Learning Objectives At the end of this chapter the students will be able to : 12. 13 14. 18. 18. 47. 18, Recall the generation and propagation of waves. Deseribe the nature of the motions in transverse and longitudinal waves. Understand and use the terms wavelength, frequency and speed of wave. Understand and use the equation v= fh. Understand and descrioe Newton's formula of speed of sound. Derive Laplace correction in Newton's formula of speed of sound for air. Derive the formula ve vp tO61f Recognize and describe the factors on which speed of sound in air depends. Explain and use the principle of superposition. Understand the terms interference and beats. Describe the phenomena of interference and beats giving examples of sound waves. Understand and describe reflection of waves. Describe experiments, which demonstrate stationary waves for stretched strings and vibrating air columns. Explain the formation of a stationary wave using graphical method. Understand the terms nade and anti-node. Understand and describe modes of vibration of string. Understand and descritie Doppler’s effect and its causes. Recognize the applications of Doppler's effect In radar, sonar, astronomy, satellite and radar speed traps. 161Lltesonic: waves are usefl or undereea cormmurieaton and detection systems. High fregyency rade waves, usec in feds tavel usta few cantimerres in weter, whereas highly drections! beams of uitasonic waves can be made totravel many kilometres. aves transport energy without transporting matter The énergy transportation is carried by a disturbance, which spreads oul from a source. We are well familiar with different types of waves such as water waves in the ocean, or gently formed ripples on a still pond cue to rain drop. When a musician plucks a guitar-string, sound waves are generated Which on reaching our ear, produce the sensation of music. Wave disturbances may also come ina concentrated bundle like the shock waves from an aeroplane flying at supersonic speed. Whatever may be the nature of waves, the Mechanism’ by-which it transports energy is the same. A Succession of oscillatory motions are always involved. The wave is generated by an oscillation in the vibrating body and Propagation of wave through space is by means of oscillations. The waves which propagate by the osciliation of material particles are known as machanical waves. There is another class of waves which, instead of material Particles, propagate out in space due to oscillations of electric and magnetic fields. Such waves are known as electromagnetic weves, We will undertake the study of electromagnetic waves at a later stage. Here wa will consider the mechanical waves only. The waves generated in topes, strings, coil of springs, water and air aro all mechanical waves.” So far we have been considering motion of individual particles but in case of mechanical waves, we Study the collective motion of particles. An example will help us here. If you look at a black and white picture in a newspaper with a magnifying glass, you will discover that the picture is made up of many closely spaced dots. If you do riot use the magnifier, you do not sce the dats. What you see is the collective effect of dots in the form of a pieture, Thus what we sve as mechanical wave is actually the effect Of oscillations of a very large number of particles of the medium through which the wave is passing. Drop a pebble into water. Ripples will be produced and spread gut across the water. The ripples are the examples Of progressive waves because they carry energy across 162the water surface. A wave, which transfers energy by moving away from the source of disturbance, is called a Progressive or travelling wave. There are two kinds of progressive waves - trensverse waves and longitudinal waves. aNd eee al Consider two persons holding opposite ends of a rope or a hosepipe. Suddenlyone person gives one up and down jerkto the rope. This disturbs the rope and creates a hump in it which travels along the rope towards the otherperson (Fig. 8.12 8 b). e = (a) OO £ te e) 7 pam NE ° When this hump reaches the other person, it causes his hand to move up (Fig. 8.1 c). Thus the energy and momentum imparted to the end of the rope by the first Person has reached the other end of the rope by travelling through the rope i.e., 2 wave has been set up on the rope in the form of a moving hump. We call this typa of wave a pulse. The forward motion of the pulse fram one end of the rope to the other is an example of progressive wave. The hand jerking the end of the rope is the source of the wave. The rope'is thé medium in which the wave moves. 163Longitatinal waves Fig. 8.3(0) A large and loose spring coil (slinky spring)’ Gan be usec to demonstrate the effect of the motion of the source in generating waves in a medium. it is better that the Spring is faid on a smooth table with its one end fixed $0 that the spring doss not sag under gravity. Itthe five end of the spring is vibrated from side to side, a pulse of wave having a displacement pattem shown in Fig. 8.2 (a) will be generated which will nove along the spring If the end of the spring is moved back and forth, along the direction of the spring itself as shown in Fig. 8.2 (b), a wave with back and forth displacement wil travel along the spring Waves like those in Fig. 8.2 (a) in which displacementof the spring is perpendicularto the direction of the waves aro called transverse waves. Waves like those in Fig. 8.2 (b) in which displacements are in the direction of propagation of waves are called longitudinal waves. In this example the coil of spring is the mecium, so in generalwe can say that Transverse waves are those in which particles of the medium are displaced in a direction Perpendicular to the direction of propagation of waves and longitudinal waves are those in which the particles of the medium have displacements along the direction of propagation of waves. Both types of waves can be set up in solids. In fluids, however, Wansverse waves die out very quickly and usually cannot be produced at all, That is why, sound waves in air are longitudinal in nature Upto now we have considered wave in the furin of a Pulse which is set up by a single disturbance in a medium like the ‘snapping of one end of a rope or a coil spring. Continuous, regular and rhythmic disturbances in a medium result from periodic vibrations of a source which cause periodic waves in that medium. A good example of & periodic vibrator is an oscillating mass-spring system (Fig 8.3 a). We have already studied in the previous chapter that the mass of such a system executes SHM, 164imagine an experiment where ane endof a rope Is fastened fo a mass spring vibrator. As the mass vibrates up and down, we observe a transverse periodic wave travelling along the length of rope (Fig. 8.3 b). The wave consists of cresis and troughs. The crest is a pattem in which the rope 's cisplaced above Its equilibrium position, and in troughs, . it has a displacement below its equilibrium position. As the source executes harmonic motion up and down with amplitude A and frequency f ideally every point along the length of the rope executes SHM in tum, with the same amplitude and frequency. The wave travels towards right Fie. 834 as crests and troughs in turn, replace one another, but the points on the rope simply oscillates up and down. The amplitude of the wave is the maximum value of the displacement in @ crest or trough and it is equal to the amplitude of the vibrator. The distance between any two consecutive crests or troughs is the same all along the |\—/— length of the rope. This distanca is called the wavelength | / of the periodic wave and is usually denoted by the Greek | letter lambda 4 (Fig. 83 b) In principle, the speed of the wave can be measured by. timing the motion of a wave crest over a measured distance. But it is not always convenient to observe the motion of the crest. As discussed below, however, the speed of a periodic wave can be found indirectly from its frequency and wavelength. As a wave progresses, each point in the medium oscillates periodically with the frequency and periad of the source. Fig, 8.4 illustrates a periodic wave moving to the right, as It might look in photographic snapshots taken every “/4 period. Follow the progress of the crest that started out 7 from the extreme left at {= 0. The time that this crest takes |- to move a distance of one wavelength is equal to the time | \ required for a point in the medium to gg through one complete oscillation. That is the crest moves one wavelength 2. in one period of oscillation T The speed the crest is therefore, v9 distance moved corresponding time interval. T 165All parts of the wave parte move with the same speed, so the speed of any one crest is just the speed of the wave We can therefore; say that the speed v of the waves is ve® : : (8.1) but ¢ = f, where Fis the frequency of the wave. It is the same as the frequency of the vibrator, generating the waves. Thus Eq. 8.1 becomes vsth (8.2) Gee CE enh Eade The profile of periodic waves generated by a source executing SHM is represented by a sine curve. Figure 8.5 shows the snapshot of a periodic wave passing through a medium. In this figure, set of points are shown which are moving in unison as the periodic wave passes. The poinis C and C’, as they move up and down, are always in the same state of vibration ie., they always have identical cisplacements and velocities. Alternatively, we can say that as the wave passes, the points C ad C’ move in phese. We may also say that C’ leads C by one time period or 2x radian. Any point at a distance x, C lags behind by phase angle o=8hz So is the case with points D and 0 . indeed there are infinitely many such points along the medium which are vibrating in phase. Points separated from one another through distances of 2, 22, 34, ...... are all in phase with each other. These points can be anywhere along the wave and need not correspond with only the highest and lowest points, For example, points such as P, P’, P” i are all in phase. Each is separated from the next bye distance i, Some of the points are exactly out of step. For example, when point C reaches its maximum upward displacement, at the same time D reaches its maximum downward displacement. At the instant that C begins to go down, D begins to move up. Points such as these are called one half period out of phase. Any two points separated from one another by 4 34, st vs. @F@ Out of phase. 166Eicia etcS In the previous section we have considered the generation of transverse periodic waves. Now we will see how the longitudinal periodic waves can be generated. Consider a coll of spring as shown in Fig. 8.6. It is suspended by threads so that it can viorate horizontally. Suppose an oscillating force F is applied to its end as indicated. The force will altemately stretch and compress the spring, thereby sending a sories of stretched regions (called rarefaction) and compressions down the spring. We will see the oscillating force causes a longitudinal wave to move down the spring. This type of wave generated in springs |s also called a compressional wave. Clearly in a compressional wave, the particles in the path of wave move back and forth along the line of propagation of the wave. Nolice in Fig. 8.6, the supporting threads would be exactly vertical if the spring were undisturbed. The disturbance passing down the spring causes displacements of the elements of the spring from their equilibrium positions. In Fig. 8.6, the displacements of the thread from the vertical are 4 direct measure of the displacements of the ‘spring elements, It is, therefore, an easy way to graph the displacements of the spring elements from their equilibrium positions and this is done in the lower part of the figure. Sound waves are the most important examples of longitudinal or compressional waves. The speed of sound waves depends on the compressibility and inerlia of the medium through which thay are travelling. If the medium has the elastic modulus E and density thon, speed vis given by IF i, RoR CABS) As seen from the table 8.7, the speed of sound is much higher in solids than in gases. This makes sense because the molecules in a solid are closer than in a gas and hence, respond more quickly to a disturbance. In general, sound travels more slowly in gases than in solids because gases are more compressible and hence 167 : h ORE A | 7 : a Poa Carson dioxide ‘Oxygen Helium Hydogen, 4120 315 1288eee have @ smaller elastic modulus. For the calculation of elastic modulus for air, Newton assumed that when 2 sound wave travels through air, the temperature of the air during compression remains constant and pressure changes from P to (P+AP) and therefore. the volume changes from V to (V’- AV}. According to Boyle's law PV=(P+AP\V-AY) or PV= PV- PAV+ VAP-APAV The product AP AV is very small and can be neglected. So, the above equation becomes (84) ee a7" v PAV = VAP or The expression ay] is the elastic modulus E at constant LIN temperature. So, substituting P for E in equation 8.3, we get Newton's formula for the speed of sound in air. Hence ae “Vp On substituting the values of aimospherle pressure and density of air at S.T.P. in equation 8.5, we find that the speed of sound waves in air comes out to be 280 ms", whereas its experimental value is 332 ms* To account for this difference, Laplace pointed out that the compressions and rarefactions occur so rapidly that heat of compressions remains confined to the region where it is generated and does not have time to flow to the neighbouring cooler regions which have undergone en ‘expansion. Hence the temperature of the medium does not remain constant. In such case Boyle's law takes the form PV" = Constant (8.6) Molar specific heat of gas al constant pressure Molar specific heat of gas at constant volume (8.5) where If the pressure of a given mass of a gas is changed from P to (P + AP) and volume changes from V to (V - AV), then using Eq. 8.6 168v= (P+AP)(V- AV)” PV! = (P+ AP)’ ‘[ ae) vi Applying Binomial theorem ( ale 4+, 94+ nolo terms Me / & Hence eee | ey av. 4 or pep-ye™,[Link]™ v fe where b ap Ji negligible. Hence, we have FETE SIT or Say PsE Thus elastic modulus { equals 7P, a) Hence, substituting the value of elastic modulus in Eq. 8.3, we gat Laplace expression for the speed of sound Ina gas ve ‘ca fe en For air ys14 so at S.T.P. v= V1.4 x200ms’'=933ms"' This value is very clase to the experimental value. 169Sierra an Tar ees of Pressure, Bee varie) LGUs ey Speed of Sound in a ey 1. Effect of Pressure: Since density is Proportional to the pressure, the speed of Sound is not affected by a Variation in the pressure of the gas. their densities E987. Thus the speed of sound i hydrogen is four times its speed in oxygen es daneity of oxygen is 16 Umes that of hydrogen. ©. Effect of Temperature: When a gas is heated at constant pressure, its volume is increased and hence its density is decreased. As ae P So, the speed is increased with rise in temperature, Let Yo~ Speed of sound at 0°C , 1», = Density Of gas at 0°C ¥: = Speed of sound at °C » P= Density of gas at ¢°C | and ¥, Po Hence, Me Vo VF We have studied the volume expansion of gases. in previous classes. if Vo is the volume of @ gas at temperature 0 °C and Vis volume at °C, then Vie Vo (1+ Ba Where fis the coefficient of volume expansion of the gas. YP then vs (8.8) For all gases, its value is about x Hence t Mara vet) 170Putting the value ofp. in equation 8.8 we have, ps . eae yo (eo We PRFET or ae 273 t ~ where T and T; are the absolute temperatures corresponding to t °C and 0 °C respectively. Thus, the speed of sound veries directly 2s the square root of absolute temperature Expanding the RH.S. of equation (8.9), using Binomial theorem and neglecting higher powers, we have Hea locaah Vet nie pte Or y= £ Yo ( : a ce AS Vp = 332 ms" putting this value in the 2 factor (8.10) Then (8.41) Example 8.1: Find the temperature at which the velocity of sound in air is two times ils velocity at 10 °C. Solution: 10°C = 10°C +273 K Suppose at TK, the velocity is two alue at 283 K. 171 Fasler than the speed of sound Whol happeris whren & jet plane ‘ike Concorde fies faster than the spaadotscina? Ser eee sound onergy owoop Pasess overhead. ii known soricboom., 2Sresultant wave Yay + Ye Superposition of two waves of the samo ‘requency which are exactly In phase. Wave 1 and2 superposed ‘Superpesition of two waves ofthe same ‘remueney whieh are exactly out of eee Veg V283K Me fel ay Ves V283K T= 1132 k or 859°C So far, we have considered single waves. What happens when two waves encounter each other in the same medium? Suppose two waves approach each other on a Sail of spring, one travelling towards the right and the other travelling towards left. Fig. 8.7 shows whal you would soe happening on the spring, The waves pass through each other without being modified. After the encounter, cach wave shape looks just as it did before and is traveling along just as it was before. This phenomenon of passing through each other unchanged can be observed with all types of waves. You can easily see that itis true for surtace ripples. But what is going on ‘during the time when the two waves overlap? Fig. 8.7 (c) shows that the displacements they produce just add up. At each instant, the spring’s displacement at any point in the Overlap region is just the Tain OF the displacements that would be caused by each of the Iwo Waves separately = Thus, if @ particle of a medium is simultaneotisly acted upon by n waves such that its displacement due to each of the lndiitual 1 waves bey. ia... y, than the fesultant displacement of the particle, under the ‘simultaneous action of these a waves is the algebraic’suni of all the displacements i.e,, : Yay ye + Yn This is culled principle of superposition, 72s which cross each other have ir resultant displacement will be we yirve Particuladly if ys = ye then result displacement Y= 0. Principle of superposition leads to many interesting phenomen> with waves. Again, if two wave: opposite phase, thei ) Iwo waves having same frequency and travelling in the same direction (Interference). i) Two waves of slightly different frequencies and travelling in the same direction (Beats) * . Two waves of equal frequency travelling 19 usin generator opposite direction (Stationary waves). 8. s. Superposition of two waves having the same frequency and. travelling in the same direction results in @ phenomenon called interference. “Rn experimental set up to observe interference effect in “sound wayes is shown in Fig. 8.8 (2). | toes cRO Fig: 8.908), Fig. 8.8 (0) Inverference of sound waves Paints P,P, P, aro ponts of constructive interference. Points P, and P, ae points of destructe interfarence. wo loud ‘speakers S1 and S, act as two sources of harmonic sound waves of a fixad frequency produced by 173Fig, 8.8(c) ‘Lange cisplacerent is displayad on, ‘the GRO sereen Fig. 8.8(d) Zero displacement the CRO semen is displayed on An audio generator. Since the two speakers are driven from the same generator, they vibrate in phase. Such sources of Waves are called coherent sources, A microphone attached {0 @ sensitive cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) acts as a detector of sound waves. The CRO is a device to display {he input signal into waveform on its screea. The microphone is placed at various points, tum by tum, in front of the loud speakers as shown in the Fig, 8.8 (b). At points P,, P, and Ps a large signal is seen on the CRO Fig. 8.8(c)), whereas at points Ps and P, ne signal is displayed on CRO. screen [Fig. 88 (d)).This effect is Spying ep Fig 6h (6) rine which vcomprassions and Continuous lines show compression znd. dotted lines show rarefactions. At points P;, Ps and Ps. we fd that meets eM Meets with a compression and rarefaction Ineels @ tarefaction. So, the displacement of two waves are added up at these points and a large resultant GisPlacement is produced which is seen on the CRO screen Fig. 8,8 (c). Now trom Fig. 8.8 (b), we find that the path cifferenca AS between the waves al ihe point P, is AS=SiP;-SiP) or ASaudi- aly =Q Similarly at points P; and P., path difference is zero and -), respectively. Therefore, the condition for constructive interference can be written as AS= na where n=0, 41, #2, +3... (6.12) At points P; and Ps, compression meets with a rarefaction, So that they cancel each other's effect. ‘The resultant displacement becomes zero, as shown in Fig. 8.8(d)). Now let us calculate the path differene between the waves al points P, and P,. For point P. 174AS=SjPo-SiP; or AS=44-3 3h Similarly at Ps the path difference is ~ A written as. AS=(2n+1) a (8.13) where n=0, 41, £2, 33, Tuning forks give out pure notes (single frequency). If two | tuning forks A and B of the same frequency say 32Hz are sounded separately, they will give out pure notes, If they are sounded simultaneously, it will be difficult to differentiate the notes of one tuning fork from that of the other. The sound waves of the two will be superposed on each other and will be heard by the human ear as a single pure note. If the tuning fork B is loaded with some wax or plasticene, its frequency will be lowered slightly. say it becomes 30Hz. If now the two tuning forks are sounded together, a note of alternately increasing and decreasing intensity will be heard This note is called beat note or a beat which is due to interference between the sound Waves from tuning forks A and B. Fig. 8.9 (a) shows the waveform of the note emitted from a tuning fork A. Similarly Fig. 8.9 (b) shows the waveform of the note emitted by tuning fork B. When both the tuning forks A and B are sounded together, the resultant waveform is shown in Fig. 8.9 (c). Fig. 8.9 (c) shows how does the beat note occur, At some instant X the displacement of the two waves is in the same direction. ‘The resultant displacementis large and a loud sound Is heard. 175After 1/4s the displacement of the wave due to one tuning fork is opposite to the displacement of the wave due to the olher tuning fork resulting in a minimum displacement at Y, hence. faint sound or no sound is heard. Another 1/4 s later the displacements are again in the ‘same direction and a loud sound is heard again at Z. This means a loud sound is heard two times in each second. As the difference of the frequency of the two tuning forks is also 2 Hz so, we find that mber \d is equal to the differ SSE aaah ctroce When the difference between the frequencies of the two Sounds is more than about 10 Hz, then it becomes difficult to recognize the beats. One can use beats to tune a string instrument, such as piano oF violin, by beating a note against a note of known frequency. The string can then be adjusted to the desired frequency by tighteningor loosening it untilno beats are heard, Example 8.2: a tuning fork A produces 4 beats per ‘second with another tuning fork B. It is. found that by loading B with some wax, the beat frequency increases to & beats per second. If the frequency of A is 320 Hz, determine the frequency of B when loaded. Solution: Since the beat frequency is 4, the frequency of B is elther 320 + 4 324 Hz or 320 - 4 = 316 Hz. By loading B, its frequency will decrease. Thus if 324 Hz is the original frequency, the beat frequency will reduce. On the other hand, if it is 316 Hz, the beat frequency will increase which is the case. So, the original frequency of the tuning fork B is 318 Hz and when loaded, itis 316 -2= 374 Hz. In an extensive Medium, a wave travels in all directions from its source with a velocity depending upon tha Properties of the medium. However, when the wave comes 176across the boundary of two media, a part of it is reflected back. The reflected wave has the same wavelength and frequency but its phase may change depending upon the nature cf the boundary. Now we will discuss two most common cases of reflection at the boundary. These cases will be explained with the help of waves travelling in slinky spring. (A slinky spring is a loose spring which has smell initlal tength butt a relatively large extended length). One end of the slinky spring is tied to a rigid support on a smooth honzontaltable Whena sharp jerk Is givenup to the free end of the slinky spring towards the side A, a displacement or a crest will travel from free end to the boundary (Fig. 8.10 a). It will exert a force on bound end towards the side A. Since this end is rigidly bound and acts as a denser medium, it will exert @ reaction force on the spring in opposite direction This force will produce displacement downwards B and a trough will travel backwards along the spring (Fig.8.10 b). From the above discussion it can be concluded that whenever @ transverse wave. travelling in @ rarer medium, encounters a denser medium, it bounces back such that the direction of its displacement is reversed. An incident crest on reflection becomes a trough This experimentis repeated with a little variation by attaching one end of a light string to slinky spring and the other and to the rigid suport. as shown in Fig. 8.11. if now the spring is given a sharp jerk towards A, a crest travels along the spring as shown in Fig. 8.11. When this crest reaches the serng- siring boundary, it exert a force on the string towards the side. A. Since ihe siring has a smali mass as compared to spring it does not appose the motion of the spring. The end of the spring, therefore, continues its displacement towards A. The spring behaves as if it has been plucked up. In other words a crest is again created at the boundary of the spring-string system, which travels backwards along the spring. From this itcan be concluded that when a transverse wave travelling in a denser medium, is reflected from the boundaly of a rarer medium, the direction of its displacemént remains the same. An incident crest is reflected as a crest. We are already familar with the fact that the direction of displacement is i77 sot eo Hight of tek cmmenee — a i} Fig. 8:11reversed when there is change of 180° in the phace of Vibration. Se, the above conclusion can be written as follows ) Ifa transverse wave travelling in a rarer medium is incident on a denser medium, it is reflected Such that it undergoes a ohase change of 180°. ") If @ transverse wave travelling in a denser medium is incident on a rarer medium, i! is reflected without any change in phase Now let us consider the superposition of two waves moving along a string in opposite directions, Fig. £12 (@,b) shows the profile of two such waves at instants §=0,T/4, S/AT and T, where T is the time period of the Wave. We are interested in finding out the displacements Of the points 1,2,3,4,5.6 and 7 at these instanls as the waves superpose. From the Fig. 8.12 (a,b), it is obvious Fig. 812 frat the points 1.2.3. ets are distant A/4 apart, being the wavelength of the waves. We can determine the resultant displacement of these poinis by applying the Principle of superposition. Fig 8.12 (c) shows. the resultant displacement of the points 1,3,5 and 7 at tie iseris |= TH, 12, 37M and 7. WW Gan be seen thet ihe resultant displacement of these points is always Zero. These points of the medium are known as nodes, Fig. 8.12 (¢) shows that the distance between two 178consecutive nodes is 4/2. Fig, 8.12 (d) shows the resultant displacement of the points 2.4 and 6 ai the instants i = 0, 7/4, 7/2, 37/4 and T. The figure shows that these points are moving with an amplitude which is the sum of the amplitudes of the component waves. These poinis are known as antinodes. They are situated midway between the node and ate also 2/2 apart. The cistance between a node and the next antinade Is 7/4. Such a pattern of nodes and anti-nodes is known as a stationary or standing wave. Energy in a wave moves because of the motion of the particles of the medium. The nodes always remain al rest, so energy cannot flow past these points. Hence energy * remains “standing” in the medium between nodes, although it alternetes between potential and kinetic forms. When the antinodes are all at their extreme displacemonts, the energy stored is wholly potential and when they are simultaneously passing through their equilibrium positions, the energy is wholly kinetic. ‘An easy wey to generaie stationary wave is:to superpose a wave travelling down a string with its reflection travelling in opposite direction as explained in the next section, Consider a string of length | which is kept stretched by clamping its ends so that the tension in the string is F. I the string is plucked at its middle point, two transverse waves will originate from this point. One of them will move towards the left end of the string and the other towards the right end. When these waves reach the two clamped ends, they are reflected back thus giving rise to stationary waves. As the two ends of the string are clamped, no motion will take place there. So nodes will be formed at the two ends and one mode of vibration of the string will be as shown in Fig. 8.13 with the two ends as nodes with one antinode in between. Visually the string seems to vibrate in one loop. As the distance between two consecutive nodes is one half of the wavelength of the waves set up in the string, so in this mode of vibration, the length / of the string is or Ape (8.14) 179where 2, is the Wavelenigih of the waves set up in this mods. i he speed v of the waves in the string depends upon the tension F of the String and m, the mess per unit length of 2 - Fe the string. itis given by E (6.15) Knowing the speed v and wavelength 3... the frequency f, of the waves is given by i - = 2 (3.16) \ ‘ fF Substituting the value of yf = Ae seein (8.17) {hus in the first mode of vitration shown in Fig, 6.13, ‘waves of frequency fy only will be set up in the given string If the same string is plucked from one quarter of its fenath, again stationary waves will be set up with nodes and antinodes as shown in Fig. 8.14. Note that now the string vibrates in two loops. This particular configuration of nodes and aniinodes has developed becayse the string was plucked from the position of an antinode. As the distance between two consecutive nodes is half the wavelength, so the Fig. 8.14 shows that the length / of string is equal to the wavelength of the waves set up in this mode. If dzis the measure of wavelength of these waves, then, z Ags] (8.18) A comparison of this equation with Eq. 8.14 shows the Wwavolength in this case is half of that in the first case, Eq 8.16 shows thal the speed of waves depends upon the tension and mass per unit length of the string. It is It Gis frequency of vibratich of string in its second mode, then by Eq. 8.2 VERA, Sh} on hey (8.19) Compating it with Eq. 8.18, we get 180