CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

The Philippines, projected to generate approximately 7.4 million tons of mismanaged plastic

waste in 2025, remains one of the world’s top contributors to plastic pollution—ranked third

globally according to models that consider coastal population, waste generation, and

management inefficiencies (Jambeck et al., 2015). This pressing concern creates a demand for

practical and sustainable approaches to address the growing plastic waste problem. Pyrolysis, an

oxygen-free process, offers a promising approach by converting waste plastics into usable fuels

(Mangesh et al., 2023). Studies have shown that HDPE and LDPE yield more fuel compared to

PET (Gebre et al., 2021), while the use of catalysts such as zeolites can further enhance both fuel

quality and quantity (Miskolczi et al., 2021). However, small-scale pyrolysis, though capable of

producing fuel, still raises questions about its usability for burning or transportation (Toval et al.,

2024). Despite existing research, there remains limited investigation into which plastic type—

HDPE, LDPE, or PET—can produce the highest fuel yield and best quality using only small-

scale pyrolysis without additives. This study aims to determine which of these plastics can

generate the largest amount and most effective quality of fuel, as well as assess the fuel’s

performance based on combustion rate and heat index.

Statement of the Problem

This study aimed to determine the effectiveness of converting HDPE, LDPE and PET plastic

waste into usable fuel through small-scale pyrolysis using 5kg plastic waste.

Specifically, it seeks to answer the following questions:

1. What is the amount of fuel produced by,

1.1 PET in terms of KEROSENE, GASOLINE, DIESEL

1.2 LDPE, in terms of KEROSENE, GASOLINE, DIESEL

1.3 HDPE, in terms of KEROSENE, GASOLINE, DIESEL

2. What is the fuel efficiency in terms of combustion rate and heat index,

2.1 PET (Polyethylene Terephthalate)

2.2 LDPE (Low-Density Polyethylene)

2.3 HDPE (High-Density Polyethylene)

3. Is there any significant difference in the amount of fuel, combustion rate and heat index

produced by the plastic waste in terms of,

3.1 KEROSENE

a. PET (Polyethylene Terephthalate)

b. LDPE (Low-Density Polyethylene)

c. HDPE (High-Density Polyethylene)

3.2 GASOLINE

a. PET (Polyethylene Terephthalate)

b. LDPE (Low-Density Polyethylene)

c. HDPE (High-Density Polyethylene)

3.3 DIESEL

a. PET (Polyethylene Terephthalate)

b. LDPE (Low-Density Polyethylene)

c. HDPE (High-Density Polyethylene)

4. Which among the plastic waste (PET, LDPE, HDPE) produced better outcome in terms of,

4.1 Amount

4.2 Combustion

4.3 Heat Index

Scope and Delimitation

This study investigates the potential of producing fuel from High-Density Polyethylene

(HDPE), Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE), and Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) through

small-scale pyrolysis using simple equipment and without the aid of catalysts. It focuses on

comparing the fuel yield and examining the basic qualities of the resulting fuel, such as the

combustion rate and heat index. The study is limited only to the selected plastic types and
excludes other polymers such as Polypropylene (PP), Polystyrene (PS), and Polyvinyl Chloride

(PVC). Likewise, it does not involve large-scale industrial systems, catalytic processes, or

detailed analyses of the chemical composition, calorific value, and emissions of the produced

fuel. These boundaries ensure that the research remains centered on its primary objective of

exploring the feasibility of converting common plastic wastes into usable fuel through a simple

and practical method.

Significant of the Study

This study is important because it explores the potential of converting plastic wastes into

usable fuel through small-scale pyrolysis. Since plastic pollution is one of the major

environmental issues today, finding practical ways to reduce waste while creating alternative

energy sources can benefit both the community and the environment.

The Community

This study is important because it explores the potential of converting plastic wastes into

usable fuel through small-scale pyrolysis. Since plastic pollution is one of the major

environmental issues today, finding practical ways to reduce waste while creating alternative

energy sources can benefit both the community and the environment.

The Environment

The study helps reduce the amount of plastic wastes, especially HDPE, LDPE, and PET, that

usually end up in landfills, waterways, and oceans. At the same time, it shows that waste can be

turned into something useful rather than just discarded.

Science and Academic Field

The study adds knowledge about the fuel potential of different plastic types using small-scale

pyrolysis. It can serve as a reference for students, researchers, and educators who want to explore

sustainable energy production.

Society and Energy Sector

While small in scale, the study suggests that plastic waste can help supplement fuel production.

In the long run, this can open opportunities for renewable and alternative energy sources that can

lessen dependence on fossil fuels.

Future Researcher

This study can be used as a foundation for improving small-scale pyrolysis experiments, possibly

leading to more efficient systems and better fuel quality. It may also inspire further research on

other types of plastics or catalysts that can enhance the process.

Research Hypotheses

The following null and alternative hypotheses were drawn:

HO : There is no significant difference in the amount of fuel, combustion rate and heat index by

the plastic waste in terms of,

3.1 KEROSENE

a. PET (Polyethylene Terephthalate)

b. LDPE (Low-Density Polyethylene)

c. HDPE (High-Density Polyethylene)

3.2 GASOLINE

a. PET (Polyethylene Terephthalate)

b. LDPE (Low-Density Polyethylene)

c. HDPE (High-Density Polyethylene)

3.3 DIESEL

a. PET (Polyethylene Terephthalate)

b. LDPE (Low-Density Polyethylene)

c. HDPE (High-Density Polyethylene)

H1 : There is a significant difference in the amount of fuel, combustion raete and heat index by

the plastic waste in terms of,

3.1 KEROSENE

a. PET (Polyethylene Terephthalate)

b. LDPE (Low-Density Polyethylene)

c. HDPE (High-Density Polyethylene)

3.2 GASOLINE

a. PET (Polyethylene Terephthalate)

b. LDPE (Low-Density Polyethylene)

c. HDPE (High-Density Polyethylene)

3.3 DIESEL

a. PET (Polyethylene Terephthalate)

b. LDPE (Low-Density Polyethylene)

c. HDPE (High-Density Polyethylene)

Conceptual Framework

HDPE

LDPE

Fuel yield and Quality

PET

Figure 1.1 Relationship of Variables

The conceptual framework of this study shows the relationship between the types of plastics—

High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE), Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE), and Polyethylene

Terephthalate (PET)—and the resulting fuel yield and quality when these plastics undergo small-

scale pyrolysis. In this framework, the plastic types serve as the independent variables, while the

amount of fuel produced and its quality, measured in combustibility rate and heat index are the

dependent variables. The arrows connecting the plastics to the fuel outcome illustrate that the

kind of plastic used may directly influence both the quantity and characteristics of the fuel

generated. This means that the study aims to determine how different plastics behave in the same

process and how they vary in their potential to be converted into usable fuel.
Conceptual Definition

Pyrolysis- is a thermochemical decomposition process in which plastic polymers are broken

down into smaller hydrocarbon molecules through heating in the absence of oxygen, producing

fuels such as naphtha, gasoline, and diesel (Chen et al., 2022).

High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE)- is a rigid thermoplastic composed of long, linear polymer

chains, known for its high yield of pyrolytic liquid fuel due to its stable chemical structure (Khan

et al., 2023).

Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE)- is a flexible thermoplastic characterized by branched

polymer chains, which typically produce high liquid yields during pyrolysis because of their ease

of thermal decomposition (Mannan et al., 2022).

Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) - is a polyester widely used in beverage bottles and

packaging, which when subjected to pyrolysis often produces lower fuel yields due to its

oxygenated composition, though it remains a significant plastic waste stream (Yasir et al., 2021).

Fuel Yield (Amount of Fuel Produced)- refers to the measurable amount of liquid fuel

fractions—naphtha, gasoline, diesel—obtained from a fixed mass of plastic waste under

pyrolysis (Ahmed & Al-Muhtaseb, 2020).

Combustion Rate- is the speed at which a given volume of pyrolysis-derived fuel burns,

reflecting its efficiency and usability as an energy source (Riaz et al., 2021).

Heat Index (Calorific Value)- Heat index or calorific value is the amount of energy released

per unit mass of pyrolysis fuel during combustion, an important measure of fuel quality

(Arumugam et al., 2020).

Fuel Fractions: Naphtha, Gasoline, Diesel -The liquid products of plastic pyrolysis are

categorized into naphtha (light fraction, C5–C9), gasoline (C5–C12, suitable for spark-ignition

engines), and diesel (C12+, used in compression-ignition engines) (Singh & Sharma, 2022).

Operational Definition of Term

To provide a clear and better understanding of the terms used in the study, the following

operational definition were presented:

Pyrolysis– In this study, pyrolysis means heating plastics (HDPE, LDPE, and PET) without

oxygen to turn them into liquid fuel.

High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE)– A hard plastic tested in this study to see how much fuel it

can produce through pyrolysis.

Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE)– A soft and flexible plastic used in this study to measure its

fuel output when processed by pyrolysis.

Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) – A common plastic from bottles that is tested in this study

for its fuel production, though it usually gives lower yields.

Fuel Yield – The amount of liquid fuel (like naphtha, gasoline, or diesel) produced from a given

weight of plastic during pyrolysis.

Combustion Rate – How fast the fuel made from pyrolysis burns, showing its usefulness as an

energy source.

Heat Index (Calorific Value) – The amount of energy or heat released when the produced fuel

is burned.

Fuel Fractions (Naphtha, Gasoline, Diesel) – The different types of liquid fuels produced from

plastics during pyrolysis, such as light naphtha, gasoline for engines, and diesel for vehicles.

This study investigates the potential of producing fuel from High-Density Polyethylene

(HDPE), Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE), and Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) through

small-scale pyrolysis using simple equipment and without the aid of catalysts. It focuses on

comparing the fuel yield and examining the basic qualities of the resulting fuel, such as

appearance, odor, and flammability. The study is limited only to the selected plastic types and

excludes other polymers such as Polypropylene (PP), Polystyrene (PS), and Polyvinyl Chloride

(PVC). Likewise, it does not involve large-scale industrial systems, catalytic processes, or

detailed analyses of the chemical composition, calorific valu

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Gebre, S. H., Das, C., & Bhaskar, T. (2021). Thermal and catalytic pyrolysis of plastics: A

review. Energy Conversion and Management, 223, 113452.

[Link]

Mangesh, V., Kumar, P., & Singh, R. (2023). Pyrolysis of plastic waste for sustainable fuel

production: A review. Journal of Cleaner Production, 412, 137145.

[Link]

Miskolczi, N., Ateş, F., & Borsodi, N. (2021). Comparison of real waste (MSW and MPW)

pyrolysis in batch reactor over different catalysts. Part I: Product yields, gas and pyrolysis oil

properties. Bioresource Technology, 102(2), 409–418.

[Link]

Toval, G., Martínez, J. D., Murillo, R., & García, T. (2024). Small-scale pyrolysis of plastic

wastes: Fuel production and potential applications. Waste Management, 168, 120–132.

[Link]

Khan, M. Z., Ghosh, S., Tareq, A. R. M., & Al-Salem, S. (2025). Pyrolysis of waste plastics for

alternative fuel: A review of key factors. RSC Sustainability, 3(2), 456–472.

[Link]

Phongsakul, K., Chaiyaraksa, C., Sricharoenchaikul, V., Kachapongkun, P., & Kaewpengkrow,

P. R. (2025). Induction heating pyrolysis of landfilled plastic waste into valuable hydrocarbon
fuels. International Journal of Renewable Energy Development, 14(2), 332–342.

[Link]

Roychand, R., Zafar, M. A., Jacob, M., & Ngo, T. (2025). A comprehensive review on the

thermochemical treatment of plastic waste to produce high-value products for different

applications. Materials Circular Economy, 7, Article 3. [Link]

00157-2

Mangesh, V., Kumar, P., & Singh, R. (2023). Pyrolysis of plastic waste for sustainable fuel

production: A review. Journal of Cleaner Production, 412, 137-145.

[Link]

Ahmed, M. J., & Al-Muhtaseb, A. H. (2020). Conversion of plastic wastes into liquid fuels via

pyrolysis: A review. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 147, 104780.

[Link]

Arumugam, S., Muthu, D., & Subramanian, K. (2020). Experimental studies on the calorific

value and emission characteristics of plastic pyrolysis oil. Materials Today: Proceedings, 33,

1363–1367. [Link]

Chen, D., Yin, L., Wang, H., & He, P. (2022). Pyrolysis technologies for plastic waste: A review

and future prospects. Waste Management, 144, 399–413.

[Link]

Khan, M., Ali, S., & Rahman, M. (2023). Pyrolytic behavior of HDPE plastic waste and fuel

characteristics. Energy Reports, 9, 1122–1131. [Link]

Mannan, M. S., Akhtar, J., & Alam, A. (2022). Pyrolysis of LDPE plastics: Yield, product

distribution, and fuel properties. Frontiers in Chemistry, 10, 960894.

[Link]

Riaz, M., Iqbal, H., & Aslam, Z. (2021). Combustion and emission performance of fuels derived

from plastic pyrolysis. Fuel, 298, 120751. [Link]

Singh, R., & Sharma, A. (2022). Fractional distillation of waste plastic pyrolysis oil into gasoline

and diesel substitutes. Applied Sciences, 12(14), 6156. [Link]

Yasir, A., Hameed, S., & Farooq, M. (2021). Pyrolysis of PET waste for liquid fuel recovery:

Challenges and opportunities. Materials, 14(10), 2586. [Link]