Runoff in Hydrology

Runoff is the part of precipitation that flows over the land surface or through subsurface paths
to reach streams, rivers, or other water bodies. It's a core concept in the hydrologic cycle,
representing the output from a catchment area in a given time.
Types of Runoff
1. Direct Runoff
Enters the stream immediately after rainfall.
Includes: surface runoff, prompt interflow, and direct rainfall on water bodies.
Sometimes called storm runoff.
2. Base Flow
Delayed flow, reaching the stream mainly as groundwater.
Maintains stream flow during dry periods.
3. Surface Runoff
Flows over land surfaces due to excess precipitation.
Occurs when the infiltration capacity of the soil is exceeded.
4. Interflow:-
Water moves laterally just below the soil surface, emerging into streams downstream.
5. Groundwater Flow
The slowest; water infiltrates deeply and sustains streams during dry periods.
The Runoff Process and Hydrograph
The hydrograph is a graph showing river discharge versus time. Key components:
Rising limb: Shows the increase in flow after rainfall.
Peak discharge: Maximum streamflow after a rain event.
Recession limb: Falling flow as water moves out.
Base flow: Sustained flow under normal conditions.
Sample Hydrograph
A typical storm hydrograph shows the direct runoff as the area above the base flow line
during and after a storm.

Direct Runoff Hydrograph (DRH)

Derived by removing the base flow (groundwater contribution) from the total stream
discharge. Useful for analyzing storm behavior and designing drainage systems.
Types of Streams
Type Description Example
Perennial Flow year-round, fed by baseflow and snowmelt Ganga, Brahmautra
Intermittent Flow during certain seasons (monsoons), mostly baseflow-fed
Ephemeral Only flow during/after rainfall, no base flow contribution Luni River
Factors Affecting Runoff
Precipitation: Intensity, duration, and frequency.
Soil properties: Infiltration capacity, permeability.
Vegetation: Reduces runoff by increasing infiltration.
Land use: Urbanization increases runoff due to impervious surfaces.
Topography: Steeper slopes lead to faster runoff.
Natural Flow- refers to the stream flow that would occur in the absence of human abstraction,
reservoir operations, or diversions. For natural flow in a catchment:

Where each term accounts for runoff,

return flow, evaporation/transfers, and storage changes.
Shot Notes for Exams
Runoff: Portion of precipitation that flows to surface channels.
Direct Runoff: Includes surface runoff, interflow, immediate rainfall contribution.
Base Flow: Sustained groundwater flow maintaining stream flow during dry periods.
Hydrograph: Discharge-time graph showing response of watershed to precipitation.
Shape of Hydrograph: Affected by catchment area, rainfall, infiltration, and land use.
Urbanization: Increases peak runoff reduces lag time due to impervious surfaces.
Runoff Coefficient: Ratio of runoff to rainfall; higher for urban, lower for forests.
Curve Number: Empirical parameter to estimate direct runoff from rainfall (SCS
method).
Formulae: Inglis & Desouza formulas for regional runoff estimation; Strange’s tables;
Khosla’s method
1. The φ-index is:
The minimum constant infiltration rate above which the rainfall results in runoff.
2. Hydrograph lag time is: Interval between rainfall center and hydrograph peak.
Hydrograph and Runoff Characteristics –
A hydrograph is a plot of stream discharge (flow rate) against time. It visually represents how a
stream or river responds over time to rainfall, snowmelt, or other [Link] of Hydrographs
Annual hydrograph: Shows variation of mean flows (daily/weekly/10-day) over a year.
Monthly hydrograph: Illustrates variation of monthly mean flows.
Seasonal hydrograph: Represents flow variations for seasons.
Flood hydrograph: Shows stream flow due to a storm, important for flood analysis
Question Answer
What is base flow in a stream? Groundwater contributing to stream flow
Urbanization has what effect on a storm runoff Increases peak, shortens duration, lowers lag
hydrograph? time
A hydrograph’s area above the base line gives? Runoff volume
Which stream flows only during/after rain storms? Ephemeral streams
Which parameter is used for direct runoff estimation
Curve Number (CN)
by SCS method?
Water Year
A water year is the 12-month period for hydrological data analysis, beginning when
precipitation exceeds average evapotranspiration.
In India: June 1st to May 31st of next year.
Runoff Volume (Yield)
 Yield: Total surface water expected from a catchment in a period.
1. Fraction of annual yield expected to be exceeded in 75% years is called:
a) Average annual yield b) 75% dependable yield
c) Maximum yield d) Minimum yield Ans: b)
Rainfall–Runoff Correlation:
Rainfall–Runoff correlation is the study of how rainfall (P) relates to the resulting
surface runoff (R) in a catchment area.
Factors influencing runoff: catchment size, shape, land use, soil, slope, vegetation,
existing moisture, and rainfall pattern.
Linear Regression Approach
The most common method is to fit a linear regression between rainfall P and runoff R:
R = aP+b a, b: regression coefficients determined using least squares method.
Equations for coefficients:

Correlation Coefficient:-r quantifies how well rainfall explains runoff:

r ranges from -1 to 1 (here, only positive correlations are meaningful).

r > 0.9: very good correlation.
Exponential Relationship:-Sometimes, runoff responds exponentially to rainfall:R=βPα
Or log-transformed to linear: lnR=lnβ+αlnP
Autoregressive and Antecedent Rainfall
 Preceding rainfall affects current runoff. Multiple-year rainfall can be used:

Where Pt, P t−1, P t−2: rainfall in successive previous years.

Empirical Approaches (Binnie's, Barlow's)
Binnie's Percentages: Relates cumulative runoff to cumulative rainfall as a fixed percentage.
Barlow's Runoff Coefficient: R=KrP1
Kr: Percentage, depends on catchment type and rainfall nature.
Short Notes for Exam
Rainfall–Runoff correlation: Linear or exponential relations link rainfall (P) to runoff (R).
Linear regression: R = aP + b. Used if r is near unity.
Coeff. of correlation r: Measures strength of relationship, use formula above.
Empirical methods (Binnie's/Barlow's): Used when little data; rely on % of rainfall
becoming runoff.
Barlow's coefficient (Kₙ): Varies with terrain and rainfall pattern.
Antecedent/preceding rainfall: Enhances runoff prediction accuracy.
1. The linear equation relating runoff (R) and rainfall (P) is R=aP+b. What does the
coefficient 'a' represent? a) Runoff coefficient b) Slope of regression line
c) Correlation coefficient d) Percentage of rainfall Ans: b
2. The value of correlation coefficient 'r' for a good linear relationship between rainfall and
runoff should be: a) 0.1 – 0.3 b) 0.3 – 0.6 c) 0.6 – 1.0 d) 0.0 – 0.2 Ans: c
3. Which coefficient is used for empirical estimation of runoff in Barlow's method?
a) φ-index b) K_r c) C-value d) r-index Ans: b
4. For which of the following cases is exponential rainfall–runoff relationship used?
a) Small catchment b) When data fits poorly to a straight line
c) When r > 0.9 d) High rainfall areas only Ans: b
Runoff Estimation from Rainfall (Strange's, Inglis-DeSouza, Khosla Methods)
1. Strange's Method (Dry, Damp, Wet Approach)
Recognizes the role of antecedent moisture in modifying runoff.
Classifies ground conditions into three states: Dry, Damp, Wet
Wetting & Drying Classification:-Transition between dry, damp, wet conditions based on
cumulative rainfall over a set number of days.
Key Formulae (Best-fit Linear Equations)
For “Dry” ground: Kd = 0.5055P−3.7316 for P>20
For “Damp” ground: Kdamp=0.3259P−5.1079 for P>7
For “Wet” ground: Kwet = 0.6061P−2.0643
Inglis and DeSouza Formula
Empirical equations for India, linking annual runoff (R) and annual rainfall (P), both in cm:
Western Ghats: R=0.85P−30.5, Deccan Plateau: R = (1/254) P (P−17.8)
Khosla's Formula
Designed for monthly runoff using rainfall and temperature: Rm=Pm−Lm
Rm = monthly runoff (cm), Pm = monthly rainfall (cm), Lm=0.48Tm for Tm>4.5∘C
Tm= mean monthly temp (°C), If Tm<4.5∘C, use tabulated Lm values.
If loss Lm > rainfall Pm, runoff = 0.
Annual runoff coefficient: runoff coefficient= (Annual Runoff/Annual Rainfall)
Tips & Short Notes
Strange’s method: Use when daily rainfall and ground moisture condition is known.
Inglis–DeSouza: For regional runoff prediction in Maharashtra and Karnataka.
Khosla: When rainfall and temperature data available [Link] Graphs
In Strange’s method, what are the possible antecedent ground conditions recognized?
a) Only Dry b) Only Wet c) Dry, Damp, and Wet Ans: c
For Khosla’s formula, if mean monthly temperature is less than 4.5°C, how is monthly
loss determined? Ans: b
a) Use Lm=0.48Tm b) Use standard table values c) Use Lm=Pm−Tm d) Ignore loss

Runoff percentage increases as rainfall increases, and for the same rainfall, wet ground gives
highest, dry gives lowest runoff.
SCS-CN Method for Runoff Estimation:
Introduction: What is SCS-CN Method?
 The Soil Conservation Service Curve Number (SCS-CN) method is a widely used,
empirical technique for estimating direct runoff from rainfall over a watershed.
 Developed by the USDA SCS (now NRCS), it relates runoff to rainfall using a single
parameter—Curve Number (CN).
 Key responsible factors: Land use, soil type, antecedent soil moisture condition (AMC).
Basic Theory and Equation:-The water balance for a rain event: P=Ia+Fa+Q
P: Total precipitation, Ia: Initial abstraction (interception, depression storage, infiltration before
runoff), Fa: Cumulative infiltration after Ia. Q: Direct surface runoff.
 Main Runoff Equation (when P> Ia):

Usual form with Ia = 0.2S

Where : S: Potential maximum retention after runoff begins (mm)

 S and CN Relationship:

CN: Dimensionless number between 0 (max retention) and 100 (no retention, i.e.,
impervious surface).
Determining Curve Number (CN)
 CN depends on:
o Soil type: Classified as Hydrological Soil Groups (HSG)—A, B, C, D.
o Land use/land cover: e.g., forest, urban, agriculture.
o Antecedent Moisture Condition (AMC): Classified as AMC-I, AMC-II, AMC-III (dry,

Higher CN ⇒ More runoff; lower CN ⇒ More infiltration.

normal, wet).

Flowchart (Graphical Steps) of SCS-CN Method

1. Rainfall Event
2. Initial Abstraction (Ia) Satisfied
3. Calculate Potential Maximum Retention (S) using CN
4. Calculate Runoff (Q) if P > 0.2S
5. Adjust for AMC or soil/land use condition
6. Sum up total runoff for watershed
Rainfall vs. Runoff for Different CN Values
 Graph: X-axis = Rainfall (mm), Y-axis = Runoff (mm)
 Curves: For different CN values, higher CN curves show more runoff for same rainfall.
 Steeper curves as CN increases (impervious areas). Flat curves for low CN (forested,
permeable soils).
SCS-CN Method: Short Notes
 Single parameter (CN) determines relationship between rainfall and runoff.
 Runoff starts only after initial abstraction (Ia) is satisfied. Usually taken as Ia = 0.2S
 CN calculated based on land use, soil, and AMC.
  AMC:- AMC-I: Dry, AMC-II: Normal, AMC-III: Wet
 For given rainfall event, S calculated, and then Q found using main SCS-CN equation.
Q1. What does a CN value of 100 represent?
a) Fully impervious surface b) Well-drained soil c) Dense forest d) Swamp Ans: a
Q2. In SCS-CN, initial abstraction Ia is usually assumed as:
a) 0.1S b) S c) 0.2S d) 0.5S Ans: c
Q3. Which soil group gives the highest runoff in SCS-CN? a) A b) B c) C d) D Ans: d
Q4. If rainfall P = 100mm, CN = 75, what is approximate runoff Q?
a) 10mm b) 14mm c) 35mm d) 58mm Ans: b (See calculations)
Q5. SCS-CN mainly depends on:
a) Rainfall only b) Land use, soil, AMC c) Temperature d) pH of water Ans: b
Exam Tips
Always check AMC before selecting CN value.
Understand flowchart for SCS-CN steps—important for descriptive and MCQs.
Higher CN = More impervious, more runoff.
SCS-CN is preferred for ungauged/watersheds with limited data; useful in GIS mapping.
Parameter Formula Range/Unit
Potential maximum retention S=(25400/CN)−254 mm
Initial abstraction Ia=0.2S mm
Runoff depth (Q) Q=(P−0.2S)2/(P+0.8S) mm (if P>Ia)
Curve Number (CN) Dependent on land use, soil, AMC 0–100
SCS-CN Method for Runoff Estimation
1. Antecedent Moisture Condition (AMC)
 AMC assesses prior soil wetness based on rainfall in the last 5 days:
Dormant Season:-AMC I: <13mm, AMC II: 13–28mm, AMC III: >28mm
Growing Season:-AMC I: <36mm, AMC II: 36–53mm, AMC III: >53mm
2. Curve Number (CN) Tables
 CN values depend on land use, soil type, and AMC.
 Hydrological Soil Groups: A (highest infiltration)—D (lowest infiltration, most runoff).
Higher CN = More likely to generate runoff.
1. The CN value of 100 corresponds to:
a) Fully impervious b) Forest c) Agricultural land d) Sandy soil Answer: a
2. Runoff begins in SCS-CN equation only when rainfall exceeds:
a) S b) CN c) Initial abstraction d) Field capacity Answer: c
3. In SCS-CN equation, if rainfall is less than Ia, runoff is:
a) Maximum b) Zero c) Equals rainfall d) Infinity Answer: b
Flow-Duration Curve (FDC)
 Flow-duration curve (FDC) is a fundamental tool in hydrology to study stream flow
variability over time.
It is a graphical plot of discharge versus the percentage of time that flow is equaled or
exceeded during a period (typically a year).
FDC is also called a discharge-frequency curve.
Shows the probability that a stream discharge will be at or above a certain value.
Calculation Steps
1. Arrange flow data (daily/monthly/etc.) in descending order.
2. Assign rank (m) to each value (largest m=1).
3. Total number of values, N.

4. Calculate probability Pp: Where Pp is the percentage

probability
5. Plot: x-axis = Percentage probability (Pp), y-axis = Discharge (Q).
Interpretation of FDC

Steep slope: Highly variable flow (rainfed/intermittent rivers).

Flat slope: Stable flow (perennial rivers).
Upper flat portion: Indicates large flood flows, often due to regulation.
Lower flat portion: Indicates base flow, groundwater contribution.
Effects: Reservoirs/Regulation flatten upper end
Chronological sequence is lost—curve shows only frequency, not timing.

5. Key Equations:-Probability equation

 Dependable flows: e.g., Q50 = flow equaled/exceeded 50% of time, Q75 for 75%.
Short Exam Notes
Flow-duration curve plots discharge vs. % of time that flow is equalled/exceeded.
Slope depends on interval—daily data steeper than monthly.
Dependable flow: Flow equalled/exceeded for x% of time, e.g., Q75—important for
dam/hydro design.
Chronological order not shown; only frequency.
1. The flow-duration curve is a plot of: a) Discharge vs. time b) Probability vs. discharge
c) Discharge vs. probability of Exceedance d) Time vs. rainfall Answer: c
2. The slope of the flow-duration curve for a perennial river compared to an intermittent
one is: a) Steeper b) Flatter c) Same d) Cannot be determined Answer: b
3. For a flow-duration curve, what does 75% dependable flow mean?
a) Discharge equaled or exceeded 75% of time b) Discharge exceeded 25% of time
c) Discharge always exceeded Answer: a
4. Reservoir regulation effect on flow-duration curve:
a) Steepens upper end b) Flattens upper end c) No effect d) None Answer: b
5. If data interval changes from daily to monthly, FDC becomes:
a) Steeper b) Flatter c) No change d) Vertical Answer: b
Flow-Mass Curve & Reservoir Storage
The flow-mass curve is a plot of cumulative discharge volume (y-axis) against time
(x-axis), showing the total flow passed up to each point.
Ordinate (vertical value): Cumulative flow volume (e.g., million m³, cumec-days).
Abscissa (horizontal value): Time (days, weeks, months).
The slope at any point = rate of flow at that instant.
Used for calculating required reservoir storage to meet demand.
Key Formula:-Cumulative flow volume at time t:

Where: V = cumulative volume (m³), Q = discharge rate (m³/s)

t0 = start time, t = end time
Reservoir Storage Calculation
 Storage required is the maximum difference between the demand curve (straight line
with slope = constant demand rate) and the mass curve of supply.
 Draw demand lines parallel to the average supply slope. The difference between
demand and supply at the largest shortfall is the needed storage volume.
 The maximum cumulative deficiency is the storage required
Stepwise Storage Calculation Flow
1. Calculate monthly/periodic inflow volumes.
 2. Calculate cumulative inflows and cumulative demand volumes.
3. Subtract cumulative inflow from cumulative demand at each step.
4. The maximum positive difference = required storage to maintain demand.
5. If multiple periods, draw several demand lines to check required storage for different
demands.
Arithmetic Method
 Direct tabulation: List inflow and demand, compute difference (departure or
excess/deficit), and cumulative departure.
 Maximum cumulative deficiency = minimum storage required.
Short Notes for Exam (Key Points)
Flow-mass curve: Cumulative plot of flow (volume) vs time.
Slope at any instant = rate of flow.
Used to determine needed reservoir storage to meet specified demand.
Maximum storage required = maximum cumulative deficiency (difference) between
demand and supply curves.
Apply arithmetic (tabular) or graphical mass curve method.
Demand curve: Straight line on mass curve plot.
Cumulative inflow and cumulative deficit/excess are key for calculation.
"Tangent at start" and "parallel lines" concepts for graphical solution.
The ordinate of a flow-mass curve at any point gives:a) Instantaneous discharge
b) Cumulative volume flowed up to that time c) Maximum demand
d) Slope of hydrograph Answer: b
Maximum storage required for a reservoir is: a) Total inflow volume
b) Maximum cumulative deficiency between supply and demand curves
c) Minimum cumulative deficiency d) Slope of flow-mass curve Answer: b
Slope of the flow-mass curve at any point represents:
a) Instantaneous discharge at that time b) Average discharge
c) Total volume d) Demand Answer: a
In the mass-curve method, cumulative deficiency is:
a) When supply exceeds demand b) When demand exceeds supply
c) Always zero d) Not considered Answer: b
Demand curve on mass-curve plot is: Answer: b
a) Curved line b) Straight line with constant slope c) Parallel to x-axis
Calculation of Maintainable Demand using Mass Curve (Reservoir Storage Analysis)
Maintainable demand is the highest uniform rate of withdrawal (demand) from a
reservoir that can be sustained with a given storage volume.
 The mass curve is a plot of cumulative inflow to the reservoir versus time; its slope at any
point is the instantaneous inflow rate.
  To determine maintainable demand, tangents (demand lines) with various slopes are
drawn on the mass curve. The greatest slope that does not cause the demand line to
rise above the mass curve defines the maximum maintainable demand for the storage.

Step-by-Step Method
A. Mass Curve Construction
Sum inflows over time intervals (daily, monthly) to get cumulative inflow.
Plot time (x-axis) vs. cumulative inflow (y-axis).
B. Demand Line Drawing
Draw straight lines (representing constant demand rates) tangent to the mass curve
at chosen points. The slope of the demand line corresponds to the demand rate.
C. Determination of Storage Requirement
The vertical distance between the demand line and the mass curve at the valley
(point of lowest cumulative inflow) is the storage needed to maintain the demand
without running dry.
Repeat for different demand rates to find the maximum (maintainable) demand for
the available storage.
D. Interpreting the Curves
If the demand line never intersects (rises above) the mass curve, storage is
insufficient for that rate.
The maximum maintainable demand is where the demand line is just tangent to the
mass curve at the lowest point.
Graph 1: Mass Curve with Demand Lines
 X-axis: Time (months)
 Y-axis: Accumulated volume (e.g., cumec-days, million m³)
 Mass Curve: Shows cumulative inflow undulates with inflow variation.
 Demand Lines: Straight lines of various slopes, tangent to "valleys" in the mass curve.
 Storage (S): Vertical distance between tangent points (peak and valley).
[In actual exams, you may be given data, asked to plot the mass curve, draw the demand lines,
and find storage capacity or maintainable demand.]
Analytical and Tabular Approach
 Construct a table:
o List time intervals (months).
o Record inflow and demand volumes.
o Compute cumulative inflow and demand.
o Calculate cumulative departure (demand - inflow).
o Maximum positive cumulative departure = reservoir storage needed.
5. Key Points and Short Exam Notes
Mass curve method is used for reservoir storage and maintainable demand
estimation.
Maintainable demand = demand line just tangent to the lowest valley in the mass
curve, without exceeding it.
Maximum storage needed = largest positive difference ("vertical gap") between
mass curve and demand line.
If the demand line never intersects the mass curve after the start, reservoir will not
refill: demand is too high.
For variable demands, construct a demand mass curve and superpose with the mass
curve of flow.
1. The maintainable demand in a reservoir is determined by: a) Maximum inflow
b) Minimum storage c) Slope of the tangent to mass curve at valley bottom
d) Slope of hydrograph at peak Answer: c
2. The vertical distance between parallel demand lines at successive ridges of the mass
curve represents: a) Shortfall in demandb) Water wasted over spillway
c) Evaporation loss d) Seepage Answer: b
3. Which method is commonly used for calculating reservoir capacity to meet a constant
demand? a) Flow-duration curve b) Mass curve method
c) Unit hydrograph d) Flood routing Answer: b
4. The ordinate of a mass curve at any time gives: a) Instantaneous discharge
b) Cumulative volume of inflow up to that time c) Average flow rated) Demand rate
5. If the demand line does not intersect the mass curve, it indicates:
a) Sufficient storage b) Reservoir is always full c) Insufficient inflow for demand
d) Demand is less than supplies Answer: c

Step Action Key Formula

1 Cumulate inflow over time Vt = ∑ Q × Δt
Step Action Key Formula
2 Plot mass curve Time vs cumulative inflow
3 Draw demand lines Slope = demand rate
4 Find storage needed Max gap between demand line and mass curve
5 Variable demand case Superpose demand mass curve
Sequent Peak Algorithm (Reservoir Storage Analysis)
The Sequent Peak Algorithm is used to estimate the minimum reservoir storage
required to meet a specified demand from a variable inflow stream.
It is an adaptation of the mass curve method, focusing on identifying the required
reservoir capacity based on inflow and demand series over time.
Basic Procedure
1. Assumptions:
Inflows and demands repeat in cycles (N years of available data assumed to
represent future cycles).
Reservoir starts full at the beginning of a dry period.
Demand and inflow data are processed for regular periods (daily, monthly, yearly).
2. Net-Flow Volume Calculation: For each period, calculate: xt = It−Dt
Where: It = Inflow volume for period t, Dt = Demand volume for period t.
3. Cumulative Net-Flow (Residual Mass Curve): Sum the net-flows up to each period:

Plot this cumulative sum versus time. Peaks represent maxima, troughs minima.
Algorithm Steps
1. Identify Peaks and Troughs:
o In the cumulative net-flow curve, locate peaks (local maxima) and the following
minimum (trough).
2. Sequent Peak Storage:
3. Maximum Value: The highest of all calculated storage values is required reservoir
capacity (S): S=max(Pi−Tj)
Exam Short Notes
Sequent Peak Algorithm: Used to estimate minimum reservoir storage to meet uniform or
variable demand.
Residual mass curve: Plot of cumulative net inflow (inflow minus demand) against time.
Peaks and troughs: Storage is the difference between each peak and its subsequent lowest
trough.
Required storage = Largest difference (maximum cumulative deficiency).
Suitable for computer-based or manual calculations with periodic inflow/demand data.
Assumes cyclical repetition of inflow/demand data, and initial full reservoir.
 The sequent peak algorithm is used to:a) Determine flood routing in channels
b) Calculate minimum reservoir storage required to meet demand
c) Predict sediment load d) Estimate aquifer yield Answer: b
In the sequent peak method, reservoir storage is calculated as:
a) Minimum cumulative sum of inflow
b) Maximum difference between successive peaks
c) Maximum difference between peak and lowest trough in cumulative net-flow curve
d) Average annual demand Answer: c
The ordinate of a residual mass curve at any time represents: a) Cumulative inflow
b) Cumulative demand c) Cumulative net flow (inflow - demand) up to that time
d) Maximum storage Answer: c
The basic assumption of sequent peak algorithm is:a) Demand and inflow are random
b) Data repeats in cycles c) Peak inflow equals peak demand
d) Storage is infinite Answer: b
Figure in a sequent peak analysis shows: a) Hydrograph b) Flow-duration curve
c) Residual mass curve d) Sediment rating curve Answer: c
Droughts—Definition, Classification, Indices, and Management
Drought is a climatic anomaly marked by an extended period of deficient moisture
supply, often caused by subnormal rainfall over large regions, resulting in below-normal
water availability.
It is a hydrological extreme (like floods) but develops slowly (creeping), impacting
human life, agriculture, water supply, and economic activity.
Classification of Droughts
According to the National Commission on Agriculture (1976), the main types are:
Meteorological Drought:-More than 25% decrease in precipitation from normal.
Hydrological Drought:-Prolonged meteorological drought causes marked reduction in
runoff, surface and groundwater levels.
Agricultural Drought:-Soil moisture and rainfall inadequate for healthy crop growth.
Further Sub-Classification: India Meteorological Department (IMD)
Drought is classified as moderate if seasonal deficiency is 26–50%, and severe if above 50%.
Also distinguished by probability of occurrence (e.g., 20–50%: drought-prone; >50%:
drought area).
Drought Indices
A. Meteorological Indices:-Rainfall Anomaly
IMD criteria: Subdivision considered in drought if <75% of normal seasonal rainfall.
B. Hydrological Indices:-Compare streamflow, lake, and groundwater levels over time.
Agricultural Indices:- Aridity Index (AI):

PET = Potential Evapotranspiration, AET = Actual Evapotranspiration

AI Anomaly Severity Class
Zero or negative Non-arid
1–25 Mild arid
26–50 Moderate arid
>50 Severe arid
Palmer Drought Index and Moisture Availability Index are also used.
Methods for Drought Analysis:-Low-risk approaches:
Low-flow duration curve,Low-flow frequency analysis, Stream flow modeling
Data on river/reservoir depletion is key for hydrological droughts; soil moisture data is key
for agricultural droughts.
Drought Management Strategies:-Short-term
 Early warning and monitoring, Temporary actions (e.g., water rationing)
Long-term
Soil and water conservation
Water harvesting (runoff capture)
Cloud seeding and evaporation control
Improve irrigation efficiency (drip, sprinkler)
Inter-basin transfer, afforestation, drought-resistant crops
Changes in land use/agriculture practices
Short Notes
 Drought = prolonged moisture deficit (rainfall < normal, affects soil, crops, rivers).
 Types: Meteorological (rainfall), Hydrological (runoff, water bodies), Agricultural (soil
moisture).
 Indices: Use rainfall anomaly, aridity index, IMD thresholds.
 IMD: <75% normal rainfall = drought; 26–50% deficit = moderate, >50% = severe.
 Management: Water harvesting, demand management, efficient irrigation, crop
planning..
 1. A drought is said to occur when rainfall is less than normal by:
a) 10% b) 25% c) 50% d) 75% Answer: b
2. Which index measures departure of actual evapotranspiration from potential? Ans: b
a) Palmer Index b) AI (Aridity Index) c) SCS-CN d) Runoff coefficient
3. Which of the following is NOT a drought management measure?a) Water conservation
b) Cloud seeding c) Land use change d) Increased groundwater pumping without
recharge Answer: d
Water Harvesting
Water harvesting is the process of collecting, storing, and efficiently using rainwater or surface
runoff that would otherwise go to waste.
Classification of Water Harvesting Techniques
Water Harvesting Category Methods
Rainwater Harvesting Rooftop harvesting (RTWH), Harvesting from small ground areas
Flood Water Harvesting With storage (ponds, tanks), Without storage (ground recharge)
Major Techniques of Water Harvesting
1. Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting
2. Surface Runoff Harvesting
3. Micro/Macro Catchments
Micro: Small earthen bunds around trees or crops
Macro: Bunds on larger fields or valleys to divert and store water
4. Storage Structures
 Check dams, percolation tanks, naulas/nalabunds to enhance groundwater recharge
5. Spreading of Water
 Used in riverbeds or channels, enhances infiltration
Factors Influencing Water Harvesting
Rainfall intensity, frequency, and duration Catchment area features (size, slope,
imperviousness)
Storage capacity; Soil infiltration rate and percolation; Water quality requirements
Rainwater harvesting is primarily aimed at:(A) Flood control (B) Groundwater recharge
(C) Surface water storage (D) Both B and C Answer: (D)
Which traditional structure is used for rainwater harvesting in Rajasthan? (A) Check dam
(B) Stepwell (C) Nala bund (D) Tube well Answer: (B)
Surface Water Resources of India
Classification of Catchments:
Large (>20,000km²): ~85% of runoff.
Medium (2,000–20,000km²): 7%.
Small (<2,000km²): 8%.
Note: Brahmaputra and Ganga are among the top ten globally.
Key Figures:
 Utilizable Surface Water: 690km³/year
 Utilizable Groundwater: 396km³/year.
 Total surface water potential for planning: ~1,869km³, but only 690km³ utilizable.
Water Requirement for Different Uses
Table: Sector-wise Water Requirement in India (in km³/year)
Year Irrigation Domestic Industries Power Others (Nav., Env.) Total
2010 525 43 25 18 25 710
2025 561 62 67 33 26 813
2050 628 111 81 71 40 973
Key Trends:
 Irrigation remains the largest consumer (~80%).
 Rapid increase in domestic/industrial demand expected.
1. What is the estimated annual utilizable surface water resource for India?
(A) 1000km³ (B) 600km³ (C) 690km³ (D) 2000km³ Ans: (C)
The utilizable groundwater resource of India is closest to:
(A) 250km³ (B) 396km³ (C) 690km³ (D) 1100km³ Ans: (B)
Why is the entire runoff not utilizable in India? (A) Pollution (B) Evaporation(C)
Topographic and storage limitations (D) International treaties Ans: (C)