Atomic Models

Dalton’s Atomic Model (1803)

• Proposed by John Dalton.
• Key postulates:
• All matter is composed of indivisible atoms.
• Atoms of a given element are identical in size, mass, and
properties.
• Atoms of different elements combine in fixed ratios to form
compounds.
• Chemical reactions involve rearrangement of atoms; atoms are
neither created nor destroyed.
Limitations:
• Could not explain the existence of isotopes.
• Could not account for subatomic particles (protons, neutrons,
electrons).
 Thomson’s Plum Pudding Model (1897)
• Proposed by J.J. Thomson after
discovering the electron.
• Atoms are spheres of positive charge with
negatively charged electrons embedded
within (like raisins in a pudding).
Limitations:
• Could not explain the arrangement of
electrons and the stability of the atom.
• Failed to explain atomic spectra.
 Experiment Leading to the Model
Thomson's model was based on his cathode ray tube (CRT) experiment:
1. Cathode Ray Tube Setup:
✓ A sealed glass tube with electrodes at both ends was used.
✓ When a high voltage was applied, a beam of particles (cathode rays) traveled from the
negative electrode (cathode) to the positive electrode (anode).
 Observations
• The rays were deflected by electric and magnetic fields, indicating they were
negatively charged.
• The rays were identical regardless of the gas used in the tube, suggesting that
the particles were a fundamental component of all matter.
 Conclusion
• The rays consisted of negatively charged particles (which he named
electrons).
• Since atoms are electrically neutral, there must be a positive charge to balance
the negative electrons.
 Rutherford’s Nuclear Model (1911)
• Proposed by Ernest Rutherford after the gold
foil experiment.
• Key findings:
• Atoms have a dense, positively charged nucleus at
the center.
• Electrons revolve around the nucleus.
• Most of the atom's volume is empty space.
Limitations:
• Could not explain why electrons do not spiral
into the nucleus (instability issue).
• Could not explain atomic spectra.
 Rutherford's Gold Foil Experiment Setup
•Source of Alpha Particles – A radioactive
element (like radium) emitted alpha particles
•Alpha particles were directed at the thin gold foil.
(α\alphaα particles = helium nuclei).
•The scientists observed how the alpha particles
•Thin Gold Foil – A very thin sheet of gold
scattered after passing through the foil.
(~0.00004 cm thick) was used as a target for
•Most of the particles passed through the foil without
the alpha particles.
any deflection.
•Detection Screen – A zinc sulfide-coated
•A small fraction of particles were deflected at large
screen surrounded the foil to detect the alpha
angles.
particles as they struck it.
•A very tiny number (about 1 in 8000) were reflected
•Microscope – A microscope was used to
back almost directly toward the source.
observe tiny flashes of light produced when
alpha particles hit the screen.
 Observation Conclusion
•Most alpha particles passed straight • The atom consists of a small, dense,
through → Most of the atom is empty space. positively charged nucleus at the center.
•Some alpha particles were deflected at
small angles → The atom contains a • Most of the atom is empty space.
concentrated positive charge. • Electrons revolve around the nucleus.
•A very few particles were deflected at
large angles or bounced back → The • The positive charge of the nucleus
positive charge and most of the atom's mass balances the negative charge of electrons.
are concentrated in a small, dense region
(the nucleus).
 Bohr’s Model (1913)
• Proposed by Niels Bohr to explain atomic spectra.
• Key features:
• Electrons revolve around the nucleus in fixed orbits (energy
levels).
• Only certain orbits are allowed where electrons do not lose
energy.
• Energy is absorbed or emitted when electrons jump between
energy levels.
Limitations:
• Could only explain the hydrogen atom’s spectrum.
• Failed for multi-electron atoms.
Postulates of Bohr’s Model
 Successes of Bohr’s Model
• Explained the stability of the atom.
• Accurately explained the hydrogen atomic spectrum (Balmer series).
• Introduced the concept of quantized energy levels.
Limitations of Bohr’s Model
 Implications of Bohr’s Postulates
Stability of the Atom Explanation of Atomic Spectra
• According to classical physics, electrons • Bohr’s model accurately explained the
should lose energy continuously while hydrogen emission spectrum:
revolving around the nucleus, causing the • When an electron jumps from a higher to a
atom to collapse. lower orbit, it emits a photon of a specific
wavelength.
• Bohr’s postulate of quantized orbits solved
this problem — electrons only lose or gain • The predicted wavelengths matched the
energy when they jump between orbits. experimentally observed Balmer series for
hydrogen.
Explained why atoms are stable. Provided a theoretical basis for atomic
spectra.
Quantization of Angular Momentum Introduction of the Quantum
Number
• The idea that the angular momentum
of an electron is quantized was • The orbit number nnn became the
revolutionary. principal quantum number used to
describe the electron's energy state.
• Introduced the concept that atomic Provided the framework for
properties are governed by discrete modern quantum numbers (n, l, m, s).
quantum states rather than continuous
values.
Laid the foundation for quantum
mechanics.
Energy of Electrons in Atoms
• The total energy of an electron in a Bohr orbit is given by:

• where n is the orbit number.

Explained why electrons have specific allowed energies.
 Importance of Bohr’s Model
• Provided the foundation for quantum theory.
• Led to the development of the more advanced quantum mechanical model
by Schrödinger.
 Structure of Bohr Atom

1. Nucleus:
1. The atom has a small, dense, and positively charged nucleus at the center.
2. The nucleus contains protons and neutrons (although Bohr's original model did not
account for neutrons).
2. Electrons:
1. Electrons revolve around the nucleus in fixed circular orbits.
2. Each orbit corresponds to a specific energy level.
Electron Orbits
 Sommerfeld’s Model (1916)
• Extension of Bohr's model.
• Introduced elliptical orbits and
subshells.
• Accounts for fine structure in spectral
lines.
Limitations:
• Still could not fully explain multi-
electron systems.
 Quantum Mechanical Model (1926)
•Developed by Erwin Schrödinger using wave
equations.
•Key features:
•Electrons are treated as wave-particles.
•Electron position described by a probability
cloud (orbital).
•Orbitals have different shapes (s, p, d, f).
•Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle: Cannot
simultaneously determine the exact position and
momentum of an electron.
Summary
 Atomic radius and orbital energy
• See class notes.
 Assignment
• Read and make notes on uncertainty principle, phase and group velocity.
THANK

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