathode are depleted,
additional Na+ ions migrate in.
▪ Similarly, there is net movement of Cl- ions to
the anode where they are oxidized to Cl2.
▪ Positive terminal is connected to the anode.
▪ The negative terminal is connected to the
cathode which forces electrons to move from
the anode to the cathode.
▪ Electrolysis is performed at ~ 801 °C.
▪ Here inert electrodes are used.

Cathode: 2 Na+ (l) + 2 e- → 2 Na (l)

Overall: 2 NaCl (l) → 2 Na (l) + Cl2 (g)
Anode: 2 Cl ̶ (l) → Cl2 (g) + 2 e-
 Electrolytic Decomposition of Water
A pair of inert electrodes are dipped into the
solution and applying a voltage between
them results in the rapid evolution of bubbles
of H2 and O2.
Due to very poor electrical conductivity of
pure water, a small amount of an ionic solute
(such as H2SO4 or Na2SO4) is added to increase
its electrical conductivity.
The electrolytes are chosen such a way that
the ions that are harder to oxidize or reduce
than water:
Cathode: 4 H+(aq) + 4 e- → 2 H2(g)
Anode: 2 H2O → O2(g) + 4 H+ + 4 e-
Overall: 2 H2O → O2(g) + 2 H2(g)
 Electroplating
Uses electrolysis to deposit a thin layer of one metal on another metal to improve beauty
or resistance to corrosion.
Electroplating was first discovered by Luigi Brugnatelli in 1805 through using the
electrode position process for the electroplating of gold.
Both ferrous and non-ferrous metals are plated with Ni, Cr, Cu, Zn, Pb, Al, Ag, Au, Sn etc.
▪ The base metal to be plated is made
cathode of an electrolytic cell.
▪ The anode is either made of the coating
metal itself or an inert material of good
electrical conductivity.
▪ A water-soluble salt of the plating metal is
used as electrolyte.
▪ Often non-participating electrolytes, such
as, Na2SO4, are added to the bath solution
to increase the conductivity of the medium.
▪ Copper plating:
• Anode reaction: Cu (s) → Cu2+ (aq.) + 2 e
• Cathode reaction: Cu2+ (aq.) + 2 e → Cu (s)
• Electrolyte: Aqueous CuSO4 solution
Nickel plating:
• Anode reaction: Ni (s) → Ni2+ (aq.) + 2 e
• Cathode reaction: Ni2+ (aq.) + 2 e → Ni (s)
• Electrolyte: Aqueous NiSO4 solution

Gold plating:
• Anode reaction: Au (s) → Au+ (aq.) + e
• Cathode reaction: Au+ (aq.) + e → Au (s)
• Electrolyte: Aqueous K[Au(CN)2] solution
▪ Silver plating: Silver plating:
• Anode reaction: Ag (s) → Ag+ (aq.) + e • Anode reaction: Ag (s) → Ag+ (aq.) + e
• Cathode reaction: Ag+ (aq.) + e → Ag (s) • Cathode reaction: Ag+ (aq.) + e → Ag (s)
• Electrolyte: Aqueous AgNO3 solution • Electrolyte: Aqueous K[Ag(CN)2] solution
 Semiconductors
A semiconductor is a substance, usually a solid chemical element or compound that
can conduct electricity under some conditions but not others, making it a good medium
for the control of electrical current.
It has almost filled valence band, empty conduction band and very narrow energy gap i.e.,
of the order of 1 eV. Energy gap of Silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge) are 1.0 and 0.7 eV
respectively. Consequently Si and Ge are semiconductors.
 Effect of temperature on conductivity of semiconductors:
▪ At 0 K electrons freeze at valence band and hence all semiconductors are insulators.
▪ Electrical conductivity of a semiconductor material increases with increasing temperature
as resistivity decreases.
▪ At higher temperature transition from the valence band to the conduction band gets
facilitated ⇒ higher conductivity or lower resistivity.

Temperatur
e
Types of semiconductors:
 Intrinsic Semiconductor
Intrinsic semiconductor material is chemically very pure and possesses poor conductivity.
It has equal numbers of negative carriers (electrons) and positive carriers (holes)

Absence of Presence of
electrical field electrical field
 Extrinsic Semiconductor.
▪ Extrinsic semiconductor is an improved intrinsic semiconductor with a small amount
of impurities added by a process, known as doping, which alters the electrical
properties of the semiconductor and improves its conductivity.
▪ Introducing impurities into the semiconductor materials (doping process) can control
their conductivity.
▪ Doping process produces two groups of semiconductors:
• The negative charge conductor (n-type)
• the positive charge conductor (p-type)
▪ Semiconductors are available as either elements or compounds.
▪ Silicon and Germanium are the most common elemental semiconductors.
▪ Compound Semiconductors include InSb, InAs, GaP, GaSb, GaAs, SiC, and GaN.
 n-type Semiconductor
▪ An n-type semiconductor is an intrinsic semiconductor doped with pentavalent
impurity, such as, P, As, Sb, etc.
▪ If a small amount of phosphorus is added to a pure silicon crystal, one of the
valence electrons of phosphorus becomes free to move around (free electron)
as a surplus electron.
 p-type Semiconductor
An p-type semiconductor is an intrinsic semiconductor doped with trivalent
impurity, such as, B, Al, In, etc.
If a small amount of boron is doped to a single crystal of silicon, valence
electrons will be insufficient at one position to bond silicon and boron, resulting
in holes that lack electrons.
 Solar or Photovoltaic Cell

❖ A solar cell is an electrical device which converts solar energy directly to electric energy by photovoltaic effect.

❖ Photovoltaic effect: When sun light hits the solar cell, generation of charge carrier takes place and charge carrier are
separated across the junction gives rise electric current.

N-type P-type
- - - - - - + - + ++ + + +
- - - - - - + - + ++ + + +
- - - - - - + - + ++ + + +
Dopant distribution inside a
pn junction
excess holes diffuse
to the n-type region
-+
p>>n - + n>>p
-+
excess electrons diffuse
to the p-type region
DEPLETION
REGION:
 Operation of a solar cells

❖Absorption of photons where the energy of each photon is given by

❖If E ≥ EG the optical absorption takes place.

❖The energy above the band gap is lost as heat to the crystal lattice, which is
major loss in solar cell.
Operation of a solar cells
When sun light falls on silicon cell, the photon energy
allows the electrons from the P-layer to move to the
N-layer, creating an electric potential difference on
the semiconductor borders.

If these borders are connected to a load by

conductive wires, there will be a flow of electric
current, getting back the electrons to the P-layer and
starting the process again.

A photovoltaic cell generally has low current and

voltage levels, of about 3 A and 0.7 V, respectively.
 Types PV based on the structure of silicon: Crystal structure, or atomic
arrangement in a material plays crucial role in its electrical properties.
• Single-crystal silicon:
• In its crystalline form, a material is characterized by an ordered array of
component atoms. This array is repetitive with displacement through the
material sample.
• 15–18% efficient, typically expensive to make (grown as big crystal)
• Poly-crystalline silicon:
• Where a polycrystalline material is concerned, the object is composed of a
number of sub-sections, each of which is crystalline in form. These
subsections, however, are independently oriented so that at their interfaces
the atomic order and regularity undergo sharp discontinuities.
• 12–16% efficient, slowly improving and cheaper to make (cast in ingots)
• Amorphous silicon (non-crystalline)
• The final category, the amorphous material, displays no atomic regularity of
arrangement on any macroscopic scale.
• 4–8% Efficient and cheapest per Watt
• Called as “thin film” and easily deposited on a wide range of surface types
Third generation solar cell
▪ Photosensitizer or Dye
• Dye are responsible for the maximum absorption of light.
• These should have the following photophysical and electrochemical properties:
• Their absorption spectra should cover UV-vis and NIR regions.
• The HOMO should be located far from the surface of the conduction band of TiO2.
• LUMO should be placed as close to the surface of the TiO2, and should be placed
higher than the TiO2 conduction band potential.
• The periphery of the dye should be hydrophobic to enhance the long-term stability of
cells.
• Co-absorbents like chenodeoxycholic acid (CDCA) or anchoring groups like alkoxy-silyl,
phosphoric acid, and -COOH should be present to avoid the aggregation of the dye
over the TiO2 surface.
 Electrolyte
• An electrolyte, such as I−/I3−, Br−/Br2−, SCN−/SCN2, and Co(II)/Co(III) has five
main components, i.e., redox couple, solvent, additives, ionic liquids, and
cations.
• The following properties should be present in an electrolyte: :
• Redox couple should be able to regenerate the oxidized dye efficiently.
• Should have chemical, thermal, and electrochemical stability.
• Should be non-corrosive with DSSC components.
• Should be able to permit fast diffusion of charge carriers, enhance
conductivity, and create effective contact between the working and counter
electrodes.
▪ Counter Electrode (CE)
• CE in DSSCs are mostly prepared by using Pt, C, CoS, Au/GNP, alloy CEs like
FeSe, and CoNi0.25.
Photosensitizer or Dye
Naturally Occurring Dyes
 Disadvantages of Solar Photovoltaic Cell
Some toxic chemicals, like cadmium and arsenic, are used in the PV production
process. These environmental impacts are minor and can be easily controlled
through recycling and proper disposal.
The conversion of light energy into heat energy is one of the limitations.
Solar energy is somewhat more expensive to produce than conventional
sources of energy due in part to the cost of manufacturing PV devices
Solar power is a variable energy source, with energy production dependent on
the sun.
Solar panels efficiency levels are relatively low (between 14%-25%) compared
to the efficiency levels of other renewable energy systems.
Solar panels are fragile and can be damaged relatively easily.
Photochemical Cell
 Battery
Battery is a device that consists of one or more electrochemical cells connected in series or
parallel or both and converts the chemical energy into electrical energy.
The cell consists of three major components:
• The anode: Reducing electrode which gives up electrons to the external circuit
• The cathode: Oxidizing electrode which accepts electrons from the external circuit
• The electrolyte: It is the ionic conductor
Types of Cells/Batteries:
• Primary battery (Primary cells): The cell reaction is not reversible. When all the reactants
have been converted to product, no more electricity is produced and the battery is dead.
Example: Lechlanche Cell (Dry Cell), Alkaline Cell and Lithium batteries.
• Secondary battery (secondary cells): The cell reactions can be reversed by passing electric
current in the opposite direction. Example: Lead acid batteries, Ni-Cd batteries, Ni-Metal
Hydride batteries, Lithium ion batteries.
• Flow battery and fuel cell: Materials (reactants, products, electrolytes) pass through the
battery. Example: Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell (HOFC), Solid oxide fuel cell(SOFC), etc.
These are batteries where the redox reactions proceed in only one direction. The reactants in these
batteries are consumed after a certain period of time, rendering them dead. A primary battery cannot
be used once the chemicals inside it are exhausted.
An example of a primary battery is the dry cell – the household battery that commonly used to power
TV remotes, clocks, and other devices. In such cells, a zinc container acts as the anode and a carbon
rod acts as the cathode. A powdered mixture of manganese dioxide and carbon is placed around the
cathode. The space left in between the container and the rod are filled with a moist paste of ammonium
chloride and zinc chloride.
The redox reaction that takes place in these cells is:
At Anode
Zn(s) –> Zn2+ (aq) + 2e–
At Cathode
2e– + 2 NH4+ (aq) –> 2 NH3 (g) + H2 (g)
2 NH3 (g) +Zn2+ (aq) –> [Zn (NH3)2] 2+ (aq)
H2 (g) + 2 MnO2 (S) –> Mn2O3 (S) + H2O (l)

Thus, the overall cell equation is:

Zn(s) + 2 NH4+ (aq) + 2 MnO2 (S) –> [Zn(NH3)2] 2+ (aq) + Mn2O3 (S) + H2O (l)
Primary batteries:
Primary batteries are not easily rechargeable, and consequently are discharged then disposed
of. Many of these are “dry cells” – cells in which the electrolyte is not a liquid but a paste or
similar. The cell electrochemical reactions are not easily reversible and cell is operated until
the active components in the electrodes are exhausted. Generally primary batteries have a
higher capacity and initial voltage than rechargeable batteries.
Applications:
Advantages: Disadvantages:
•Portable devices
•Inexpensive Can only be used once
Lighting
Convenient
Toys
Lightweight Leads to large amount of waste
Memory back-up
Good shelf batteries to be recycled
Watches/clocks
life
Hearing aids
High Energy Batteries put into landfill sites have
Radios
density at severe environmental impact
Medical implants
low/moderate
Defense related systems
discharges Life cycle energy efficiency < 2 %
such as missiles
Rechargeable Battery
 Lithium-Ion (Li ion) Batteries
Lithium-ion battery is a secondary battery.
It does not contain metallic lithium as anode.
As the name suggests, the movement of lithium ions are responsible for charging &
discharging.
Lithium ion battery technology was first proposed in the 1970s by M Whittingham who
used titanium sulphide for the cathode and lithium metal for the anode.
The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2019 is awarded to John B. Goodenough, M. Stanley
Whittingham and Akira Yoshino.
 Why lithium?
Currently, most portable electronic devices, including cell phones and laptop
computers, are powered by rechargeable lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries, because:
Lithium is a very light element.
Li-ion batteries achieve a high specific energy density which is the amount of energy
stored per unit mass.
Because Li+ has a very large negative standard reduction potential, Li-ion batteries
produce a higher voltage per cell than other batteries.
A Li-ion battery produces a maximum voltage of 3.7 V per cell, nearly three times
higher than the 1.3 V per cell that nickel–cadmium and nickel–metal hydride
batteries generate.
As a result, a Li-ion battery can deliver more power than other batteries of
comparable size, which leads to a higher volumetric energy density—the amount of
energy stored per unit volume.
 Construction of Lithium-Ion (Li ion) Batteries
▪ Cathode: This is the positive electrode and it
is typically layers of lithium-metal oxide
(LiCoO2, LiNiO2, LiMn2O4, LiNiMnCoO2) and
lithium metal polyanionic materials
(LiFePO4, LiMnPO4, LiFeSO4F, etc.).
▪ Anode: The negative electrode is made from
graphite, usually with composition Li0.5C6.
▪ Electrolyte: Mixture of organic carbonates
such as ethylene carbonate, diethyl
carbonate.
▪ Separator: Prevents touching two
electrodes. This absorbs the electrolyte, and
enables the passage of ions, but prevents
the direct contact of the two electrodes
within the lithium in cell.
Charging Reaction and Discharging
 Charging Reaction and Discharging
Charging Reaction: Discharging Reaction:
▪ When the cell is being charged, cobalt Li+ ions move out of the anode and
ions are oxidized and release migrate through the electrolyte
electrons. where they enter the spaces between
▪ Simultaneously Li+ ions migrate out of the cobalt oxide layers.
LiCoO2 and into the graphite. Simultaneously electrons flow through
▪ Electrons flow from the positive the external circuit.
electrode to the negative electrode.
Electrons reduce cobalt at ions at the
▪ The electrons and Li+ ions combine at positive electrode to regenerate LiCoO2.
the negative electrode.
Anode: LiCoO2 → Li1-nCoO2 + n Li+ + n e- Anode: LinC6 → C6 + n e- + n Li+
Cathode: C6 + n e- + n Li+ → LinC6 Cathode: Li1-nCoO2 + n Li+ + n e- → LiCoO2

LiCoO2 + C6 → Li1-nCoO2 + LinC6 Li1-nCoO2 + C6Lin → LiCoO2 + C6

 Lithium ion battery variants
NAME CONSTITUENTS ABBREVIATION MAJOR APPLICATIONS
CHARACTERISTICS

Lithium Cobalt LiCoO2 LCO High capacity Cell phones, laptops,

cameras

Lithium Manganese LiMn2O4 LMO Lower capacity Power tools, medical,

Oxide hobbyist

Lithium Iron LiFePO4 LFP Lower capacity Power tools, medical,

Phosphate hobbyist

Lithium Nickel LiNiMnCoO2 NMC Lower capacity Power tools, medical,

Manganese Cobalt hobbyist
Oxide
Lithium Nickel Cobalt LiNiCoAlO2 NCA Electric vehicles and
Aluminium Oxide grid storage
 Lithium-ion battery applications
▪ Portable Power Packs: Lightweight and compact, Li-ion batteries are ideal for cell phones,
laptops, and other portable electronics.

▪ Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS): Provide reliable backup power during outages or
fluctuations.

▪ Electric Vehicles (EVs): High energy storage, rechargeability, and long lifespan make Li-ion
batteries essential for EVs, hybrids, and plug-in hybrids.

▪ Marine Vehicles: Emerging as a cleaner, efficient alternative to gasoline and lead-acid

batteries in boats and yachts.

▪ Personal Mobility Devices: Power wheelchairs, bikes, scooters, and other mobility aids.

▪ Renewable Energy Storage: Used in solar and wind systems for fast charging, high energy
density, and compactness compared to lead-acid batteries.
 Advantages & Disadvantages of Lithium Ion Battery
▪ Advantages:
• High energy density: High energy density is one of the biggest advantages of lithium ion
battery technology. This higher power density offered by lithium ion batteries is a great
advantage for their use in electronic gadgets and electric vehicles.
• Low self-discharge: Lithium ion cells is that their rate of self-discharge is much lower than
that of other rechargeable cells such as Ni-Cad and NiMH forms.
• Low maintenance: Lithium ion batteries do not require active maintenance.
• High cell voltage: The voltage produced by each lithium ion cell is about 3.6 volts. This
ensure less number of cells in many battery applications.
• Variety of types available: There are several types of lithium ion cell available. This ensures
the right technology can be used for the particular application needed.
• No requirement for priming: Lithium ion batteries are supplied operational and ready to
go.
• Load characteristics: These provide a reasonably constant 3.6 volts per cell before falling
off as the last charge is used.
Disadvantages:
• Protection required: Lithium ion cells and batteries are not as robust as some other
rechargeable technologies. They require protection from being over charged and
discharged too far.
• Ageing: Lithium ion batteries suffer from ageing. Often batteries will only be able to
withstand 500-1000 charge discharge cycles before their capacity falls.
• High Cost: A major lithium ion battery disadvantage is their cost. Typically they are around
40% more costly to manufacture than Nickel cadmium cells.
• Chances of explosion:
• Bad design or manufacturing defects: In that case, there wasn’t enough space for the
electrodes and separator in the battery. When the battery expanded a little as it charged,
the electrodes bent and caused a short circuit.
• Overcharging: When overcharged, lithium cobalt oxide releases oxygen which can react
with flammable electrolyte leading to overheating.
• Electrolyte breakdown: On overheating, Dimethyl carbonate decompose to form CO2
which causes pressure build up in battery, resulting in a dangerous explosion.
 Fuel Cells
A fuel cell is a device that converts chemical potential energy (energy stored in molecular
bonds) into electrical energy
Electricity is generated without combustion by combining hydrogen and oxygen to
produce water and heat
They offer higher electrical efficiency (≥ 40%) compared to conventional power
generation systems.
 Principle of Operation
▪ A fuel cell is a device that uses hydrogen (or hydrogen-rich fuel) and oxygen to
create electricity by an electrochemical process.
▪ Hydrogen and oxygen (air) are supplied to anode and cathode, respectively.
▪ When hydrogen is led to the anode, the hydrogen molecules are split into
proton and an electron.
▪ The protons migrate through the electrolyte to the cathode, where they react
with oxygen to form water.
▪ At the same time, the electrons are forced to travel around the electrolyte to
the cathode side, because they cannot pass through the electrolyte. This
movement of electrons thus creates an electrical current.
PEMFC
 Proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC)
or
Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFC)
▪ This type of fuel cell utilize water-based, acidic polymer electrolyte
membranes (PEMs), such as Nafion, to conduct protons for ion exchange
purposes.
▪ PEMFC cells operate at relatively low temperatures (< 80°C).
▪ Due to the relatively low temperatures and the use of precious metal-based
electrodes, these cells must operate on pure hydrogen.

Nafion
 Process
Hydrogen fuel is processed at the anode where electrons are separated from
protons on the surface of a platinum-based catalyst.
The protons pass through the membrane to the cathode side of the cell while
the electrons travel in an external circuit, generating the electrical output of the
cell.
On the cathode side, another Pt electrode combines the protons and electrons
with oxygen to produce water.

• At anode: H2 (g) → 2 H+ + 2 e-
• At cathode: O2 (g) + 4 H+ + 4 e- → 2 H2O
• Net reaction: O2 (g) + 2 H2 (g) → 2 H2O (I)
ECell˚= 1.23 V
▪ Advantages
• The energy conversion is very high (75-82%).
• Fuel cell minimizes expensive transmission lines and transmission losses.
• It has high reliability in electricity generation and the by-products are environmentally
acceptable.
• Maintenance cost is low for these fuels and they save fossil fuels.
• Noise and thermal pollution are very low.
▪ Disadvantages:
• The major disadvantage of the fuel cell is the high cost and the problems of durability and
storage of large amount of hydrogen.
• The accurate life time is also not known and It cannot store electricity.
• Electrodes are expensive ad short lived.
• Storage and handling of H2 gas is dangerous because it is inflammable.

▪ Applications:
• The most important application of a fuel cell is its use in space vehicles, submarine or military
vehicles.
• The product H2O is valuable source of fresh water for the astronauts.
• Fuel cell batteries for automotive will be a great boon for the future.
 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)
▪ SOFC is a high-temperature FC that utilizes solid ceramic inorganic oxide as an
electrolyte; e.g., zirconium oxide stabilized with yttrium oxide, instead of a
liquid or membrane, also known as Yttria-stabilized Zirconia (YSZ).
▪ SOFC is also referred to as ceramic FC.
▪ Both hydrogen and carbon monoxide are used as fuels.
▪ Solid oxide fuel cells work at very high temperatures, the highest of all the fuel
cell types at around 800 °C to 1,000 °C.
▪ Efficiency: over 60% when converting fuel to electricity
▪ This cell relatively resistant to small quantities of sulphur in the fuel, compared
to other types of fuel cell, and hence can be used with coal gas.
 Structure of SOFC
Anode or fuel electrode:
• Nickel mixed with YSZ (Yttria stabilized Zirconia) or called Nickel-YSZ cermet (a
cermet is a mixture of ceramic and metal).
• It is a porous ceramic layer to allow the fuel to flow towards electrolyte.
Cathode or air electrode:
• The cathode is usually a mixed ion-conducting and electronically conducting ceramic
material.
• It is a thin porous ceramic layer coated over the solid electrolyte where oxygen
reduction takes place. One example being, strontium doped lanthanum manganite
(LSM).
Electrolyte:
• Oxide ion (O2-) conducting ceramic.
• The most popular electrolyte material is a bilayer composite electrolyte (YSZ layer +
gadolinium doped CeO2) (GDC) layer) or a mixture of ZrO and CaO.
▪ At anode (oxidation):
H2 (g) + CO (g) + 2 O2- → H2O (g) + CO2 (g) + 4e-
▪ At cathode (reduction):
O2 (g) + 4e- → 2 O2-
▪ Net reaction:
H2 (g) + CO (g) + O2 (g) → H2O (g) + CO2 (g)
 Advantages of SOFC:
• SOFCs have a number of advantages due to their solid materials and high
operating temperature.
• Since all the components are solid, as a result, there is no need for electrolyte
loss maintenance and electrode corrosion is eliminated.
• Also because of high-temperature operation, the SOFC has a better ability to
tolerate the presence of impurities as a result of life increasing.
• High efficiencies: Due to high-quality waste heat for cogeneration
applications and low activation losses, the efficiency for electricity
production is great.
• Low emissions. Releasing negligible pollution.
▪ Disadvantages:
• High operating temperature (500 to 1,000 °C) which results in longer start up
times and mechanical/chemical compatibility issues.
• The cost and complex fabrication are also significant problems that need to be
solved.

• Applications:
• SOFCs are being considered for a wide range of applications, such as working
as power systems for trains, ships and vehicles; supplying electrical power for
residential or industrial utility.
• Stationary power generation
• By product gases are channeled to turbines to generate more electricity:
cogeneration of heat and power and improves overall efficiency.
• Auxiliary power units in vehicles
Differences between Primary, Secondary and Fuel cells