SUBCOURSE EDITION

AL0992 A

BASIC
AIRFRAME REPAIR
 BASIC AIRFRAME REPAIR

Subcourse Number AL0992

EDITION A

US Army Aviation Logistics School

Fort Eustis, Virginia 23604-5439

4 Credit Hours

Edition Date: September 1994

SUBCOURSE OVERVIEW

This subcourse is designed to provide you with a general

familiarization of the airframe of today's aircraft and repair
procedures. You will study the design and construction of aircraft
parts and assemblies, metals used in the construction, and the metal
qualities and stresses involved. You will also study procedures
involved in the repair of damages to the aircraft skin and structure
and the type of hardware required.

Early aviation's aircraft made of wood and fabric, reinforced with

metal, were strong enough to withstand the vibrations and torsion
stresses met at slow speed. However, with the need for higher speeds,
greater payloads, and more powerful engines, wood became
unsatisfactory. Manufacturers and designers realized that structural
parts made with metal must replace the wood and fabric. So they
developed light, strong metal alloys. To these they applied structural
forming and reinforcing methods to reduce weight and to gain the
strength required for increased performance.

Making repairs involved selecting the right metal for structural

strength and streamlining, choosing the type of rivet to use, and
determining the type of patch that will meet structural requirements.
Also important is determining how much weight can be added, within
safe limits, and choosing the method of structural forming and
reinforcement to use.

You will find this text divided into two chapters, which discuss
airframe parts, metals, processes, hardware and damage repair.
However, the discussion here is not a substitute for the technical
manual (TM) applicable to a specific aircraft or a particular repair
technique. The information given here is designed to give you a
general background in basic airframe repair.

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This subcourse is to be completed on a self-study basis. You will
grade your lessons as you complete them using the lesson answer keys,
which are enclosed. If you have answered any question incorrectly,
study the question reference shown on the answer key and evaluate all
possible solutions.

There are no prerequisites for this subcourse.

This subcourse reflects the doctrine, which was current at the time it
was prepared. In your own work situation, always refer to the latest
publications.

Unless otherwise stated, the masculine gender of singular pronouns is

used to refer to both men and women.

TERMINAL LEARNING OBJECTIVE

ACTION: You will demonstrate knowledge of the basic fundamentals

of airframe repair including airframe parts, metals,
metal processing, hardware, and required procedures.

CONDITIONS: You will use the material in this subcourse.

STANDARD: To demonstrate competency of this task, you must achieve

a minimum of 70% on the subcourse examination.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Section Page

Subcourse Overview.......................................... i

Administrative Instructions................................. iv

Grading and Certification Instructions...................... iv

Lesson 1: Airframe Parts, Metals, Processes and

Hardware.......................................... 1

Part A: Airframe Parts........................... 2

Part B: Metal Qualities and Stresses............. 16

Part C: Metal-Working Processes.................. 20

Part D: Aviation Hardware........................ 28

Practice Exercise................................. 41

Answer Key and Feedback........................... 44

Lesson 2: Damage Repair..................................... 47

Part A: Principles of Repair..................... 48

Part B: Structural Repair........................ 51

Part C: Stressed Skin Repairs.................... 60

Part D: Internal Structure Repair................ 72

Part E: Structural Sealing....................... 86

Practice Exercise................................. 91

Answer Key and Feedback........................... 94

Appendix: Glossary.......................................... 101

Student Inquiry Sheet

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 LESSON 1

AIRFRAME PARTS, METALS, PROCESSES, AND HARDWARE

STP Tasks: 551-753-1002

551-753-1004
551-753-1010-1014
551-753-1020
551-753-1035
551-753-1068
552-753-3007

OVERVIEW

LESSON DESCRIPTION:

In this lesson you will learn airframe parts, metal qualities and
stresses, metal working processes, and selected items of aircraft
hardware.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE:

ACTION: You will identify and describe airframe parts

demonstrate your knowledge of aircraft metals and metal
processing, and apply your knowledge of selected items
of aircraft hardware.

CONDITIONS: You will study the material in this lesson in a

classroom environment or at home.

STANDARDS: You will correctly answer all the questions in the

practice exercise before you proceed to the next lesson.

REFERENCES: The material contained in this lesson was derived from

the following publications: FM 1-563 (Fundamentals of
Airframe Maintenance). TM 1-1500-204-23-10

INTRODUCTION

An aircraft is constructed of many parts, or structural members, that

are either riveted, bolted, screwed, bonded, or welded together. These
structural members form units or assemblies, and they are then
designated principal airframe parts. Individual structural members may
vary in size, shape, or composition; however, the principal airframe
parts they form are readily identified on any conventional aircraft as
illustrated in Figures 1-1 and 1-2.

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 Figure 1-1. Principal Airframe Parts (Airplane).

Some aircraft manufacturers may use different names for the parts of
an airplane or helicopter airframe, but the names shown in the figures
are understood internationally. A working knowledge of the location,
construction, and purpose of the various structural units of the
aircraft is the basis for an intelligent approach to airframe repair.

This chapter, divided into four sections, describes airframe parts,

metal qualities and stresses, metal-working processes, and aviation
hardware.

PART A: AIRFRAME PARTS

GENERAL

The principal parts of an airframe are most commonly made of

aluminum alloys in the form of shells. As a result, the main

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 Figure 1-2. Principal Airframe Parts (Helicopter).

problem is to make the relatively thin shells strong enough to

withstand compression and shear loads and to maintain a favorable
weight-to-strength relation. In general, the discussion here explains
how this is achieved for airplanes and helicopters.

This section describes the four principal parts of an airplane and the
cabin and tailboom sections of a helicopter. The descriptions include
details involving truss, monocoque, and semimonocoque constructions.

PRINCIPAL AIRFRAME PARTS (AIRPLANES)

An airplane's four principal parts are the fuselage, nacelle,

wings and empennage. The descriptions in the following
paragraphs cover the truss, monocoque, semimonocoque, and

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reinforced shell constructions for the fuselage; the structural
members used; construction for the nacelle; monospar, multispar, and
box-beam wing constructions; and empennage constructions.

Fuselage. The main structural unit of an airplane is the fuselage.

Other structural units are directly or indirectly attached to it. In
outline and general design, the fuselage of one airplane is much the
same as any other. Designs vary principally in the size and
arrangement of the different compartments. On military single-engine
airplanes, the fuselage houses the powerplant, personnel, and cargo.
The basic fuselage constructions are truss and monocoque. The truss
construction, a rigid framework of beams, struts, and bars, shown in
Figure 1-3, resists deformation by applied loads. Many smaller general
aviation aircraft and a number of older military aircraft have used
truss construction.

A monocoque fuselage, shown in Figure 1-3, is like a shell in that

the skin bears the primary stresses in spite of the formers, frame
assemblies, and bulkheads that give the fuselage its shape. The
construction strength required depends upon the power used, speed,
maneuverability, and design. The full monocoque construction is seldom
used because the skin is the principal part of the airframe. The big
problem in monocoque construction is maintaining strength and keeping
weight down. To overcome this problem, the semimonocoque and
reinforced shells were developed. These shells are used in the
majority of present-day military aircraft.

Figure 1-3. Fuselage Construction.

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 The semimonocoque fuselage, in addition to having vertical
reinforcements (formers), has the skin reinforced by longitudinal
members (stringers and longerons). The reinforced shell has the skin
reinforced by a complete framework of structural members. Examples of
semimonocoque and reinforced shell constructions are shown in Figures
1-4 and 1-5.

Figure 1-4. Semi-monocoque Construction.

Structural Members. Formers, frame assemblies, and bulkheads

give cross-sectional shape, rigidity, and strength to the
fuselage. The shapes and sizes of these members vary
considerably, depending on their function and position in
the fuselage. Formers are the lightest, and they are used primarily
for fillings or skin attachments between the larger members. Frame
assemblies are the most numerous and outstanding members

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in the fuselage in appearance and as strengthening devices. Whenever
frame assemblies are used to separate one area from another, they are
circular or disc-shaped, reinforced, and equipped with doors or other
means of access, and are then called bulkheads.

Channel members, hat-shaped sections, and built-up assemblies are

inserted to give additional strength. Station webs are built-up
assemblies located at various points to attach fittings or external
parts, such as empennage surface fittings, engine mounts, wing
attachments, and landing gear.

Figure 1-5. Reinforced-Shell Construction.

Stringers and longerons are the main lengthwise members in fuselage

structures. Notice in Figure 1-5 that the longeron is a fairly heavy
member. Usually, several of these run the whole length of the
fuselage. The stringers are smaller and lighter, and are used
primarily for giving shape to the attached skin.

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Longerons are stronger and heavier than stringers, and hold the
bulkheads and formers, which, in turn hold the stringers. All these
joined together make a rigid fuselage framework.

Nacelle. The streamlined structures (nacelles) on

multiengine aircraft are used primarily to house engines. Figure 1-6
shows the construction of a nacelle in general use. Here
also, designs vary depending upon the manufacturer and the use
to be made of the nacelle. On twin-engine airplanes, nacelles
also house the main landing gear and related equipment. Whether
the nacelle houses a reciprocating piston or jet engine,

Figure 1-6. Nacelle Construction.

landing gear, or cargo, repair fundamentals are essentially the same

as for a fuselage. The nacelle must have sufficient strength to
withstand the compression and shear loads it will be subjected to; its
weight must be kept within allowable limits; and the exterior must be
aerodynamically suited for the nacelle's location on the aircraft.

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 Wings. Airplane surfaces designed to give lifting force when moved
forward rapidly through the air are wings. Wing design for any given
airplane depends upon size, weight, and use of the airplane; desired
speed in flight and at landing; and the desired rate of climb. Wings
are designated as left and right, corresponding to the left and right
hands of the pilot seated in the cockpit. Variations in design give a
wing its particular features. The wing tip may be square, rounded, or
tapered. Both the leading edge and the trailing edge of the wing may
be straight or curved. Many types of modern airplanes have swept-back
wings. Wings on military airplanes are generally of cantilever design;
that is, no external bracing is needed. Wings of this design are
usually of the stressed-skin type. This means that the skin is part of
the wing structure and carries part of the wing stresses.

Spar and Box-Beam Wings. In general, monospar, multispar, and box-

beam are the three basic wing-construction designs. Various
manufacturers may use modifications of these designs. A separate
description of each basic design is given in the paragraphs that
follow.

The monospar wing has only one main longitudinal member in its
construction. Ribs or bulkheads supply the necessary contour or shape
to the airfoil. The strict monospar wing is not in common use.
However, adding fake spars or light shear webs along the trailing edge
to support the control surfaces modifies this design.

The multispar wing has more than one main longitudinal member in
its construction. To give the wing contour and relieve stress on the
wing's skin, ribs or bulkheads are often included. This construction,
or some modification of it, is used in lighter airplanes.

The box-beam wing uses two main longitudinal members with

connecting bulkheads to give additional strength and contour to the
wing. A corrugated sheet of aluminum alloy may be placed between the
bulkheads and the smooth outer skin so that the wing can better carry
tension and compression loads. Sometimes, heavy longitudinal
stiffeners are substituted for the corrugated sheets. A combination of
corrugated sheets on the upper surface of the wing and stiffeners on
the lower surface is sometimes used.

Wing Spars. Figure 1-7 shows spars, ribs, bulkheads, stringers, and
stiffeners. These, the wing's main structural components, are riveted
or welded together.

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Figure 1-7. Wing Construction.

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 Spars are the principal structural members of the wing. They
correspond to the longerons of the fuselage. Spars run from the base
of the wing toward the tip and are usually attached to the fuselage by
wing fittings, plain beams, or part of a truss system. The I-beam
construction for a spar consists of a web, a deep wall plate, and
capstrips. These are either extrusions or formed angles, as shown at
Detail A in Figure 1-7. The web, the principal depth portion of the
spar, is attached to the capstrips that carry the loads caused by the
wings bending. When joined, the web and capstrips form a foundation
for attaching the skin. Stiffeners give additional strength to the
spar structure. These may be beads pressed into the web or extrusions
or formed angles riveted to the web vertically or diagonally.

Wing Ribs. In the framework of a wing, ribs are the crosspieces

running from the leading edge to the trailing edge of the wing. The
ribs give the wing its contour and shape and transmit the load from
the skin to the spars. Ribs are also used in ailerons, elevators,
fins, and stabilizers. Figure 1-7 shows three general rib
constructions: the former, reinforced, and truss ribs. Each type is
discussed separately in the following paragraphs.

Former ribs, located at frequent intervals throughout the wing, are

made of formed sheet metal and are very lightweight. The bent-up
portion of a former rib is the flange and the vertical portion is the
web. The latter is generally made with beads pressed between the
lightening holes. These holes lessen the rib's weight without
decreasing its strength. Flanging the edges of the holes ensures
lightening hole area rigidity.

The reinforced rib is similar in construction to the spar,

consisting of upper and lower capstrips joined by a web plate.
Vertical and diagonal angles between the capstrips reinforce the web
plate. The reinforced rib is used more frequently than the truss rib.

Vertical and diagonal cross members only are used to reinforce and
join the capstrips in constructing truss ribs. These and reinforced
ribs are heavier than former ribs and are used only at points where
the greatest stresses are imposed.

Empennage. The aft end of the fuselage, or tail section

of the aircraft, includes the rudder or rudders,
elevators, stabilizers, and trim tabs, and it is called
the empennage. Figure 1-8 shows the empennage construction. Airplane
stabilizing units consist of vertical and horizontal surfaces at the
aft end of the fuselage. In many respects, construction features are
identical with those of wings. Empennage

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components are usually of all-metal construction and cantilever
design. Both monospar and multispar construction are commonly used.
Ribs develop the cross-sectional shape, and fairings are used to
streamline angles between these surfaces and the fuselage. The
vertical stabilizer, in addition to being the base for attaching the
rudder, assists in maintaining the airplane's directional stability in
flight. On propeller-driven airplanes, the vertical stabilizer is
sometimes offset from the centerline to compensate for the torque
developed by the engine and propeller. The horizontal stabilizer helps
to maintain stability about the airplane's lateral axis, and it is the
base for attaching the elevators. As with wings, manufacturers in
making an empennage use many variations in size, shape, and placement,
as well as number of components.

Figure 1-8. Empennage Construction.

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PRINCIPAL AIRFRAME PARTS (HELICOPTER)

In general, the airframe structure for helicopters follows the basic

principles of airframe structure for airplanes. For this reason, and
to maintain simplicity in the descriptions, airframe discussion in the
paragraphs that follow is limited to the single-rotor helicopter.

Cabin and Tail Cone Sections. A typical single-rotor helicopter is

composed of two major sections: the cabin and tail cone. The cabin
section contains compartments with space for the crew, passengers,
cargo, fuel and oil tanks, controls, and powerplant. However, in
multiengine helicopters the power plants may be mounted in separate
engine nacelles. The tail cone section and landing gear are attached
to the cabin section so that they can be removed, inspected, repaired
when necessary, and replaced. The cabin is strong enough at points of
attachment to withstand the forces involved in taking off, flying, and
landing. The size and arrangement of compartments and the section
construction vary with different types and manufacturers of
helicopters. Figure 1-9 illustrates the cabin structure of a utility
helicopter (UH-1). Notice that the structure is basically
semimonocoque with variations to strengthen areas of high stress. The
tail cone (boom), shown in Figure 1-10, attaches to the cabin and
supports the tail rotor, tail-rotor drive shafting, and stabilizers.

Stabilizer. The airfoils attached to the tail cone to increase

stability about the longitudinal and lateral axes of the aircraft
during flight are stabilizers. Stabilizer construction is also
semimonocoque.

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Figure 1-9. Cabine Section (UH-1D).

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 Figure 1-10. Tail Cone Section (UH-1).

SUMMARY

Aluminum alloys in the form of shells are most generally used in

making the fuselage, nacelles, wings, and empennage. The basic
fuselage constructions are the truss and monocoque. The truss is a
rigid construction; and the monocoque is shell-like and gets its shape
from formers, frame assemblies, and bulkheads. Maintaining strength
while keeping weight down is the main problem in monocoque
construction. The semimonocoque and reinforced shell are the most
widely used fuselage constructions in present-day aircraft.

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Formers, frame assemblies, and bulkheads are the structural members
that give cross-sectional shape and strength to the construction.
Frame assemblies used to separate areas are reinforced, disc-shaped,
equipped with doors or access plates, and known as bulkheads. Channel
members, hat-shaped sections, and built-up assemblies give the
structure additional strength. Stringers and longerons are the
principal lengthwise fuselage structural members. These joined to the
formers, bulkheads, and assemblies make a rigid fuselage framework.

Nacelles are used primarily to house engines on multiengine aircraft.

Generally, on twin-engine Army planes they house the main landing
gear. Their repair fundamentals are essentially the same as for a
fuselage. Nacelles must be kept within weight limits, built to
withstand compression and shear loads, and aerodynamically suited for
their location. Wings on military airplanes are generally without
external bracing, and the skin is part of the wing structure, carrying
some of the wing stresses. Monospar, multispar, and box-beam are the
basic wing-construction designs. Monospar means that one main
longitudinal member is used. The monospar wing is not in common use.
Multispar wings have more than one main longitudinal member, and box-
beam wings have two with connecting bulkheads for additional strength.
Spars, ribs, bulkheads, and stringers are riveted or welded together.
Spars run from the wing's base to its tip. Webs are deep wall plates
and with their attached capstrips form the foundation for attaching
the skin. Ribs are a wing's crosspieces, running from the leading edge
to the trailing edge. They give the wing its shape and transmit the
load from the skin to the spars. Ribs are also used in ailerons,
elevators, fins, and stabilizers. Lightening holes in former ribs
lessen their weight without decreasing their strength. Reinforced and
truss ribs are heavier than former ribs and are only used at points
where the greatest stress is imposed.

The empennage, the aft end of the fuselage, consists of the rudder,
elevators, stabilizers, and trim tabs. These empennage components are
usually of all-metal construction and cantilever design. In general,
their construction features are the same as those of wings. The
vertical stabilizer helps maintain directional stability in flight and
supports the rudder. The horizontal stabilizer helps maintain
stability about the airplane's lateral axis, and it is the base for
the elevators.

Airframe structure for helicopters is generally the same as

that for airplanes. The typical single-rotor helicopter
has two major sections: the cabin and tail cone. Basically,
the cabin structure is semimonocoque with strengthened high-stress
areas. The tail cone supports the tail rotor, tail-rotor
drive shafting, and stabilizers. The stabilizers give lateral and

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longitudinal stability to the aircraft during flight, and they are of
semimonocoque construction.

PART B: METAL QUALITIES AND STRESSES

GENERAL

Each of the structural parts discussed is designed to meet

requirements for that particular part. One of the important decisions
to make in manufacturing, maintaining, and repairing the parts is
selecting the metal to be used. Each metal or alloy has properties and
characteristics that make it desirable for a particular use. However,
if the metal has undesirable qualities, it is the metallurgist's job
to build up the desirable qualities and tone down the undesirable
ones. This is done by alloying (combining) metals and by various
metal-working processes. It is not necessary for the airframe
repairman to be a metallurgist. But, because it is advantageous to
understand some metallurgical terms, this section explains the terms
used to describe metal qualities or properties.

HARDNESS

The quality that permits relative resistance to abrasion, penetration,

cutting action, or permanent distortion is hardness. This property can
be increased by working the metal and, in the case of steel and
certain aluminum alloys, by heat treatment and/or cold working.
Structural parts are often formed from metals in their soft state and
are then heat treated to harden them enough to develop the strength
necessary to retain their finished shape. Hardness and strength are
closely associated metal properties.

BRITTLENESS

The quality in a metal that permits breaking or cracking when the

metal is stressed is brittleness. Brittle metal can break or crack
without changing shape. Because structural metals are often heavily
stressed, brittleness is an undesirable property. Cast iron, cast
aluminum, and very hard steels are examples of brittle metals.

MALLEABILITY

The property in a metal that permits it to be hammered, rolled, or

pressed into various shapes without the metal cracking or breaking is
malleability. This property is required in sheet metal to be worked
into curved shapes such as cowlings, fairings, and contoured skin.
Copper is an example of a malleable metal.

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DUCTILITY

When a metal can be permanently drawn, bent, or twisted into various

shapes without breaking, it has ductility. This property is essential
in metals used to make wire or tubing. Ductile metals are much
preferred for aircraft because they are easily formed and resist
failure under loads. For this reason, aluminum alloys are used for
cowl rings, fuselage, wing skin, and formed or extruded parts such as
ribs, spars, and bulkheads. Chrome-molybdenum steel is easily formed
into the desired shapes. Although malleable and ductile are frequently
shown as synonymous, the two differ in meaning. Malleable metals are
generally shaped by compressive methods, and ductile metals are shaped
by expansive methods.

ELASTICITY

The characteristic that enables a metal to return to its original

shape when stresses are removed is elasticity. This quality, or
property, is valuable because it is highly undesirable to have a part
permanently distorted after an applied load is removed. However, each
metal has a point, its elastic limit, beyond which it cannot be loaded
without permanent distortion. Members and parts used in aircraft
construction are designed so that the maximum loads to which they are
subjected never stress them beyond their elastic limits. An example of
a metal with a high elasticity limit is spring steel.

CONDUCTIVITY

The characteristic of a metal that enables it to transfer heat or

electricity is conductivity. Heat conductivity in a metal is
especially important in welding because it governs the amount of heat
required for proper fusion. To a certain extent, a metal's
conductivity determines the type of jig to be used to control
expansion and contraction during repairs. Metals vary in how they
conduct heat and electricity; to eliminate radio interference, careful
thought should go into selecting metals to be bound together. For
example, copper has a relatively high degree of heat conductivity, and
its low resistance makes it a good electrical conductor. Aluminum, on
the other hand, is a good heat conductor, but it is a poor electrical
conductor.

DENSITY

The mass per unit volume of a substance is its density. In

aircraft work the preferred unit of volume is the cubic inch. This
unit is convenient in determining the weight of a part
before manufacture. Give careful thought to the density of

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material to be used because it affects the weight and balance of an
aircraft.

CONTRACTION AND EXPANSION

Heat applied to a metal causes it to expand or become larger, and

cooling metal causes it to contract or shrink. Contraction and
expansion affect the design of welding jigs, castings, and tolerances
necessary for hot-rolled metal.

STRENGTH AND TOUGHNESS

When a metal can hold loads or withstand an applied force without

breaking, it has strength. This is a property that encompasses many of
the desirable qualities of metals. Strength with toughness is the most
important combination of properties a metal can possess. Metals with
this combination are used for vital structural members that may become
overloaded in service. Toughness describes the resistance of a metal
to tearing or shearing and permits the metal to be stretched or
otherwise deformed without breaking.

STRESS

This paragraph discusses the stresses associated with the qualities or

characteristics of metals. Stress is a force placed upon a body and is
measured in terms of units of force per unit of area. The force is
usually expressed in pounds and the unit of area in square inches.
More simply, the expression is stated in pounds per square inch (psi).
Stress can be in the form of compression, tension, torsion, bending,
shearing, or a combination of two or more of these. All parts of an
aircraft are subject to stresses. The various stresses acting on the
aircraft parts while in flight have an important bearing on the choice
of metals used. The paragraphs that follow describe the stresses.
Refer to Figure 1-10a for examples.

Compression. Compression is the decrease of volume of a

compressible substance because of pressure being applied. Compressive
strength is the resistance to applied pressure. Examples of
compression are the pressure applied to the fuel-air mixture in an
engine cylinder and the pressure applied to an airplane's landing gear
during landing.

Tension. Tension is the force or combination of forces that pulls

or stretches a material. The measurement of a material's resistance to
stretching or tearing is the material's tensile strength.

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 Torsion. Torsion is the force that causes a twisting motion.
Torsional force is produced when an engine turns a crankshaft; and in
that application, the force is called torque.

Bending. Bending is a combination of tension and compression

forces. The inside curve of a bend is under compression, while the
outside curve is under tension. Main rotor blades on helicopters and
wings on airplanes are subjected to bending during flight. Main rotor
blades also bend at rest, whether tied down or drooping, because of
their weight and flexibility.

Shear. Shear is a stress applied to a body in the plane of one of

its faces. The stress exerts a cutting force much the same as the two
blades of a large scissors. Two layers of aircraft skin fastened
together by a rivet can shear, or cut, the head off the rivet if one
layer of skin is allowed to shift sufficiently.

Figure 1-10a. Examples of Stress and Strain.

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SUMMARY

Each metal or alloy has properties, qualities, or characteristics that

make it desirable for a particular use. Undesirable qualities are
toned down or compensated for by enhancing the desirable ones. This is
done with alloys and metal processing.

Hardness is a metal's characteristic to resist penetration, cutting,

or distortion. Alloying, heat treatment, and cold working can enhance
this quality. Brittleness in a metal causes cracking or breaking under
stress. Metal that can be shaped by hammering; rolling, or pressing
is malleable. Ductility permits a metal to be drawn, bent, or twisted
into various permanent shapes without breaking. This is a desirable
quality in metal used for tubing or wire. Elasticity allows metal to
return to its original shape when the force causing the change in
shape is removed. Metal that conducts heat or electricity is
conductive. Density is the mass per unit volume of a substance, and
the preferred unit of volume expression is the cubic inch. Contraction
and expansion are the qualities that describe a substance's reaction
when heated or cooled. Strength is the measure of a metal's ability to
hold loads or withstand an applied load. Toughness measures a metal's
ability to withstand tearing, shearing, or stretching stresses.
Stress, measured in pounds per square inch (psi), is the force or
forces placed upon a metal, substance, or body. The different ways
that stress forces can be applied are tension, compression, torsion,
bending, and shear. Tension pulls or stretches a material, and
resistance to tension is tensile strength. Compression describes a
substance's decrease in volume under pressure. Torsion is the force
that produces a twisting motion. Bending is a combination of tension
and compression forces. Shear is a cutting force.

PART C: METAL-WORKING PROCESSES

GENERAL

Man's search for tools and better materials to make them from has led
him from the random use of pieces of wood, bone, and stone through the
Bronze and Iron Ages to the Industrial Age. Along the way, man
discovered many metal-working processes and uses for the finished
metals.

One of the earliest processes discovered was alloying copper with tin.
This produced bronze and ushered in the Bronze Age. Practicable and
economical ways to smelt iron ore and produce usable iron brought man
into the Iron Age. Step by step, the way led to the Industrial Age. We
now have many ways to process metal for particular uses.
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This section discusses some of these processes. The first three
paragraphs are introductory; they define an alloy, classify alloys,
and describe the ways of preparing alloys. The paragraphs that follow
discuss, in more detail, the metal-working processes most commonly
used.

DEFINITION

An alloy is a metallic substance containing one or more metals and/or

elements. If strictly applied, this definition would classify all
metals as alloys since no metal refinement can produce an absolutely
pure metal. The alloying of a metal is a concentrated effort to make
it gain certain qualities or properties. Some of the metals used in
alloying are nickle, chromium, molybdenum, aluminum, titanium, copper,
and manganese. The alloying elements are silicon, sulfur, and carbon.
Each metal or element will cause the base metal to take on different
properties.

CLASSIFICATION

Industrial alloys are classed as ferrous (having an iron base) and

nonferrous; the ferrous alloys are the larger group. The most
important ferrous alloys are those made with carbon. When the carbon
content is less than .13 percent by weight, the alloys are known as
steels. The terms, alloy steel and special steel, are descriptive of
steels with relatively large amounts of chromium and nickel. An
example of such an alloy is stainless steel. Aircraft industry
requirements have helped spur the development of important nonferrous
lightweight alloys such as aluminum and magnesium. With increased
flight, speed, and payload, much use is being made of titanium and
titanium-based alloys. These have much higher melting points and
strength-to-weight ratios than aluminum and its alloys.

ALLOY PREPARATION

The most common way to prepare alloys is to melt the constituent

metals together. If the melting points of the metals differ widely, or
if one is very reactive, it may be convenient to first prepare a
master alloy, portions of which are then melted with the remaining
metals. Depending upon the nature of the elements to be alloyed, the
melting process may be carried out in furnaces fired by gas, coke, or
oil. Electrical heating, by resistance, induction, or arc melting
methods, is also used.

A few alloys are prepared directly by the process in which the

metals are extracted from their ores. For example, pig iron
is prepared by the reduction of iron ore in the blast furnace.

21 AL0992
Steels are prepared by further purification (reduction) of pig iron.
Mixing finely powdered portions of the constitutent metals, compacting
the mixture under high pressure, and removing the impurities can also
prepare alloys.

HEAT TREATMENT

Heat treatment can make a metal harder, stronger, and more resistant
to impact. This process consists, in general, of a series of
operations involving controlled heating and cooling of metals in a
solid state. The purpose is to change the metal's property or
combination of properties so that the metal is more useful,
serviceable, or safe for a particular application or design. Heat
treatment can also make a metal softer and more ductile. No one heat-
treating operation can produce all of these characteristics. Some
properties are often improved at the expense of others. In being
hardened, for example, a metal can become brittle. The various heat-
treating processes are similar in that they all involve heating and
cooling the metals. However, they differ in three important ways. The
first two ways are the temperatures to which the metal is heated and
the rate at which it is cooled. The third difference is the finished
metal.

The most common forms of heat treatment for ferrous metals are
hardening, tempering, annealing, normalizing, case hardening, and hot-
working. The paragraphs that follow discuss each of these treatments.
Most nonferrous metals can be annealed and many of them can be
hardened by heat treatment. However, only one nonferrous metal,
titanium, can be case-hardened, and none can be normalized or
tempered.

Hardening. For most steels the hardening treatment consists of

heating the steel to the correct temperature and then cooling it
rapidly by plunging the hot steel into oil or brine. Although most
steels must be cooled rapidly for hardening, a few can be cooled from
the hardening (specified) temperature by air. Hardening increases the
durability and strength of the steel, but it makes it less ductile.
Many nonferrous metals can also be hardened and strengthened by the
same method.

Tempering. After the hardening treatment, steel is often

harder than necessary and it is too brittle for most practical
uses. In addition, rapid cooling from the hardening temperature causes
internal stresses that can cause flaws in the metal. To relieve the
internal stresses and reduce brittleness, steel
is tempered after hardening. Tempering consists of heating the
steel to a temperature below that at which it was hardened,
holding the metal at that temperature for a predetermined time,
and then cooling it, usually in still air. The resultant

22 AL0992
strength, hardness, and ductility depend upon the temperature to which
the steel is heated during the tempering process.

Annealing. In general, annealing is the opposite of hardening.

Metals are annealed to relieve internal stresses, soften them, make
them more ductile, and refine their grain structure. Annealing
consists of heating the metal to the proper temperature, holding it at
that temperature for the required time, and then cooling the metal to
room temperature. The big difference between hardening and annealing
is the cooling rate. To produce maximum softness in steel, the metal
must be cooled very slowly. Burying the hot metal in sand, ashes, or
some other substance that does not conduct heat readily can do this.
Another method is to shut off the heat and allow the furnace and metal
to cool together. The first method is called packing and the latter is
called furnace cooling.

Normalizing. Only ferrous metals can be normalized. In the

process, the metal is heated to the required temperature, held at that
temperature until it is uniformly heated, and then removed to cool in
still air. Steel parts are normalized to relieve the internal stress
set up by machining, forging, bending, or welding.

Case Hardening. When low-carbon steel is used where a hardened

surface is desirable, the character of its surface can be altered to
form a very hard case. The hard surface is obtained by adding carbon
to the steel. Keeping the steel at a sufficiently high temperature and
in contact with a suitable material containing carbon does this. The
steel is heated to 1,700 to 1,800°F for several hours. The prolonged
heating at a high temperature develops a coarse grain in the core. To
refine the structure, the metal must be reheated slightly above the
critical temperature of the core and then quenched. It must then be
reheated slightly above the critical temperature of the case, and
again quenched. The double heat treatment produces a hardened case
with a fine structure and a ductile core with a full measure of
toughness.

Hot Working. Almost all steel is hot-worked from the ingot

into some form from which it is either hot- or cold-worked to
the finished shape. When an ingot is stripped from its mold,
its surface is solid, but the core is still molten. The ingot
is then placed in a soaking pit to retard heat loss so the
core solidifies gradually. After soaking, the temperature
is equalized throughout the ingot. Then, to make it easier
to handle, the ingot is reduced to intermediate size by rolling.
The rolled shape is called a bloom when its sectional dimensions
are 6 x 6 inches or larger, and it is approximately square.
The section is called a billet when it is almost square and its

23 AL0992
sectional dimensions are less than 6 x 6 inches. Rectangular sections
that have widths greater than twice their thicknesses are called
slabs. The slab is the intermediate shape from which sheets are
rolled.

CASTING

Pouring a molten metal, or mixture of molten metals, into a mold where

it is allowed to solidify is called casting. Two types of molds are
used: single-purpose and permanent molds. Single-purpose molds have to
be specially prepared, sometimes by machines, from patterns. Using
metal or permanent molds offers many advantages where the process is
applicable. For example, the constantly repeated cost of sand molding
is eliminated; but the initial cost of the metal mold or die is high.
The cost is justified only when the same casting is required in great
numbers. However, for many metals, the metal mold has a distinct
advantage: the structure and strength that result from the relatively
rapid solidification in a metal or chill mold. For the nonferrous
metals, chill casting is quite practical, especially with some
aluminum alloys.

HOT ROLLING

Blooms, billets, or slabs are heated above the critical range and
rolled into a variety of shapes of uniform cross section. The more
common of these rolled shapes are sheet bars, channels, angles, and I-
beams. Sheet bar and rods rolled from steel are used extensively in
aircraft work. Hot-rolled material is frequently finished by cold
rolling or drawing to obtain accurate finish dimensions and a bright,
smooth surface.

FORGING

Complicated sections that cannot be rolled or sections of which only a

small quantity is required are usually forged. Forging is an important
hot-forming process. It is used in producing components of all shapes
and sizes from quite small items to large units weighing several tons.
The metal, preheated to the appropriate forging temperature, is shaped
mainly by upsetting (compressive deformation) between impact surfaces
or pressure surfaces, that is, by hammering or pressing the heated
metal until the desired shape is obtained.

Hammering can be used only on relatively small pieces. Because

hammering transmits its force almost instantly, its effect is
limited to a small depth. Therefore, it is necessary to
use a very heavy hammer or to subject the part to repeated blows
to ensure complete working of the section. If the force applied
is too weak to reach the center, the finished forged surface will
be convex or bulged. The advantage of hammering is that the

24 AL0992
operator has control over both the amount of pressure applied and the
finishing temperature, and he is able to produce parts of the highest
grade. This kind of forging, also called smith forging, is used
extensively where only a small number of parts are needed.
Considerable machining and material are saved when a part is smith-
forged to approximately the finished shape.

Pressing is used when the parts to be forged are large and heavy or
where high-grade steel is required. Because a press is slow acting,
its force is uniformly transmitted to the center of the section. This
gives the interior and exterior grain of the metal the best possible
structure throughout.

EXTRUSION

Forcing metal through an opening in a die causing the metal to take

the shape of the die opening is called extrusion. Some metals, such
as lead, tin, and aluminum, can be extruded cold; however, metals are
generally heated before extrusion. The principal advantage of this
process is its flexibility. For example, aluminum, with its ductile
and malleable properties, can be economically extruded in more shapes
and sizes than is practicable with many other metals. Extrusions are
produced in simple as well as complex shapes. In addition, many
structural parts, such as stringers, are made by the extrusion
process.

COLD WORKING

Mechanically working-metals at temperatures below the critical range

(cold working) results in strain-hardening the metal. In fact, the
metal becomes so hard that it is difficult to continue the shaping
process without annealing the metal. Because the errors due to
shrinkage are eliminated in cold working, a more compact and better
metal is obtained than in hot-worked metal. The strength, hardness,
and elastic limit are increased, but the metal's ductility is
decreased. Because this makes the metal brittle, it must be heated
from time to time during the working to remove the undesirable
effects. A number of cold-working processes are used in industry;
however, the ones of interest to airframe repairers are cold rolling,
cold drawing, stamping, and pressing. Each is discussed in the
paragraphs that follow.

Cold Rolling. Cold rolling is the process of reducing the cross-

sectional area of pieces of metal by passing them between revolving
cylinders or rolls at room temperature. In a steel mill, a rolling
mill has, in addition to cranes and other handling equipment:

 Soaking pits where ingots are brought to the appropriate

temperature.
25 AL0992
  Reheating furnaces.

 Rolling stands.

 Straightening and cooling tables.

 Cut-off shears.

 Coilers and decoilers for strips.

 Roll-grinding machines.

A rolling stand consists of two or more rollers positioned one

above the other and in groups of two or more stands side by side. The
operation consists of passing a piece of metal between two or more
rollers, subjecting it to compression. The compression compacts and
lengthens or compacts and widens the particular piece of metal. The
action depends on the rollers' dimensions and the compression applied.

In producing cold-rolled sheet and strip and cold-drawn rods and

bars of various dimensions, the oxide is removed from the hot-rolled
material by pickling; and the material is further reduced on cold-
rolling mills. Bars, sheets, and strips are cold-rolled to obtain a
desired surface finish, improve dimension tolerances, impart improved
physical properties, and make lighter gauges than can be made on hot-
strip mills.

Cold Drawing. Cold drawing is used in making seamless tubing, wire,

streamlined tie rods, and other forms of stock. Wire is made from hot-
rolled rods of various diameters. These rods are picked in acid to
remove scale, dipped in lime-water, and then dried in a steam room
where they remain until ready for drawing. The lime coating adhering
to the metal lubricates the rod during the drawing operation. The rod
size used for drawing depends upon the diameter desired in the
finished wire.

To reduce the rod to the desired size wire, the rod is drawn cold
through a die. One end of the rod is filed or hammered to a point and
slipped through the die opening. It is then gripped by the jaws of the
draw and pulled through the die. This series of operations is done on
a mechanism called a draw bench. To reduce the rod gradually to the
desired size, the wire is drawn through successively smaller dies.
Because each of these drawings reduces the wire's ductility, it must
be annealed from time to time during the drawing operation. Although
cold working reduces the wire's ductility, it increases the wire's
tensile strength.

In making seamless steel aircraft tubing, the rod is cold

drawn through a ring-shaped die with a mandrel, metal bar,

26 AL0992
inside the tubing to support the tube during the drawing operation.
This forces the metal to flow between the die and the mandrel and
controls the wall thickness and the inside and outside tube diameters.

Stamping and Pressing. Stamping and pressing sheet metal into

molds or dies are methods of shaping or forming various-sized parts or
complete pieces. In a broad sense, the two terms have little
difference in meaning. However, stamping is generally applied to
forming small objects that can be shaped by one rapid blow of a
machine. Pressing, on the other hand, describes the process that uses
a slow, steady stroke or movement to form a large piece or section.
Making parts by stamping and pressing brings the aviation industry one
step nearer to mass production. However, constant changes in aircraft
design make it necessary to alter or replace dies frequently.

SUMMARY

In general, most alloys consist of two or more metals. Other elements

such as carbon, silicon, and sulfur may be present. Industrial alloys
are classed as ferrous (iron based) and non-ferrous. Ferrous alloys
with less than 0.13 percent carbon by weight are steels. Cast and
wrought iron have 2 to 5 percent carbon by weight. Alloy steel and
special steel have relatively large amounts of chromium and nickel.
The aircraft industry requires lightweight alloys such as aluminum and
magnesium; titanium and titanium-based alloys are much used.

Alloys are usually prepared by melting the constituent metals

together. The melting can be done in furnaces fired by gas, coke, or
oil. Electrical heating is also used. Some alloys, such as pig iron,
are prepared directly by the process used to extract the metal from
the ore.

A metal can be made harder, stronger, and more resistant to impact by

controlled heating and cooling. Heating (annealing) can make a metal
softer. Metal properties are often improved at the expense of other
properties. Heat-treating processes differ in three important ways:
the temperature to which the metal is treated, the rate at which it is
cooled, and the properties possessed by the finished metal. The most
common forms of metal heat treatment are hardening, tempering,
normalizing, case hardening, and hot working. Hardening consists
of heating the steel to the appropriate temperature and then
cooling it rapidly by quenching. Heating the steel below the critical
point and then cooling it in still air tempers it. Annealing requires
heating the metal to the proper temperatures, holding that temperature
for the required time, and cooling the metal to room temperature.
Normalizing consists of heating metal to the

27 AL0992
appropriate temperature until it is uniformly heated and then cooling
it in still air. Only ferrous metals can be normalized, Case
hardening consists of carbonizing steel at 1,700 to 1,800°F for
several hours and reheating and quenching twice. Hot working consists,
in general, of working steel while the core is still hot. Casting is
the process of pouring molten metal into a single-purpose or permanent
mold. Hot rolling is passing the metal between rollers while it is
still hot. Forging is changing a metal's shape by compressive
deformation through hammering or pressure. Extrusion is forcing metal
to take the die opening's shape. Metal worked at temperatures below
the critical range is being cold-worked. Cold rolling, cold drawing,
and stamping and pressing are forms of cold working.

PART D: AVIATION HARDWARE

GENERAL

An aircraft made of the best materials and strongest parts is of no

value unless those parts are firmly held together. Rivets and special-
purpose fasteners are the primary hardware used for this on Army
aircraft. Both are used to hold two or more metal sheets, plates, or
formed pieces of material together. Heads are formed on one end of the
rivet and special-purpose fastener when manufactured. Special-purpose
fasteners are used where high strength or a special application of a
fastener is required. The rivet is smooth-shanked; its tip, opposite
the head, is reshaped upon use to take the place of a nut. The shank
of the rivet is placed through matched (aligned) holes in two or more
pieces of material, and the tip is then flattened to form a second
head that clamps the pieces together.

The second head formed either by hand or by pneumatic equipment, is

called a shop head. The shop head works in the same manner as a nut on
a bolt. This section discusses the variety of rivets and special-
purpose fasteners in general use in Army aviation.

RIVETS

Many different metals and alloys of metals are used to make rivets.
The material used for the majority of aircraft rivets is an aluminum
alloy. Other metals used are steel and copper. Aluminum rivets have a
silver-white color; steel rivets are a typical steel color; and copper
rivets are copper color. Aside from their metal, rivets are divided
into two main groups: solid-shank and blind rivets. The following
paragraphs discuss the two groups in detail.

28 AL0992
 Solid-Shank Rivets. Rivets are manufactured in two head styles:
universal and countersunk (Figure 1-11). Both head styles are used in
interior and exterior locations. The universal head is shaped like a
mushroom. Because of the added strength of the head style, the
universal head rivet is used extensively throughout the aircraft. The
countersunk rivet is used where flushness is required. The top of the
countersunk head fits flush with the surface of the riveted material.
This is accomplished because the rivet is flat-topped and undercut to
allow the head to fit into a countersunk or dimpled hole. When
aerodynamics or clearance is required, the countersunk rivet is used.

Figure 1-11. Head Styles for Solid-Shank Rivets.

Blind Rivets. This section covers only the most common types of
self-plugging rivets. Information on other types of self-plugging
rivets may be obtained from the United States Army Aviation Systems
Command, 4300 Goodfellow Boulevard, St. Louis, MO 63120, or from the
rivet manufacturer.

When access to both sides of a riveted structure or structural part

is impossible or when limited space does not permit using a bucking
bar, blind rivet must be used. These rivets have characteristics that
require special installation tools and installation and removal
procedures. Because these rivets are often installed in locations
where one head, usually the shop head, cannot be seen, they are
commonly called blind rivets. The blind rivets used on Army aircraft
and discussed here are self-plugging (friction and mechanical lock).

Friction Lock. Self-plugging friction lock rivets consist of a

rivet head with a hollow shank or sleeve and a stem that extends
through the shank. The rivet head styles are the same as the solid-
shank rivets. Two common styles, shown in Figure 1-12, are in use. The
stem may have a knob on the upper portion or it may have a serrated
portion.

29 AL0992
 Figure 1-12. Mechanically Expanded
Rivet Head and Stem Styles.

Mechanical Lock. Self-plugging mechanical lock rivets include the

3000-series CherryMAX and the 2000-series Cherrylock. Mechanical lock
rivets may be substituted for solid-shank rivets when a solid-shank
rivet is inaccessible for bucking. When substituting 3000-series
CherryMAX rivets for solid-shank rivets, the new rivet may be the same
diameter as the solid rivet it replaces. When substituting 2000-series
Cherrylock rivets or bulbed Cherrylock rivets for solid-shank rivets,
the new rivet must be one diameter size larger than the solid rivet it
replaces. In 1979 the Army began replacing all self-plugging rivets by
attrition with the 3000-series CherryMAX rivet. The change will reduce
the inventory of installation tools and types of rivets required in
the Army supply system. The 2000-series Cherrylock rivet is made in
three parts: a hollow shank, a stem, and a locking collar. The 3000-
series CherryMAX rivet has an extra part attached to the rivet stem:
the driving anvil (Figure 1-12a). The head styles of the shank are the
same as those in solid-shank rivets. The head also has a conical
recess to accept the locking collar. The stem has an extruded angle
and land to expand the sleeve for hole filling, a breakneck groove, a
locking groove, and a head. The pull grooves on the protruding end of
the stem fit the jaws of the rivet tool. The mechanical lock between
the stem and sleeve gives these rivets approximately the same strength
as common solid-shank rivets.

30 AL0992
 Figure 1-12a. Self-Plugging (Mechanical Lock) Rivets.

Rivet Removal. When a rivet has to be replaced, it must be removed

carefully so that the rivet hole will retain its original size and
shape and the rivet will not need to be replaced with one of the next
larger size. If the rivet is not removed properly, the strength of the
joint may be weakened. Hand tools, power tools, or a combination of
both may be used to remove rivets.

Solid-Shank. To remove a solid-shank rivet, use a drill one size

smaller than the rivet shank to drill through the rivet head. Be
careful not to drill too deep because the rivet shank will then turn
with the drill and cause a tear.

Insert a drift punch diagonally into the drilled hole and knock the
rivet head off by lightly striking the drift punch.

Drive the rivet shank out with a drift punch slightly smaller than
the diameter of the shank. On thin metal or unsupported structures,
support the sheet with a bucking bar while driving out the shank. If
the shank is unusually tight after the rivet head is removed, drill
the rivet about two-thirds through the thickness of the material and
then drive the rest of the shank out with a drift punch.

Mechanical-Locking. To remove a mechanical-locking rivet, use the

following steps.

31 AL0992
 Use a small center drill to provide a guide for a larger drill on
top of the rivet stem and drill away the upper portion of the stem to
destroy the lock. See Figure 1-12b.

Figure 1-12b. Rivet Removal.

Drive out the rivet stem, using a tapered steel drift pin or a
spent stem. See Figure 1-12c.

Figure 1-12c. Rivet Removal.

Drill nearly through the head of the rivet using a drill the same
size as the rivet shank. See Figure 1-12d.

Figure 1-12d. Rivet Removal.

32 AL0992
 Break off the rivet head, using a drift pin as a pry. See Figure 1-
12e.

Figure 1-12e. Rivet Removal.

Drive out the remaining rivet shank with a pin that has a diameter
equal to the rivet shank. See Figure 1-12f.

Figure 1-12f. Rivet Removal.

SPECIAL PURPOSE FASTENERS.

Where extra strength is required and weight is a factor, special

purpose fasteners are used instead of rivets or nuts and bolts. Some
of these areas are: where major structural units join together, where
there is high stress, and where the substructures attach to the skin.
We will discuss each fastener and its use in the following paragraphs.

Rivnuts. Rivnuts, shown in Figure 1-13, are tubular rivets

internally threaded, counterbored, and used with matching screws. They
are applied blind, and they are used where nut plates cannot
be installed. An example of such a location is the leading
edge on wings where deicing boots are attached. Rivnuts are
made in two head styles: flat and countersunk heads with
open or closed ends. The keyed rivnut is used as a nut

33 AL0992
plate, and rivnuts without keys are used for blind riveting where
torque loads are not imposed. Closed-end rivnuts are used when a
sealed installation is required. The installation of a rivnut is not
complete unless it is plugged, either with one of the plugs designed
for that purpose or with a screw. A rivnut does not develop its full
strength when left hollow.

Figure 1-13. Countersunk and Flat Head Rivnuts.

Hi-Shear Rivets. The Hi-Shear rivet, essentially a threadless bolt,

consists of two parts, the pin and the collar as shown in Figure 1-14.
These rivets are classified as special rivets, but are not of the
blind type. Access to both sides of the material is required to
install the rivet. Hi-Shear rivets have the same shear strength as
bolts of equal diameters and have about 40 percent of the weight of a
bolt. In addition, they require only about one-fifth as much time to
install as a bolt, washer, and nut combination. They are approximately
three times as strong as solid shank rivets. The pin is headed at one
end and is grooved about the circumference at the other. The collar is
swaged onto the grooved end to make a firm, tight fit. Hi-Shear rivets
are made from a variety of materials and are used only in shear
applications. In addition, they must not be used where the grip length
is less than the shank diameter.

Figure 1-14. Hi-Shear Pin.

34 AL0992
 General Purpose Bolts. The mechanics and appearance of general-
purpose bolts and their accompanying washer and bolt combinations are
not discussed here. They are described in detail in FM 1-563
(Fundamentals of Airframe Maintenance). The discussion here is limited
to less familiar special-purpose bolts in general use in Army
aircraft. These are Huck lock bolts and Jo-Bolts. Each is described in
the paragraphs that follow.

Huck Lock Bolt. The Huck lock bolt combines the features of a high
strength bolt and a rivet, with advantages over each. The Huck lock
bolt is generally used in wing splices, landing gear, fuel cell
fittings, longerons, beams, skin splice plates, and other major
structural attachments. It is more easily and quickly installed than
the conventional rivet or bolt, and it does not require lock washers,
cotter pins, and special nuts. Like the rivet, the lock bolt is
installed with a pneumatic or pull gun. The most commonly used Huck
lock bolts are the pull, stump, and blind types, shown in Figure
1-15. Common features of the three are the annular (circular or
ringed) locking grooves on the pin and the locking collar. Each one is
discussed in the following paragraphs.

Pull-type. The pull-type lock bolt is mainly used in primary and

secondary structural members. It is installed rapidly and has
approximately one-half the weight of an equivalent general-purpose
bolt and nut. These bolts are available with modified brazier, pan,
and countersunk heads. A special pneumatic pull gun is required to
install this lock bolt. One man can make the installation because
bucking is not needed.

Stump-type. The stump-type lock bolt, although not having the

extended stem with pull grooves, is a companion fastener to the pull-
type lock bolt. It is used primarily where clearance will not permit
effective installation of the pull type. These bolts are also
available with modified brazier, pan, and countersunk heads. The
stump-type lock bolt installation is made with a standard pneumatic
riveting gun, a hammer set for swaging the collar into the pin-locking
grooves, and bucking bar.

Blind-type. The blind-type lock bolt comes as a complete unit or

assembly, and it has exceptional strength and sheet pull-together
characteristics. These lock bolts are used where only one side of the
work is accessible and generally where it is difficult to drive a
conventional rivet.

35 AL0992
 Figure 1-15. Huck Lock Bolts.

Jo-Bolts. Jo-Bolts are high-strength structural blind fasteners.

They are used in close-tolerance holes or where Jo-Bolts may be
required for weight-saving advantages. In all cases, Jo-Bolts are
always considered to be a part of the permanent structure and
primarily subject to shear loads. The Jo-Bolts, installed as a unit,
consist of a bolt, nut, and sleeve. These bolts, identified by head
types, are discussed in the following paragraphs and illustrated in
Figure 1-16.

Flush-type. The flush-type Jo-Bolt has a head that fits flush with
the surface being held. The bolt generally uses the same size
countersink or dimple required for the correspondingly sized standard
screwhead. The nut and bolt are made of alloy steel; however, the
sleeve is made of annealed corrosion-resistant steel. All components
for the flush-type Jo-Bolt are cadmium plated. In addition, a flush-
type Jo-Bolt is available that is designed to fit into a countersunk
or dimpled hole prepared for a precision rivet. Nut shank size and
material specifications are the same as those just described.
36 AL0992
Figure 1-16. Jo-Bolt Head Styles.

37 AL0992
 Hex-type. Jo-Bolts with hexagon-shaped heads (hex type) are made of
alloy steel. Their sleeves are annealed and corrosion resistant. In
addition, the bolt and sleeve are cadmium plated.

Millable hex-type. The millable hex-type Jo-Bolt usually takes the

same size countersink or dimple used for the corresponding size rivet.
The bolt is made of alloy steel and the sleeve of corrosion-resistant
steel. Both are cadmium plated. The nut is made of an aluminum alloy,
and, after installation, the nut head is milled flush.

Oversize-type. The oversize-type Jo-Bolt is used in special

applications where the hole size has been exceeded and standard Jo-
Bolts cannot be used. The head size and material specifications are
the same as for the flush and hex types except for the size of the nut
shank diameter.

SUMMARY

The majority of aircraft rivets are made of an aluminum alloy. Other

metals used are steel and copper. Rivets used in Army aircraft are
divided into two main groups: solid-shank and blind rivets. The solid-
shank rivets are divided into universal- and countersunk-head styles.
Countersunk rivets are used for a flush fit and for aerodynamic
surfaces; universal-head rivets are used on exterior and interior
locations and when clearances for adjacent members are not required.
Blind rivets are used where one side of a riveted structure is not
accessible or room for a bucking bar is not available. These rivets
require special tools and installation and removal procedures. Blind
rivets include friction and mechanical lock rivets. The head styles
commonly used are the protruding and countersunk heads. The Hi-Shear
rivet consists of a pin and a collar. Access to both sides of the held
material is required to use these rivets. The pin is headed on one end
and grooved about the circumference at the other. The collar is swaged
onto the grooved end. The rivnut unit is composed of a rivnut and a
screw, either attachment or plug type. They are used in blind
locations, such as leading edges for deicer boot installation. Keyed
rivnuts are used as nut plates and unkeyed ones are used for blind
riveting where torque loads are imposed. Closed-end rivnuts are used
where a sealed installation is required.

The special-purpose bolts in general use in Army aviation are

Huck lock bolts and Jo-Bolts. The most commonly used Huck lock
bolts are the pull, stump, and blind types. The pull type is
mainly used in primary and secondary aircraft structure. The

38 AL0992
stump type is used where clearance is limited. The blind type is used
where only one side of the work is accessible and where it is
difficult to drive a conventional rivet.

Jo-Bolts are always considered to be a part of the permanent structure

and subject to shear loads. These bolts are the flush, hex, millable
hex, and oversize type.

39 AL0992
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40 AL0992
 LESSON 1

PRACTICE EXERCISE

The following items will test your grasp of the material covered in
this lesson. There is only one correct answer for each item. When you
have completed the exercise, check your answers with the answer key
that follows. If you answer any question incorrectly, study again that
part of the lesson, which contains the portion involved.

1. What is the main structural unit of an aircraft?

______A. Empennage.
______B. Fuselage.
______C. Nacelle.
______D. Wing.

2. What part carries the primary stresses in the monocoque fuselage?

______A. Bulkhead.
______B. Frame.
______C. Skin.
______D. Stringer.

3. What aircraft structual unit gives the lifting force?

______A. Wings.
______B. Nacelle.
______C. Fuselage.
______D. Empennage.

4. What axis do the stabilizers help control while the aircraft is

in flight?

______A. Pitch and lateral.

______B. Lateral and yaw.
______C. Roll and yaw.
______D. Longitudinal and lateral.

5. What metal property permits resistance to penetration?

______A. Brittlenesss.
______B. Hardness.
______C. Malleability.
______D. Strength.

41 AL0992
THIS PAGE IS INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

42 AL0992
6. What stress is applied to the inside of a bend?

______A. Compression.
______B. Shear.
______C. Tension.
______D. Torsion.

7. What process is used to relieve internal stresses?

______A. Alloying.
______B. Tempering.
______C. Annealing.
______D. Cold working.

8. What is forcing metal through a die called?

______A. Annealing.
______B. Casting.
______C. Extruding.
______D. Hot working.

9. How many parts make up the friction lock rivet?

______A. Two.
______B. Three.
______C. Four.
______D. Five.

10. How many different types of Huck lock bolts are there?

______A. Two.
______B. Three.
______C. Four.
______D. Five.

11. What is the main structural member of the wing?

______A. Rib.
______B. Spar.
______C. Stringer.
______D. Stiffner.

12. What structural member is used to separate one area from another?

______A. Bulkhead.
______B. Frame.
______C. Stringer.
______D. Web.
43 AL0992
 LESSON 1

PRACTICE EXERCISE

ANSWER KEY AND FEEDBACK

Item Correct Answer and Feedback

1. B. Fuselage.

All other parts of an aircraft are attached to the fuselage.

(Page 4)

2. C. Skin.

In aircraft design, the substructure gives shape only.

(Page 4)

3. A. Wings.

When moving rapidly through the air, the wings are designed
to provide lift to the aircraft.
(Page 8)

4. D. Longitudinal and lateral.

Stabilizers keep the nose of the aircraft up or down

(lateral) or from rolling over (longitudinal). (Page 12)

5. B. Hardness.

Hardness is associated with the grain boundaries of the

outside of the metal. The closer the grain boundaries, the
more resistence to abrasion. (Page 16)

6. A. Compression.
Two forces are in action at the same time on all bends or
bending actions. Compression on the inside and torsion on the
outside. (Page 19)

7. C. Annealing.
Annealing is the process used to make metals soft. It can
then be worked and heat-treated to harden it back up. (Page
22)

44 AL0992
8. C. Extruding.

Extruding is the method used to form many of the parts used

on aircraft. (Page 24)

9. A. Two.

The parts of a rivet are the hollow shank and stem. (Page 29)

10. B. Three.

The three styles of Huck lock bolt are pull, stump, and
blind. (Page 35)

11. B. Spar.

The spar is the main load-bearing member, while ribs,

stringers, and stiffeners transfer the loads and give shape
to the wing. (Page 10)

12. A. Bulkhead.

Bulkheads are frames with a reinforced disc-shaped section,

with doors and access panels. (Page 6)

45 AL0992
46 AL0992
 LESSON 2

DAMAGE REPAIR

Tasks: 551-753-1002
551-753-1037
551-753-1039
551-753-1060

OVERVIEW

LESSON DESCRIPTION:

In this lesson you will learn general damage repair.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE:

ACTION: You will apply the general repair principles of a

structural repair, a stressed skin repair, and
structural sealing.

CONDITIONS: You will study the material in this lesson in a

classroom environment or at home.

STANDARDS: You will correctly answer all the questions in the

practice exercise before you go to the examination.

REFERENCES: The material contained in this lesson was derived from

the following publications: FM 1-563 (Fundamentals of
Airframe Maintenance) TM 1-1500-344-23 (Corrosion
Control For Army Aircraft)

INTRODUCTION

The discussions in this chapter are important to you because they

contain the fundamental information needed to support repair
decisions. This information plus experience will help you to make
valid judgments in assessing damage and deciding what is necessary to
make trustworthy repairs.

Structural repair methods are numerous and varied, and no set of

specific guidelines has been established that can be applied in all
repair requirements. Therefore, duplicating the original part in
material, strength, and dimensions usually solves damage repair
problems.

47 AL0992
This lesson, divided into five parts, discusses general repair
principles, structural repair, stressed skin repairs, internal
structure repair, and structural sealing. Because the discussions are
general and describe typical repairs made in maintaining Army
aircraft, specific repairs for specific aircraft must be made
according to the applicable technical manual (TM).

PART A: PRINCIPLES OF REPAIR

GENERAL

This section covers maintaining original (design) strength, original

contour, and minimum weight: the bases for airframe repairs. Again,
the discussion in this section is basic. It is comparable to the form
into which concrete will be poured to make a good foundation. This
section is closely tied to damage assessment in the next section.
Without a firm basis on which a valid assessment can be made, no
worthwhile repair can be made.

MAINTAIN ORIGINAL STRENGTH

In so far as aviation maintenance is concerned, any repair must

maintain the repaired member's original strength. Failure to maintain
this strength can put a weakening strain on another member or members.
The paragraphs that follow discuss five basic considerations in
maintaining original strength.

Compression or Bending. If a member or fuselage skin is subject to

compression and needs patching, put the patch on the outside to ensure
higher resistance to compression or bending loads. If the patch cannot
be placed on the outside, use material one gage thicker than the
original material, and put the patch on the inside. The patch must
have a cross-sectional area equal to, or greater than, the original
damaged section. The general rule here is to regain, as near as
possible, the original strength.

Cracking. Circular or oval patches must be used to reduce the

danger of cracks starting at the corners. If a rectangular patch must
be used, make the curvature radius at each corner no smaller than 1/2
inch. Buckled or bent members must be replaced or reinforced by
putting splices over the affected areas.

Similarity of Material. Be certain that all replacement

or reinforcement material used is similar to the original
material used. If substitutions are necessary, use material
of a gage heavy enough to give an equivalent cross-sectional strength.
Substituting a lighter gage but stronger material for the

48 AL0992
original is dangerous. The danger is that one material can have
greater tensile strength than another but less compressive strength.
For example, the buckling and torsional strengths of some sheet metal
and tubular parts are dependent primarily upon the thickness rather
than the allowable compressive and shear strengths of the material.
Therefore, a substitute thinner than the original will reduce the
buckling and torsional strength of a part, even though the thinner
substitute material has higher compressive and shear strengths.

NOTE: Never substitute a material thinner than the original

material or with cross-sectional area less than the
original. The buckling and torsional strengths of many sheet
metal and tubular parts are dependent primarily upon the
thickness, rather than the allowable compressive and shear
strength of the material. Therefore, a substitute thinner
than the original will reduce the bucking and torsional
strengths of a part considerably, even though the thinner
substitute material has higher allowable compressive and
shear strengths.

Forming. Be particularly careful when forming (shaping) alloys.

Heat-treated and cold-worked alloys cannot take much bending without
cracking. On the other hand, soft alloys can be easily formed without
cracking; however, they are not strong enough for primary structures.
Strong alloys can be formed in their annealed state first and then
heat-treated, in the desired shape, to develop their strength.

In some cases, if annealed metal is not available, the metal can be

heated and quenched according to regular heat-treating practices and
formed before hardening sets in. However, forming must be completed in
approximately half an hour after quenching because the material may
become too hard to work. When a brake is used to form the metal, be
sure to use a thin piece of soft metal on the brake jaws to prevent
the metal's surface from being marred.

Rivet Size and Number. The rivets in the next parallel row inboard
on the wing or forward on the fuselage can be used to determine the
size of rivets needed for any repair. Another method is to multiply
skin thickness by three and use the nearest larger size rivet
corresponding to that result. For example, if skin thickness is 0.040
inch, multiply that by three. The result is 0.120; use the next larger
size rivet, 4/32 inch (0.125 inch).

Each repair takes a specific number of rivets to restore

the original strength. This number will vary with the thickness
of the material being repaired and the size of the damage.

49 AL0992
However, the direct and general support (DS and GS) maintenance manual
applicable to the particular aircraft gives essential information to
accomplish direct or general support and depot maintenance on the
complete airframe, including the kind, size, and number of rivets.

ORIGINAL CONTOUR

All repairs must be made so that the original contour is maintained

exactly. This is especially true with patches on the external skin.
Changes in external contour mean changes in air flow across the
external skin. These changes can cause vibrations that might lead to
other damage.

MAINTAIN MINIMUM WEIGHT

All repairs must be kept to a minimum weight. Keep the patch size as
small as practicable and limit the number of rivets to what is
necessary. In many cases, repairs disturb the structure's original
balance. By adding weight in each repair, a control surface becomes so
unbalanced that the trim and balance tabs will require adjusting.

SUMMARY

All repairs in aviation maintenance must maintain the original

strength of the repaired part or member. For example, if the fuselage
skin is subject to compression, put the patch on the outside; this
ensures greater resistance to such loads. The patch cross-sectional
area must be equal to, or greater than, the
original damaged area or section. To reduce the danger of cracks
starting at the corners, use circular or oval patches. If a
rectangular patch must be used, you should ensure that the curvature
radius at each corner is no smaller than 1/2 inch. Buckled or bent
members are replaced or reinforced by putting splices over the
affected areas. Replacement or reinforcement material must be similar
to the original material. If substitutions must be made, be sure that
the material's gage is heavy enough to give equivalent cross-sectional
strength. Using a lighter gage, stronger material is dangerous. One
material may have more tensile strength but
less compressive strength than another. Buckling and torsional
strengths of some sheet metal and tubular parts depend primarily upon
thickness rather than allowable compressive and shear strengths. So,
even though a thinner material has higher compressive and
shear strength, it can have less buckling and torsional strength. Care
must be used when forming heat-treated and cold-worked alloys. When
subjected to much bending, such alloys will crack. Although soft
alloys are easily formed without danger of cracking, they

50 AL0992
lack strength for use in primary structures. Strong alloys can be
formed in their annealed state first and then heat-treated, in the
desired shape, to develop their strength. When using a brake to form
metal, be sure that a thin piece of soft metal is placed on the brake
jaws to prevent marring the metal's surface.

The best method for determining the size and number of rivets to use
on a repair is to refer to the direct and general support manual
applicable to the aircraft being repaired. This manual gives the
essential information needed to perform direct and general support and
depot maintenance on the complete airframe.

All repairs must be made so that the aircraft's original contour is

maintained. In addition, all repairs must be kept to a minimum weight.
This is accomplished by using patches as small as practicable and
limiting the number of rivets to what is necessary. When weight is
added in each repair, the aircraft's balance may be so disturbed that
trim and balance tabs may have to be adjusted. A patch on the
propeller spinner requires a balancing patch to keep the propeller
assembly in balance.

PART B: STRUCTURAL REPAIR

GENERAL

In making aircraft structural repair, the primary objective is to

restore the damaged parts to their original condition. Frequently, the
only effective way is to replace the damaged part or parts. However,
each damage must be studied carefully to determine if repairing or
replacing is the course to follow. If a damaged part can be repaired,
its purpose or function must be fully understood. The reason for this
is that while strength may be the principal requirement in some
structures, others might need totally different characteristics. For
example, fuel tanks, floats, and hulls must be leak proof; however,
cowlings, fairings, and similar parts must be smooth and streamlined.

This section discusses damage assessment, cracks, damage

classification, corrosion control, corrosion inspection, structural
member stresses, and repair practices.

DAMAGE ASSESSMENT

While inspecting damage, remember that all damage is not obvious

or limited to an immediate location. For example, skin damage
made by shells or shell fragments may be accompanied by damage
to longerons, struts, cables, and so on. A hard landing can
overload one of the landing gears. While inspecting a sprung
shock strut, see if the damage extends to supporting structural
members. When a shock occurs at one end of a member it
is transmitted the entire length of that member. Therefore, all

51 AL0992
rivets, bolts, and attaching structures must be inspected for possible
damage. Make a thorough inspection for rivets that have partially
failed and for holes that have been distorted. Damage assessment
includes looking for weathering or corrosion. A white crystalline
deposit that can be seen around loose rivets, scratches, bad dents, or
some portion of the structure where moisture can collect detects
damage to aluminum by corrosion. If a visual inspection of inside
skin surfaces cannot be made without disassembly, rap your knuckles on
the outside skin at various places. Severe corrosion exists if the
light rapping causes dents or a white dust to appear.

INSPECTING FOR CRACKS

The existence or full extent of cracks in major structural members

cannot be accurately determined by a visual inspection; therefore,
several methods other than visual are used. They are ultrasonic waves,
X rays, Zy-glo, and a penetrating dye. When using ultrasonic waves,
only one side of the inspected metal need be accessible. With X-ray
equipment both sides of the metal must be accessible. The Zy-glo
method requires blacklight equipment. Penetrating dye requires no
complex or expensive equipment, and it can be easily used in the
field. The materials to make a dye-penetrant inspection consist of
the penetrating dye, dye remover, and dye developer, all contained in
an inspection kit. Individual items for the kit can be requisitioned
to replace those, which have been used. The paragraphs that follow
describe how the kit is used.

Preparation. All coats of paint and surface dirt must be removed

before the dye penetrant is applied. A thoroughly clean surface is
required to ensure an accurate portrayal of the structural member's
condition.

Application. The surface to be inspected is given a final cleaning

by applying dye remover and wiping the surface with clean cloths. Then
a coat of dye penetrant is applied by brushing or swabbing and allowed
to penetrate for 3 to 15 minutes.

Removal. The dye penetrant on the surface is removed by wiping the

excess off, first with a dry cloth, and then with a cloth moistened
with dye remover. If a water rinse is used, the inspected part must
be thoroughly dried before applying the dye developer.

Development. A light, even coating of dye developer is

applied with a brush or by spraying. Whichever method is used,
be sure that the coating is free of runs or laps. The developer dries
and forms a smooth, white coating. Cracks show up as
red lines, and the length of the red indicates the extent

52 AL0992
lines. Narrow or tight cracks show up as a series of red dots close
together. Scattered dots that do not show a pattern indicate
porousness. Because this method is so sensitive, evaluating the
indicated cracks requires good judgment. After the flaws have been
detected and marked, remove the developer with dye remover or an
approved petroleum solvent.

Warning. Dye-penetrant materials are flammable, particularly the

developer. They must be used only in well-ventilated areas away from
sparks or flames. The fumes must not be breathed for prolonged
periods; and gloves, goggles, and aprons are recommended for
protection. Contaminated skin must be washed with soap and water, and
contaminated clothing must be changed at once and laundered before
reuse.

DAMAGE CLASSIFICATION

When the existence and extent of the damage has been evaluated, it
must be classified. The classifications for damage are--

 Negligible.

 Repairable by patching.

 Repairable by insertion.

 Requiring replacement.

In many instances the availability, or scarcity, of repair materials

and time determines whether or not a damaged part is repaired or
replaced. The paragraphs that follow describe the four
classifications.

Negligible Damage. Damage that does not impair the structural

soundness of the member involved or that can be repaired without
putting flight restrictions on the aircraft is negligible damage.
Examples of negligible damage include small dents, scratches, cracks,
or holes that can be repaired by smoothing, sanding, stop drilling,
hammering, or other methods without additional materials.

Patch-Repairable Damage. Damage that exceeds limits set for

negligible damage and can be repaired by bridging it with splice
material is damage repairable by patching. Splice or patch material
used to make internal or riveted and bolted repairs is usually the
same kind of material as the original only one gage heavier. In patch
repairs, filler plates identical to the gage and material of the
damaged component can be used to return the damaged part to its
original contour.

53 AL0992
 Damage Repairable by Insertion. Any damage that can be repaired by
cutting away the damaged part, replacing it with a like portion, and
securing the replacement with splices at each end is damage repairable
by insertion.

Damage Requiring Replacement. Generally, damage that cannot be

repaired or is so severe that the time needed to repair it is not
warranted is classified as damage requiring replacement. Examples
are--

 A complicated part, which is extensively damaged.

 The surrounding structural members or inaccessibility makes

repair impractical.

 The damaged part is relatively easy to replace.

 Forged or cast fittings are damaged beyond negligible limits.

CORROSION CONTROL

The act or process of dissolving or wearing metal away by a chemical

action is corrosion. It can also be defined as the deterioration of a
metal by reaction to its environment. Most metals are subject to such
deterioration; however, using corrosion-resistant metals and finishes
within the aircraft’s design limits can minimize the reaction. In
airframe structures, this is done by using sheets of aluminum alloy,
which is coated on both sides with pure aluminum (alclad). Internal
structures are generally painted with an organic finish (carbon base).
Cadmium or zinc plating, conversion coating, paint, or all three are
used to protect steel (except most stainless steel), bronze, and
brass.

The paragraphs that follow discuss briefly the need for corrosion
control and the kinds of corrosion. For more detail, see TM
1-1500-344-23.

Need for Corrosion Control. Without protection from corrosion, an

aircraft's capability and operational integrity are endangered. As a
result, tactical and combat service support missions cannot be flown.
Economy is another reason for corrosion control because in severe
cases corrosion can weaken primary structures sufficiently to require
their reinforcement or replacement. Either repair can be costly and
time-consuming. Moreover, aircraft effectiveness is lost.

Common Types of Corrosion. Many ways have been used for

classifying corrosion. For simplicity, corrosion is discussed here
under the titles most generally used.

54 AL0992
 Uniform Etch Effect. Most direct chemical attacks, as by an acid,
produce a uniform etch effect on the surface. This is first noticed on
a polished surface as a general dulling or loss of polish. If the
corrosion is not stopped, the surface becomes rough and possibly
frosted in appearance.

Pitting. On aluminum and magnesium alloys, the usual effect of

corrosion is pitting. A powdery white or gray deposit is the first
sign of pitting corrosion. When the deposit is a removed, shallow pit
or holes can be seen in the surface. Pitting corrosion can occur on
other alloys as well.

Intergranular. Intergranular corrosion occurs at the metal's grain

boundaries. A magnified cross-sectional view of any alloy shows the
metal's granular structure. Each grain has a clearly defined boundary
differing chemically from the metal within the grain center. Adjacent
grains of different elements reach an anode and cathode when in
contact with a conductive medium such as moisture. Under this
condition, rapid selective corrosion at the grain boundary takes
place.

Exfoliation. Exfoliation, a form of intergranular corrosion, shows

itself by lifting a metal's surface grains. The lift is produced by
the force of expanding corrosion products at the grain boundaries just
below the surface. Exfoliation corrosion is generally seen on extruded
sections where grain thickness is usually less than in rolled forms.

Galvanic. Galvanic corrosion occurs when dissimilar metals are in

contact and an external circuit is completed by moisture and
contaminants. The result is a corrosion buildup at the bimetal
juncture.

Concentration Cell. Concentration cell corrosion takes place when

two or more metal surface areas are in contact with different
concentrations of the same solution. In this corrosion, three general
types of concentrations are recognized. They are the metal-ion cells,
oxygen-concentration cells, and active-passive cells.

Stress. Stress corrosion cracking and fatigue corrosion are related

in that the latter is a special case of the former. The simultaneous
effects of tensile stress and corrosion cause
stress corrosion cracking. Stresses can be internal or
applied. Internal stresses are produced by nonuniform deformation
during cold working, unequal cooling from high temperatures,
and press and shrink fits, and application of rivets and bolts. The
combined effects of cyclic stress and corrosion produce
fatigue corrosion. No metal is immune to some reduction of its

55 AL0992
resistance to cyclic stressing if it is in a corrosive environment.

CORROSION INSPECTIONS

At periodic inspections all equipment must be examined for corrosion.

Without such examinations and removal of any corrosion found, an
aircraft can be seriously damaged. Locations to examine include
unpainted aluminum surfaces, skin seams, and lap joints. Nicks and
crevices where traces of cleaning compound may have accumulated and
unexposed areas where moisture can accumulate must also be inspected
for corrosion. Locations where corrosion can form and that require
examination include possibly plugged drain holes, structures under
floorboards, and jointed surfaces.

Fittings, braces, and compound parts inside the aircraft must be

inspected for corrosion because of possibly faulty drainage or
disposal outlets. Inspections for corrosion must be made where
dissimilar metals contact or where spot-welds, piano-type hinges, and
exhaust-gas paths are located. Wheel wells, landing gear, dive brakes,
and similar areas, heavy or tapered aluminum skin surfaces, battery
boxes and components, and relief tube outlets must also be inspected
as possible sites for corrosion.

STRUCTURAL MEMBER STRESSES

An aircraft at rest or in flight is subject to applied forces

throughout its entire structure. At rest, the weight (pull of gravity)
of the wings, fuselage, engines, and empennage causes forces to act
downward on the wing and stabilizer tips, along the spars and
stringers, and on the bulkheads and formers. These forces are passed
from member to member causing bending (tension and compression),
twisting (torsion), compression, and shearing.

The five stresses in an aircraft are tension, compression, shear,

bending, and torsion. The first three of these forces are generally
called the basic stresses, and the last two are called the combination
stresses. Stresses rarely act singly. Their action is usually
combined. In airframe repair, the stresses most frequently encountered
are bending, torsion, and shear. The paragraphs that follow describe
the application of these forces.

Tension. Tension in airframe repair is the force that

stretches a structural member. Notice in Figure 2-1 the
conditions of the metal strap under the applied force. Under tension,
the top of the metal strap is being pulled and
the underneath side is being pushed together (compressive force). Some
of the strap's material was removed by drilling a hole in

56 AL0992
it to receive the bolt. This reduced its cross-sectional area.
Because the load is constant from one end of the strap to the other
and the hole cannot carry any of the load, the stress in the reduced
area is greatly increased per unit area. In other words, besides
carrying its normal share of the load it is also carrying the load
that would have been carried by the removed metal. If the force or
load is increased until the strap breaks, the failure will occur at or
near the hole.

Figure 2-1. Combined-Forces Applied.

A member's strength under tension is determined on the basis of its

gross or total area; however, calculations involving tension must
include the net area of the member. Net area is defined as the gross
area minus that removed by drilling holes or by making other changes
in the section. Putting rivets or bolts in the holes makes little or
no difference in added strength. The rivets or bolts will not transfer
tension force across the holes they are in.

Compression. Compressive stress (compression) in aircraft is the

force per unit area that shortens or compresses a structural member at
any cross section. Under compressive force, an undrilled member is
stronger than an identical member that has holes drilled through it.
However, if a plug of equivalent or stronger material is fitted
tightly into a drilled member it will transfer compressive force
across the hole, and the member can carry approximately as great a
load as if there were no hole. Therefore, with compressive loads, the
gross or total area can be used to determine stress in a member if all
holes are tightly plugged with equivalent or stronger material.

Shear. Shear is the force per unit area that slides

adjacent pieces of material past each other. The term shear is
used because it is sideways stress of the type that is put on a
piece of paper or a sheet of metal when it is cut with a pair of

57 AL0992
shears. For example, if two pieces of metal are bolted or riveted
together and sufficient force is applied to opposite ends, the metal
pieces will shear, cut, the bolt.

Bending. Bending is a combination of two forces. Notice in Figure

2-1 that the bending force produces tension on the top of the strap
and compression on the bottom portion. The combined stresses produce a
shear action at the neutral axis. This occurs because these forces
act in opposite directions and are next to each other at the neutral
axis. Shear action does not take place at the extreme upper and lower
strap surfaces.

Torsion. Torsion in airframe repair is the force that twists a

structural member. The stresses arising from this action are shear
ones. They are caused by adjacent planes rotating past each other and
around a common reference axis at right angles to these planes. As an
example, assume a rod is fixed solidly at one end and is twisted by a
weight placed on a lever arm at the other. This produces the
equivalent of two equal and opposite forces acting on the rod at some
distance from each other. These forces create a shearing action all
along the rod, with the rod's centerline representing the neutral
axis.

GENERAL REPAIR PRACTICES

During repair of any major structural member, the structure must be

firmly supported. The support must enable the work to be completed
without any misalignment or distortion. If special fixtures to support
the aircraft or any of its components are not available, temporary
supports must be made. In addition, repair materials, layout of parts
for repair, rivet replacement, and rivet-hole reuse must be given
careful selection and assessment. The paragraphs that follow discuss
repair material, layout of parts for repair, rivet replacement, and
rivet-hole reuse.

Repair Material Selection. When repairs must be made, the prime

requirement is to duplicate the structure's original strength. To do
this, the repair material must be as strong as that used in the
original. If it is necessary to substitute a weaker alloy than
originally used, a heavier gage metal must be used to secure
equivalent cross-sectional strength. A lighter gage material must
never be used, even when using a stronger alloy. If substituting a
metal becomes necessary, always consult the applicable technical
manual.

Layout of Parts for Repair. Before fitting them into the

aircraft structure, new sections made for repairs must be laid
out to the dimensions given in the applicable TM for that
aircraft. "Laid out" is used here in the sense of being

58 AL0992
measured and marked. When marking, care must be taken to not scratch
the material. Such scratches can weaken the material or possibly
develop into cracks. All marks on aluminum except lines to be cut must
be made with an aircraft marking pencil. Exposed metal parts of a
repair and their contact surfaces must be given a coating of epoxy
polymide primer.

Rivet Selection. In general, the rivet size and alloy in the repair
must be the same as in the original. After reworking an enlarged or
deformed rivet hole, the next larger size rivet must be used. When
such rivets are used, proper edge distance must be maintained. Where
blind rivets must be used in repairs, the applicable manual must be
consulted for the type, size, spacing, and number of blind rivets
needed to replace the original rivets.

Rivet Spacing and Edge Distance. The instructions in the applicable

manual covering rivet patterns for a repair must be followed. As a
general rule, existing rivet patterns are used when possible. However,
rivet spacing is generally between 6 to 8 times the diameter (6D - 8D)
of the rivet shank. The spacing must never be less than 3 times or
more than 10 times the diameter (3D - 10D) of the rivet shank. For
flush head rivets, edge distance must not be less than 2 1/2D and for
all other rivets at least 2D. Edge distance greater than 4D must
never be used.

SUMMARY

The primary objective in aircraft repair is to restore the damaged

part to its original condition. Each damaged part must be studied to
determine if repair or replacement is required. All damage is not
obvious or limited to an immediate location. A thorough assessment of
a damaged area includes inspecting supporting structural members and
adjacent rivets and bolts to see if they have sustained damage also.
The assessment of damage also includes looking for weathering and
corrosion. A white crystalline deposit at loose rivets and bolts,
scratches, dents, and places where moisture can collect is corrosion.

A visual inspection does not reveal the existence or extent of cracks.

Methods used to locate cracks and their extent include ultrasonic
waves, X rays, Zy-glo, and penetrating dye. Because dye does not need
expensive or complicated equipment, it is used in the field. The area
to be dyed must be thoroughly cleaned. The dye is applied by brushing
or swabbing and allowed to penetrate for 3 to 15 minutes. An even coat
of developer is applied and allowed to dry. Defects are indicated in
red and cracks show up as red lines. Scattered, unpatterned dots
indicate porosity. All the materials used in the dye test are
flammable, and prolonged breathing of the fumes is injurious.

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Damages are classified as negligible, repairable by patching,
repairable by insertion, and repairable by replacement. Availability
of repair materials and time can influence the decision to repair or
replace a part.

Corrosion is the process of a metal deteriorating by chemical

reaction. Coating, plating, or painting metals subject to corrosion
minimizes such deterioration. Control of this process is necessary to
protect aircraft operational integrity, limit expenses, and reduce
maintenance manhours. Corrosion classifications are uniform etch
effect, pitting, intergranular, exfoliation, galvanic, concentration
cell, and stress corrosion cracking, and fatigue corrosion.
Inspections for corrosion must be made at all periodic inspections.

The five stresses an aircraft is subject to are tension, compression,

shear, bending, and torsion. The first three are called basic stresses
and the others are called combination stresses. Bending, torsion, and
shear are the most frequently encountered in airframe repair.

The prime requirement in repair material selection is to duplicate the

structure's original strength. Caution must be used if alloys must be
substituted, and the applicable technical manual must be consulted.
New sections for repair or replacement must be made to the dimensions
given in the appropriate technical manual. In addition, material must
be marked with an aircraft marking pencil to prevent harmful scratches
being made on the metal.

In general, the rivet size and alloy used in the repair must be the
same as the original. For reworked enlarged or deformed rivet holes
the next size rivet must be used. If blind rivets are used, the
applicable technical manual must be consulted for type, size, number,
spacing, and edge distance.

PART C: STRESSED SKIN REPAIRS

GENERAL

Skin patches are divided into two general types: the lap and flush
patches. A lap patch is externally applied and has its edges
overlapping the skin. The patch's overlapping portions are riveted to
the skin. This kind of patch is permitted in certain areas on some
aircraft, but only where aerodynamic smoothness is unimportant. The
flush patch, shown in Figure 2-2, is inserted into the repaired area
and is riveted to a reinforcement plate (doubler) that in turn is
riveted to the inside of the skin.

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 Figure 2-2. Flush Patch Repair of a Small Hole.

Accessibility to the damaged area and procedures outlined in

the appropriate technical manual determine how damaged skin is
to be repaired. Most of an aircraft's skin is inaccessible from
the inside for making repairs. This skin is designated closed
skin. Where aerodynamic smoothness is not required, this skin
can be repaired conventionally, using specified standard rivets.

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In general, however, closed-skin repairs require some kind of special
fastener. The exact fastener depends on the kind of repair and the
manufacturer's recommendation. This section discusses stress
intensity, patching procedures, repairs on watertight and pressurized
areas, flush access doors, and skin replacement.

STRESS INTENSITY

An important part of making a skin repair is the amount of stress

intensity (strength) to be restored to the damaged panel. For example,
some skin areas are designated as highly critical, other areas as
semicritical, and still others as noncritical. Damage repairs to
highly critical areas must restore 100 percent of original strength;
semicritical areas must have 80 percent restoration of original
strength; and noncritical areas need 60 percent restoration of
original strength. To determine the requirements for making stressed-
skin repairs, the applicable technical manual for the particular
aircraft must be consulted and its instructions followed.

PATCHING PROCEDURES

By comparison, lap patching appears to be less complex than flush

patching. However, all patch repairs must be made with careful
attention to detail, and the technical manual appropriate to the
aircraft must be consulted. The paragraphs that follow describe some
details in both patching procedures.

Lap Patches. Lap patches can be used at authorized locations to

repair cracks and small holes (Figure 2-3). When repairing cracks,
always drill a small hole at each end of the crack with two stop
holes, one at each end. To drill the holes use a Number 40 drill.
These holes are important because they stop the crack from spreading.
The patch size must be large enough to take the required number of
rivets. The number is determined from the rivet schedule indicated for
the gage of the material in the damaged area. The recommended patch
can be cut in on a circular, square, rectangular or diamond shape.
Patch edges must be chamfered, beveled, to an angle of 45.

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 Figure 2-3. Lap Patch for a Crack.

Flush Patches. Flush patches in locations free of internal

structures are relatively easy to install. This is especially true
where there is an access door or plate through which rivets can be
bucked. In inaccessible areas, the flush patch can be used by
substituting blind rivets for standard rivets, where permitted.
However, ways of inserting the doubler through the opening must be
devised. A doubler is the piece of material used to back up, double,
or strengthen the filler patch. One such method is illustrated in
Figure 2-2. The doubler has been split. To insert the doubler, slip
one edge under the skin and turn the doubler until it slides into
place under the skin. Notice in the figure that a screw has been
installed temporarily as a handle to help insert the doubler. This
type of patch is generally recommended for holes up to 1 1/2 inches in
diameter. Usually holes larger than 1 1/2 inches are trimmed to a
rectangular or square shape. All corners must be rounded to at least a
1/2-inch radius. Figure 2-4 shows such rounded corners. In all flush
patches the filler must be of the same gage and material as the
original skin. Generally, the doubler must be of material one gage
heavier than the skin. Figure 2-5 shows a flush patch over an internal
structure.

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Figure 2-4. Rectangular Flush Patch.

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 Figure 2-5. Internal Structure Flush Patch.

SEALING WATERTIGHT AND PRESSURIZED AREAS

Repairs on hulls and floats must be watertight, and repairs

to pressurized compartments must be sealed against pressure
loss. The same sealing method used by the manufacturer must be
used whenever possible. A recommended method is to clean all
contact surfaces with approved naphtha. In addition, ensure
that all burs, chips, and foreign materials are removed. Apply
zinc-chromate sealing tape to both surfaces, and peel off the
cloth backing strip. Brush on a coating of zinc-chromate paste,
and draw the mating surfaces together with machine screws and

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nuts. Drive each rivet successively as a screw and nut is taken out,
and removes any excess sealing compound.

FLUSH ACCESS DOOR

Sometimes installing flush access doors is permitted as the easiest

and most efficient way to repair internal structures or certain skin
areas. Notice in Figure 2-6 that the installation consists of a
doubler and a stressed-access cover plate. Nut plates, in a single
row, are riveted to the doubler; and the doubler is then riveted to
the skin with two rows of rivets, staggered, as shown in Figure 2-6.
The cover plate is attached to the nut plates on the doubler with
machine screws to permit easy plate removal.

Figure 2-6. Flush Access Door Installation.

SKIN REPLACEMENT

Damage to an aircraft's skin is sometimes so extensive that an

entire panel must be replaced. Also, a section or area of skin
may have such a number of patches or minor repairs that a panel
may have to be replaced. In either case, the first step, as
in all other repairs, is to thoroughly inspect the damaged
area to determine the full extent of the damage. This includes

66 AL0992
inspecting internal structures for damage or signs of strain. These
members must be repaired or replaced if they are bent, fractured, or
wrinkled. All rivets in the vicinity of such members must be inspected
for signs of failure. They can be sheared without such a condition
being externally evident. Under such circumstances, rivets at various
points in the damaged area must be drilled out and examined. For this
procedure the applicable TM for the particular aircraft must be
consulted.

The paragraphs that follow discuss these aspects of skin replacement

and the mechanics and techniques in measuring, cutting, and aligning
new metal sheets, drilling new rivet holes, and bucking rivets.

Measuring, Cutting, and Aligning. In removing a panel, care must

be taken to avoid further skin damage because frequently the old skin
can be used as a template for the new skin. The gage and alloy of
material to replace the panel is shown in the applicable manual for
the specific aircraft. The size of the panel can be determined in
either of two ways. The dimensions can be measured during the
inspection, or the old skin can be used as a template for the layout
of the new sheet of skin and the location of the holes. Because the
latter method is more accurate, it is the preferred one. Whichever
method is used, the new sheet must be large enough to replace the
damaged area; and it can be cut with an allowance of 1 to 2 inches of
material outside the rivet holes.

If the old sheet is not too badly damaged, it must be flattened out
and can be used as a template. The new sheet, cut 1 to 2 inches larger
than the old, is drilled near the center using the holes in the old
sheet as a guide. The two sheets are then fastened together with sheet
metal fasteners. Sheet metal screws are not recommended because they
damage the edges of the rivet holes. Drilling must always start at the
center and work to the outside of the sheet with sheeting metal
fasteners inserted at frequent intervals.

If the old sheet cannot be used as a template, the holes in the new
sheet must be drilled from the inside of the structure. The holes in
the reinforcing members are used as guides for the drilling. Fasteners
are inserted in the same manner as described before; this technique is
called back drilling. Before the new sheet is placed on the framework
to drill the holes, the reinforcing members must be in proper
alignment and flush at the points where they intersect. Therefore, the
new sheet must have the same contour as the old sheet.

67 AL0992
 Drilling New Rivet Holes. Much care must be taken in duplicating
holes from reinforcing members, or the frame and skin can be ruined.
Such care is necessary because most ribs, stringers, and bulkheads
depend on the skin for some of their rigidity and they can be forced
out of alignment during drilling. The pressure from drilling forces
the skin away from the frame and causes the holes to be out of
alignment. This can be prevented by holding a block of wood firmly
against the skin while drilling. Also the drill must be held at a 90
angle to the skin during drilling or the holes will be out-of-round. A
smaller pilot drill must be used first when drilling through anchor
nuts. Care must be taken to avoid damaging the anchor nut threads. The
pilot holes are then enlarged to the proper size.

Marking New Holes. An angle attachment or flexible-shaft drill may

be necessary where a straight drill cannot be inserted. If neither of
these drills can be used, mark the new section with a soft pencil
through the holes in the old section. Another method for marking new
hole locations is with a transfer or prick punch, shown in Figure 2-7.
Center the punch in the old hole and then hammer lightly on the
outside of the sheet with a mallet. The resulting mark can be used to
locate the hole in the new sheet.

Another way to locate the rivet holes without a template is to use

a hole finder similar to the one shown in Figure 2-8. This device
makes a perfect alignment with the holes in the old section possible
while drilling holes in the new section of skin. The hole finder
illustrated is made in two sections, an upper and a lower part, bolted
together at one end. A guide rivet, at the free end of the bottom
section of the hole finder, drops into the old holes in the sheet
still in place. The free end of the hole finder's top section has a
hole that exactly matches the position of the guide rivet. The new
hole is drilled through this opening. As the hole finder is moved
along, the guide rivet drops into an old hole and automatically
determines the new hole's location.

Figure 2-7. Transfer Punch.

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 Figure 2-8. Hole Finder.

Removing Burrs. The temporary fasteners are taken out and the
sheet is removed from the framework after all the holes are drilled.
Burrs left by drilling must be removed from both sides of all holes in
the skin, stringers, and rib flanges. Deburring can be done with a few
light turns of a countersink drill. If the burrs are not removed, the
joint may be tight; and the rivets can expand, or flash, between the
parts being riveted.

Bucking Bar. Selecting and using a bucking bar of the correct type
and weight is important to a successful riveting job. For example, a
bucking bar for 1/8-inch rivets must weigh at least 2 pounds. Larger
rivets require proportionately heavier bucking bars. A light bar
requires too many blows to complete the riveting, and the blows tend
to deform the rivet head.

A straight bar is preferred because its weight can be applied

directly in line with the rivet's shank. If flanges on ribs or
stringers do not permit using a straight bar, one that allows
straight-line pressure must be used. Figure 2-9 shows two such bars,
(A and B). The bar at (C) or a similar bar can, at best, only create
more damage.

69 AL0992
 Figure 2-9. Correct and Incorrect Bucking Bars.

SUMMARY

Skin patches are divided into two types. The first, a lap patch, is
applied externally with its edges overlapping the skin. This patch is
used only where an aerodynamic surface is not needed. Flush patches,
the second type, are inserted into the damaged area and riveted to a
doubler that is riveted to the skin. Damaged-area accessibility and
directions in the technical manual applicable to the aircraft
determine the kind of patch to use. Most of an aircraft's skin is
inaccessible from the inside, and such skin is designated as closed
skin. That accessible from both sides is open skin.

An important aspect of making skin repairs is the amount of stress

intensity (strength) to be restored. Repairs must restore highly
critical areas to 100 percent, semicritical areas to 80 percent, and
noncritical areas to 60 percent of original strength. For stressed-
skin repairs, the applicable technical manual must be consulted and
followed.

Lap patches are used at authorized locations to repair cracks

and small holes. To repair cracks, a small hole is drilled
at both ends of the crack to stop the crack from spreading.
Patch sizes must be large enough to take the number of
rivets prescribed in the applicable manual. Flush plates
are relatively easy to install in locations free of internal
structures. In inaccessible areas, blind rivets are substituted
for standard ones. With these patches the doubler is usually

70 AL0992
split and inserted or rotated into position. In flush patches, the
filler must be of the same gage and material as the original skin, and
the doubler generally must be one gage heavier.

Repairs on hulls and floats must be watertight, and pressurized

compartment repairs must be sealed against pressure loss. Whenever
possible, the manufacturer's sealing method must be used. A
recommended method includes cleaning contact surfaces, removing any
burrs and chips, using zinc-chromate tape and paste, and bringing the
mating surfaces together with machine screws and nuts to complete the
seal.

Installing flush access doors is an easy and efficient way to repair

internal structures and some skin areas. Such doors consist of a
doubler and a stressed access coverplate. The doubler is riveted to
the skin, and the plate is attached to the doubler with nut plates and
machine screws.

The number of patches or repairs can be so numerous or the skin damage

so extensive that panel replacement is required. Inspecting such areas
includes a careful examination of internal structures. Bent,
fractured, or wrinkled members must be repaired or replaced. Rivets in
the vicinity must be inspected for failure. The technical manual for
the particular aircraft must be consulted to determine the rivet
inspection procedure.

The gage and alloy for the replacement panel is shown in the
applicable manual for the specific aircraft. Either of two ways can be
used to determine the new panel's size. Dimensions can be measured
during inspection, or the old skin can be used as a template. The
latter method is more accurate and is preferred. The new sheet is
drilled near the center using the holes in the old sheet as a guide.
The two sheets are held together with sheet metal fasteners as the
holes are drilled outward from the center. Lacking a template the
holes in the reinforcing members are used as guides to drill the new
holes. Sheet metal fasteners are used here as with a template. Because
most ribs, stringers, and bulkheads depend on the skin for some of
their rigidity, duplicating holes from the frame or reinforcing
members must be done with care. Drilling pressure can force the skin
away from the frame and make the holes out of alignment. A wood block
held firmly against the skin while drilling can prevent this. Unless
the drill is held at a 90 angle, the holes will be out-of-round.
Where a straight drill cannot be inserted, an angle attachment or
flexible-shaft drill is necessary. New hole locations can be marked
with a soft pencil, a prick punch, or a hole finder.

71 AL0992
A straight bucking bar is preferred because its weight can be applied
in a direct line with the rivet's shaft. Where internal structural
members prevent using a straight bar, one allowing straightline
pressure must be used.

PART D: INTERNAL STRUCTURE REPAIR

GENERAL

Contour (shape), rigidity, and strength for the semimonocoque fuselage

are derived, for the most part, from its internal structural members.
From time to time these members need repairs. This section describes
some typical repairs for internal structural members. However, the
appropriate technical manual for the particular aircraft must be
consulted. What may be a simple repair on one aircraft can require
special techniques and tools on another. The paragraphs that follow
discuss repairs for stringers and longerons, spars and ribs, formers
and bulkheads, and leading and trailing edges.

STRINGER REPAIR

Made from extruded or rolled metal alloy, stringers are generally in

the form of C-channel, angle, or hat-shaped sections. Figure 2-10
shows one method of repairing a damaged stringer by patching. The
repair elements consist of reinforcement and filler splices and
rivets. The reinforcement splice must extend a minimum of four rivets
plus edge distance on each side of the damaged area. The reinforcement
splice's cross-sectional area and strength must be equal to or greater
than the stringer's. The damage must be trimmed to a smooth contour
with corner radii, and a filler patch of proper thickness and matching
shape must be prepared. If possible, maintain the original rivet
pattern in the repair. Having both ends of the trimmed damage lie
midway between two rivets can do this. Cut the filler splice 1/32
inch shorter in length than the trimmed out section. This allows a
1/64-inch clearance between each end of the filler splice and the stub
ends of the stringer. This clearance prevents stress from developing
through contact between the filler splice and the stub ends.

72 AL0992
 Figure 2-10. Patch Repair of Stringer (For
Damage Less Than Two-Thirds of One Leg Width).

The repair just described is permissible when the damage does not
exceed two-thirds of the width of one leg of the stringer and is not
over 12 inches in length. When damage is greater than two-thirds of
the leg width, use the method shown in Figure 2-11. A repair by
insertion, shown in Figures 2-12 and 2-13, is required if the damage
is so long that an unusual amount of material and work is required.

73 AL0992
Figure 2-11. Patch Repair for Stringer (For Damage
Greater Than Two-Thirds of One Leg Width).

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Figure 2-12. Insertion Repair (For One Stringer).

75 AL0992
Figure 2-13. Insertion Repair (For More
Than One Stringer).

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LONGERON REPAIR

Generally, longerons are comparatively heavy members that do

approximately the same work as stringers. The repair methods for
longerons are somewhat similar; however, because of their weight,
heavier rivets must be used in repairing longerons. Sometimes bolts
are used in place of rivets; but it takes more time to install bolts,
and greater accuracy in fit is required. For example, if bolts are
used, the bolt holes must be drilled for a light drive fit. That is,
the bolt must fit the hole tightly enough to require light hammering
to be seated in the hole. For these reasons, bolts are not as suitable
as rivets. If the longeron consists of a formed section and an
extruded angle section, regard each section as separate. Make the
repair using the same procedures as for stringers; however, keep the
rivet spacing (pitch) between four and six rivet diameters.

SPAR REPAIR

The main spanwise members of the wings, stabilizers, and other

airfoils are spars, sometimes called beams. They can extend the
airfoil's entire length or only a portion of the length. Spars are
designed primarily to take the bending loads on wings or other
airfoils.

Figure 2-14 shows spar repair by insertion. The spar consists of

extruded capstrips, a sheet metal web or plate, and vertical angle
stiffeners or reinforcements. Repairs on spars may not be permitted
because they are such highly stressed members. The repair, if it is
permitted, must be of the highest quality workmanship and in strict
conformity with the instructions in the applicable technical manual.

77 AL0992
Figure 2-14. Insertion Repair for a Spar.

78 AL0992
RIB REPAIR

The principal chordwise structural members in wings, stabilizers, and

other airfoils are the ribs. They are the formers for airfoils, giving
them shape and rigidity and transmitting stresses from the skin to the
spars. Ribs are designed to resist compression and shear loads and
come in three general types: reinforced, truss, and former. Reinforced
and truss ribs are relatively heavy compared to former ribs, and they
are used only at points of great stress. Former ribs are located at
frequent intervals throughout the airfoil. Rib repair by patching and
insertion is shown in Figures 2-15 and 2-16, respectively. Former ribs
are made of formed sheet metal and are very lightweight. The bent-over
portion of a former rib, shown in Figures 2-15 and 2-16, is the rib's
flange. The vertical portion, generally made with lightening holes, is
the web. Lightening holes lessen the rib's weight without loss of
strength.

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Figure 2-15. Rib Repair by Patching.

80 AL0992
 Figure 2-16. Rib Repair by Insertion.

FORMER OR BULKHEAD REPAIR

The oval-shaped members of the fuselage are bulkheads. These members

give form to the fuselage and maintain the shape of its
structure. Formers or bulkheads are often called forming rings,

81 AL0992
body frames, belt frames, and similar names. Their purpose is to
carry concentrated stress loads.

Bulkhead damages are classified in the same manner as other damages.

Specifications for each type of damage are given in the applicable
manual for the aircraft. Bulkheads are identified with station numbers
for ease in locating the damage area. The paragraphs that follow
discuss repair categories and sheet metal stock strength.

Repair Categories. Repairs to these members are generally placed in

one of two categories: one-third or less of the cross-sectional area
damaged or more than one-third of the cross-sectional area damaged. A
patch plate, reinforcing angle, or both may be used if one-third or
less of the cross-sectional area is damaged. First, clean out (trim)
the damage and consult the applicable technical manual for details on
how many rivets to use to establish the patch plate size. For the
length of the break, use the depth of the cutout area plus the length
of the flange.

If more than one-third of the cross-sectional area is damaged,

remove the entire section and make a splice repair. Consult the
applicable technical manual for details on the splice repair and the
number of rivets required. When removing the damaged section, be
careful not to damage electric lines, plumbing, instruments, and so
forth. Use a hand or rotary file, snips, or a drill to remove larger
damages. To remove a complete section, use a hacksaw, key hole saw,
drill, or snips.

Sheet Stock Strength. Most repairs to bulkheads are made from flat
sheet stock if repair parts are not available. When fabricating the
repair from flat sheet, remember that the substitute material must
have cross-sectional tensile, compressive, shear, and bearing strength
equal to the original material. Never substitute material that is
thinner or has a cross-sectional area less than the original material.
Curved repair parts made from flat sheet stock must be in an annealed
condition before forming and then must be heat-treated before
installation.

LEADING EDGE REPAIR

Usually several structural parts are involved in leading

edge damages. Flying object damage generally involves the nose
skin, nose ribs, stringers, and possibly the cap strip.
Damage involving all of these members will require installing
an access door to make the repair possible. First, the
damaged area must be removed and repair procedures established. Such a
repair will need insertions and splice pieces, and it may require

82 AL0992
repairing the cap strip and stringer and making a new nose rib and a
skin panel. When repairing a leading edge, use only the procedures
prescribed in the applicable manual.

TRAILING EDGE REPAIR

The rearmost part of an airfoil is the trailing edge. It is usually a

metal strip that forms or shapes the edge by tying the ends of a rib
section together and joining the upper and lower skins. Though not
structural members, trailing edges are highly stressed and from time
to time require repair. The paragraphs that follow discuss kinds of
damage and damage inspection and location.

Trailing Edge Damage. A trailing edge's damage may be limited to

one point or extended over the length between two or more rib
sections. In addition to damage from collision or careless handling,
trailing edges are particularly subject to corrosion from collected or
trapped moisture.

Damage Inspection. Thoroughly inspect the damaged area before

starting repairs; and determine the extent of damage, the type of
repair needed, and the way the repair should be made. When repairing
trailing edges, the repaired area must have the same contour and be
the same material with the same composition and temper as the original
section.

Repairs Between Ribs. Damage occurring in the trailing edge

section between the ribs can be repaired as shown in Figure 2-17. Cut
out the damage area and make a filler of either fiber or cast aluminum
alloy to fit snugly inside the trailing edge. Then make an insert
piece of the same material as the damaged section, and shape it to
match the trailing edge. Assemble the pieces as shown and rivet them
into place. Use countersunk rivets, and form countersunk shop heads to
get a smoother contour.

Figure 2-17. Trailing Edge Repair Between Ribs.

83 AL0992
 Repair Near a Rib. To repair damage occurring at or near a rib,
first remove sufficient trailing edge material to allow a complete
splice to fall between the ribs. This usually requires two splices
joined by an insert piece of similar trailing edge material or of
formed sheet stock. The repair is similar to that for damage between
ribs. Figure 2-18 illustrates a trailing edge repair at a rib.

Figure 2-18. Trailing Edge Repair Near a Rib.

SUMMARY

The element for stringer repair consists of reinforcement and filler

splices and rivets. Reinforcement splices must extend at four times
the width of the stringer leg on each side of the damaged area. A
reinforcement splice's cross-sectional area strength must equal or
exceed the stringers. Damage must be trimmed to a smooth contour and
corner radii. The filler patch must be of proper thickness, shape, and
1/32 inch shorter in length than the trimmed out section. This allows
1/64-inch clearance between the stringer stub ends and the filler
splice ends to prevent stress development between the ends. When
possible, maintain the original rivet pattern in the repair. This is
achieved by having the trimmed-out area lie midway between two rivets.
This repair is authorized only when the damage does not exceed two-
thirds of the width of one leg of the stringer and is not longer than
12 inches. If the damage is greater than two-thirds of the leg width,
the repair method shown in Figure 2-11 must be used.

Longeron repair is somewhat similar to stringer repair; however,

heavier rivets or bolts are used because of the longeron's greater
weight. If bolts are used, bolt holes must be drilled for a light-
drive fit. Rivet spacing on longeron repairs must be kept between
four and six rivet diameters.

84 AL0992
Repair on spars may not be permitted because spars are highly stressed
members. If the repair is permitted, the workmanship must be of the
highest quality and conform to applicable technical manual
instructions. Patching and insertion make rib repairs. The bent over
position of a rib's flange and the vertical portion is the web.

Specifications for each type of bulkhead damage are given in the

applicable manual for the aircraft. Repair categories for bulkhead
damages are one-third or less of the cross-sectional area or more than
one-third of the cross sectional area damaged. If one-third or less of
the cross-sectional area is damaged, a patch plate, reinforcing angle,
or both many be used. Details on the required number of rivets can be
obtained from the applicable technical manual. For damage greater than
one-third the area's cross section, remove the entire section and make
a splice repair. For details on the kind of splice and the number of
rivets, consult the applicable technical manual.

When repairs are made from flat sheet stock, its cross-sectional
tensile, compressive, shear, and bearing strength must be equal to or
greater than the original material. Curved repair parts made from the
flat sheet stock must be in an annealed state before forming and heat-
treated before installation.

Leading edge damage generally involves nose skin, nose ribs,

stringers, and possibly the cap strip. In such a case, an access door
is required to make the repair possible. Such a repair requires
installing insertions and splice pieces; making repairs to the cap
strip and stringer; and if the damage is severe, installing a new nose
rib and skin panel. Leading edge repairs must be made as prescribed in
the applicable manual.

Although trailing edges are not structural members, they are highly
stressed, and their damage can be limited to one point or extended
over the length between two or more rib sections. In addition to
collision or careless handling, trailing edges are subject to
corrosion from moisture.

Damage between ribs of the trailing edge is repaired with filler and
an insert. Fillers are made of hardwood, fiber, or cast aluminum
alloy. Inserts are made of the same material as the damaged section
and shaped to match the trailing edge. To secure the repairs, use
countersunk rivets and countersink the shop heads for smooth contour.
Damage at or near a rib is repaired in much the same way. Sufficient
material must be removed for a complete splice between ribs.
Generally, this takes two splices joined by an insert made of the same
kind of material as the trailing edge or of formed sheet stock.

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PART E: STRUCTURAL SEALING

GENERAL

This section discusses the three kinds of sealants in general use in

Army aviation and sealant repair. The information in this section is
important because some areas of an airframe structure are sealed
compartments used for fuel tanks and others are for crew and passenger
use. Fuel tank compartments are tightly sealed to keep fuel vapors
from coming into the aircraft's interior. Crew and passenger
compartments are sealed tightly to permit controlled ventilation.
Because it is not possible to seal these areas tightly enough with
only a riveted joint, a sealing compound is used. Sealants are also
used to add aerodynamic smoothness to such exposed surfaces as seams
and joints in the fuselage and wings.

KINDS OF SEALANTS

Rubber, sealing compound, and special seals are the three kinds of
sealants generally used in Army aviation. The applicable technical
manual for the aircraft being worked on must be consulted for details
on sealer application. The paragraphs that follow describe each kind.

Rubber Seals. Rubber seals are used at all points where the seal is
broken frequently for necessary repairs. Examples of such locations
are canopies and access doors. Because the seal must be continuous
around the joint, it cannot be repaired. Therefore, anytime a rubber
seal is damaged or broken for repairs, it must be replaced.

Sealing Compounds. Sealing compounds are used at points where the

seal is seldom broken except for structural maintenance or part
replacement, as with riveted lap and butt seams and joints. They can
also be used to fill gaps or holes up to 1/16 inch in width.

Special Seals. Special seals are required to pass cables, tubing,

mechanical linkages, and wires into and out of sealed areas. Wires and
tubing are passed through sealed-area bulkheads by using such bulkhead
fittings as cannon plugs for wiring and couplings for tubing. These
fittings are sealed to the bulkhead, and the wires and tubes are
fastened to them from each side. All seals of moving components, such
as flight controls, are subject to wear. Therefore, care must be taken
when they are installed, and they must be inspected regularly.

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SEALANT REPAIR
All surfaces that are to be sealed must be thoroughly cleaned to
ensure maximum adhesion between the surface and the sealant. Only
approved strippers, cleaners, and sealants can be used; and, even
though approved, the stripper compound must be used with care. Details
on cleaning and the sealant to be used can be found in the technical
manual applicable to the aircraft. The paragraphs that follow give
general information on cleaning techniques, safety practices,
application, and curing.

Cleaning Techniques. Loose foreign material can be removed by

using a vacuum cleaner on the area to be resealed. The old sealant can
be scraped from the repair area with a sharp plastic, phenolic, or
hardwood block. Care must be taken not to make any scratches. A
stripper and cleaner are used next to remove all the old sealant.
Cleaners in general use are aliphatic naphtha, ethyl acetate, or
lacquer thinner. The naphtha can be used satisfactorily by dipping a
clean cloth or brush into the naphtha and then scrubbing the surface.
After using aliphatic naphtha, a clean cloth must be used to wipe
metal surfaces dry. The cleaner must not be allowed to dry on a metal
surface. The surface can be checked for cleanness by pouring clean
water over it, after it has been wiped dry of the cleaner. If the
surface is not free of an oily film, the water will separate into
small droplets.

Safety Practices. In addition to protecting undamaged sealants and

acrylic plastic from the stripper compound, users must practice
personal safety. For example, if artificial lighting is used when a
repair is being made, the light must be explosion proof. Clothing that
prevents these chemicals from touching the skin and goggles to protect
the eyes must be worn. Ventilation to dissipate fumes must be ensured,
and no smoking regulations must be enforced.

Sealant Application. Rubber seals must be applied, or installed,

immediately after the seal frame is cleaned. A clean paint-brush can
be used to apply an even coat of rubber cement upon the metal parts
and the seal surfaces to be joined. If the cement needs thinning,
apliphatic naphtha can be used. The cement must be allowed to dry
until it becomes quite sticky before joining the seal to the metal.
The seal is joined to the metal by pressing it firmly along all
contact points. Next, the seal retainers are installed, and the seal
is allowed to set for 24 hours before using. Toluene, or an approved
solvent, can be used to clean the brushes used to apply the cement.

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Sealing compounds are applied only when the contacting surfaces are
clean. The compound must be spread from the tube by using a continuous
forward movement to the pressure side of the joint. The compound is
spread 3 inches beyond each end of the repair area. If the compound is
in bulk form it is applied with a pressure gun.

Curing. Two layers or coats of compound are frequently required.

If two coats are needed, the first coat must be allowed to cure before
the second is applied. The compound must cure until it becomes tough
and rubbery before the surfaces are joined. Curing time varies with
temperature. High temperatures shorten and low temperatures lengthen
curing time. Artificial heat can be used to speed curing, but care
must be used to avoid damaging the sealant with too high a
temperature. Warm circulating air, not over 120 F (49 C), or infrared
lamps placed 18 inches or more from the sealants are satisfactory heat
sources. If infrared lamps are used, adequate ventilation must be
available to carry away solvent fumes.

SUMMARY

Some areas of airframe structures are sealed to prevent fuel fumes

from entering the aircraft's interior. Pilot and crew compartments are
tightly sealed to permit controlled ventilation. The three kinds of
sealers in general use are rubber, sealing compound, and special
seals. Rubber seals are used when the seal is frequently broken for
repairs. Rubber seals are not repairable, and they must be replaced
anytime the seal is damaged. Sealing compounds are used where the seal
is seldom broken except for structural maintenance or part
replacement. Special seals are used to pass cables, tubing, mechanical
linkages, and wires into and out of sealed areas. Cannon plugs,
couplings, and similar fittings are sealed to the bulkheads. All seals
of moving components are subject to wear and must be inspected
regularly.

Surfaces to be sealed must be clean, and only approved strippers and

cleaners can be used. Cleaning techniques include using a vacuum
cleaner to pick up loose dirt, a stripper to remove the old seal, and
an approved solvent to scrub the repair area. Safety practices range
from protecting undamaged sealants and acrylic plastics from the
stripper to wearing protective clothing and goggles and using
explosive-proof lighting.

Rubber seals must be applied immediately after a seal frame is

cleaned. A clean paint-brush can be used to apply an even
coat of rubber cement. Rubber cement must be allowed to dry
to a sticky consistency before joining the seal to the metal. Sealing
compound can be applied directly from a tube or, if it

88 AL0992
is in bulk form, from a pressure gun. A sealing compound application
overlaps each end of the repair area by 3 inches. The compound must be
allowed to cure to a tough, rubbery consistency before joining the
surfaces to be sealed. High temperatures, not more than 120 F, speed
curing. Infrared lamps can be used if adequate ventilation is
available to dispel the solvent fumes.

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 LESSON 2
PRACTICE EXERCISE

The following items will test your grasp of the material covered in
this lesson. There is only one correct answer for each item. When you
complete the exercise, check the answer with the answer key that
follows. If you answer any item incorrectly, study again that part of
the lesson, which contains the portion involved.

1. What are the criteria for making a worthwhile airframe repair?

______A. Original strength and contour.

______B. Original strength, contour, and minimum weight.
______C. Original contour and minimum weight.
______D. Original strength, contour, and correct patch.

2. The general spacing for rivets is--

______A. 3 to 10 rivet diameters.

______B. 4 to 6 rivet diameters.
______C. 4 to 10 rivet diameters.
______D. 6 to 8 rivet diameters.

3. Of the basic principles of repair, which is the most important?

______A. Strength.
______B. Contour.
______C. Minimum weight.
______D. Correct patch.

4. How many classifications of damage are there?

______A. Two.
______B. Three.
______C. Four.
______D. Five.

5. When dissimilar metals make contact, the type corrosion that can
develop is called--

______A. galvanic.
______B. intergranular.
______C. stress.
______D. pitting.

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6. What type corrosion is present when you can see the lifting of
the metal's surface grain?

______A. Exfoliation.
______B. Intergranular.
______C. Metal-ion.
______D. Stress.

7. Which type of stress is called a combination of stresses?

______A. Compression.
______B. Shear.
______C. Tension.
______D. Torsion.

8. When a rivet is cut into, the stress applied is called--

______A. bending.
______B. compression.
______C. shear.
______D. torsion.

9. What percentage of strength must be returned to a noncritical

area when patching?

______A. 50.
______B. 60.
______C. 65.
______D. 70.

10. What drill size should you use when stop drilling a crack?

______A. #11.
______B. #21.
______C. #30.
______D. #40.

11. To what angle must you chamfer a patch edge?

______A. 20.
______B. 30.
______C. 45°.
______D. 55°.

12. What is the correct thickness for a patch doubler?

______A. One gage thicker than the skin.

______B. The same thickness as the skin.
______C. One gage lighter than the skin.
______D. .050 inch thick.

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13. What is the technique called when the holes on a new sheet of
metal are drilled from inside the structure?

______A. Hole finding.

______B. Templating.
______C. Pilot drilling.
______D. Back drilling.

14. Which type of sealant should you use on an area where the seal is
seldom broken?

______A. Rubber.
______B. Sealing compound.
______C. Special seals.
______D. Metal seals.

15. How many degrees Fahrenheit should you apply to help speed up the
curing of sealants?

______A. No more than 120.

______B. 140.
______C. 150.
______D. 160.

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 LESSON 2

PRACTICE EXERCISE

ANSWER KEY AND FEEDBACK

Item Correct Answer and Feedback

1. B. Original strength, contour, and minimum weight.

The three basic principles of repair are essential for a good

sound repair job. (Page 48)

2. D. 6 to 8 rivet diameters.

6 to 8 rivet diameters will insure that you have a strong

repair. (Page 59)

3. A. Strength.

Without maintaining the original strength, all other

principles mean nothing. (Page 58)

4. C. Four.

Negligible, patching, insertion and replacement are the four

classifications of damage. (Page 53)

5. A. galvanic.

The more dissimilar the metals, the quicker and more severe
this type corrosion will be. (Page 55)

6. A. Exfoliation.

When you are able to see exfoliation corrosion, you must

repair or replace the part. This type corrosion is beyond
simple treatment. (Page 55)

7. D. Torsion.

Torsion is a twisting which combines both compression and

tension. (Page 56)

8. C. shear.

Two sheets of metal will shear a rivet like a piece of metal

being cut with a foot shear. (Page 58)

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9. B. 60.

Noncritical repairs are satisfactory if they have 60 percent

of the original strength restored. (Page 62)

10. D. #40.

Using the proper size drill will ensure that the hole stops
the crack from getting larger. (Page 62)

11. C. 45.

Chamfering or bending the edge of a patch helps to keep

moisture from getting under the patch to cause corrosion.
(Page 62)

12. A. One gage thicker than the skin.

Original strength is the most important repair principle.

One gage thicker than the skin helps to do this. (Page 63)

13. D. Back drilling.

If the old sheet is too damaged to be used as a template,

then back drilling may be the only way left to drill the
holes to align with the original holes. (Page 67)

14. B. Sealing compound.

Sealing compounds are pliable rubber seals. Rubber seals are

used as gaskets whereas sealing compounds are used as
coatings. (Page 86)

15. A. No more than 120.

If a sealant is cured at too high a temperature, it can

develop air bubbles or cure unevenly. (Page 88)

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