Humayun

Nasir al-Din Muhammad (6 March 1508[2] – 27

January 1556), commonly known by his regnal name Humayun
Humayun (Persian pronunciation: [hu.mɑː.juːn]), was the Padishah
second Mughal emperor, who ruled over territory in Al-Sultan Al-Azam
what is now Eastern Afghanistan, Bangladesh,
Northern India, and Pakistan from 1530 to 1540 and
again from 1555 to his death in 1556.[4] At the time of
his death, the Mughal Empire spanned almost one
million square kilometers.

On 26 December 1530, Humayun succeeded his father

Babur to the throne of Delhi as ruler of the Mughal
territories in the Indian subcontinent. Humayun was an
inexperienced ruler when he came to power at the age
of 22. His half-brother Kamran Mirza inherited Kabul
and Kandahar, the northernmost parts of their father's
empire; the two half-brothers became bitter rivals.

Early in his reign, Humayun lost his entire empire to

Sher Shah Suri but regained it 15 years later with
Safavid aid. His return from Persia was accompanied
by a large retinue of Persian noblemen, signaling an
important change in Mughal court culture. The Central Portrait of Humayun, wearing the Tāj-i 'Izzat
Asian origins of the dynasty were largely headdress, in the Late Shah Jahan Album,
painted c. 1640. Smithsonian Collections.[1]
overshadowed by the influences of Persian art,
architecture, language, and literature. To this day, stone Sultan of Hindustan
Mughal Emperor
carvings and thousands of Persian manuscripts in India
dating from the time of Humayun remain in the First reign 26 December 1530 – 17 May

subcontinent. Following his return to power, Humayun 1540

quickly expanded the Empire, leaving a substantial Coronation 29 December 1530
legacy for his son, Akbar. Predecessor Babur
Successor Sher Shah Suri (as Sur
Emperor)
Background Heir-apparent Al-aman Mirza

Humayun was born as Nasir al-Din Muhammad to Second reign 22 June 1555 – 27 January
Babur's favourite wife Māham Begum on Tuesday 6 1556
March 1508. According to Abul Fazl, Māham was Predecessor Adil Shah Suri (as Sur
related to the noble family of Sultan Husayn Bayqara, Emperor)
the Timurid ruler of Herat. She was also related to Successor Akbar I
Sheikh Ahmad-e Jami, a Persian mystic and poet.[5][6]
The decision of Babur to divide the territories of his Born Nasir al-Din Muhammad[2]
empire between two of his sons was unusual in India, 6 March 1508
although it had been a common Central Asian practice Kabul, Kabulistan
since the time of Genghis Khan. Unlike most Died 27 January 1556 (aged 47)
monarchies, which practised primogeniture, the Sher Mandal, Delhi, Mughal
Timurids followed the example of Genghis and did not Empire
leave an entire kingdom to the eldest son. Although
Burial Humayun's Tomb, Delhi,
under that system only a Chingissid could claim
India
sovereignty and Khanal authority, any male Chinggisid
Consort List
within a given sub-branch had an equal right to the
throne (though the Timurids were not Chinggisid in
Bega Begum
their paternal ancestry).[7] While Genghis Khan's
Gulbarg Begum
Empire had been peacefully divided between his sons
upon his death, almost every Chinggisid succession Mewa Jan

since had resulted in fratricide.[8] Hamida Banu Begum

Mah Chuchak Begum
After Timur's death, his territories were divided among
Khanish Aghacha
Pir Muhammad, Miran Shah, Khalil Sultan and Shah
Agha Jan
Rukh, which resulted in inter-family warfare.[9] Not all
umarah (nobles) viewed Humayun as Babur's rightful Chand Bibi
successor. While Babur was still alive, some of the Shad Bibi
nobles tried unsuccessfully to install his brother-in-law, Gunwar Bibi
Mahdi Khwaja, as ruler.[10] Upon Babur's death,
Issue Al-aman Mirza
Humayun's territories were the least secure
Akbar
Farrukh-Fal Mirza
Early reign Mirza Muhammad Hakim
Ibrahim Sultan Mirza
When Humayun came to the throne of the Mughal
Aqiqa Sultan Begum
Empire, several of his brothers revolted against him
after he split the empire among them. Another brother, Bakshi Banu Begum
Hindal Mirza, supported Humayun but was Jahan Sultan Begum
assassinated.[11] The Emperor commenced Bakht-un-Nissa Begum
construction of a tomb for his brother, but this was not Sakina Banu Begum
yet finished when he was forced to flee to Persia. Sher
Amina Banu Begum
Shah Suri destroyed the structure and no further work
was done on it after Humayun's restoration. Names
Mirza Nasir-ud-Din Muhammad Humayun[2]
Humayun had two major rivals for his lands: Sultan Regnal name
Bahadur of Gujarat to the southwest and Sher Shah
Al‑Sulṭān al‑’A‘ẓam wa‑l‑Khāqān
Suri (Sher Khan) settled along the river Ganges in al‑Mukarram, Jam‑i‑Sulṭānat‑i‑Ḥaqīqī
Bihar to the east. Humayun's first campaign was to wa‑Majāzī, Sayyid al‑Salāṭīn, Abu’l‑Muẓaffar
confront Sher Shah Suri. Halfway through this Naṣīr‑ud‑Dīn Muḥammad Humayūn Pādshāh
offensive, Humayun had to abandon it to focus on Ghāzī, Ẓillu’llāh
Gujarat, where a threat from Ahmed Shah had
Posthumous name
emerged. Humayun was victorious annexing Gujarat,
Jannat-Ashyani (lit. 'He who lives in heaven')
Malwa, Champaner and the great fort of Mandu.[12]
 House House of Babur
Dynasty Timurid dynasty
Father Babur
Mother Maham Begum
Religion Sunni Islam[3]
Seal

Contemporary portrait of Military career

Humayun from life (painted in
Allegiance Mughal Empire
Kabul, in 1550-55), wearing the
Tāj-i 'Izzat Branch Mughal Army
Battles / wars See list
During the first five years of Humayun's reign, Mughal–Rajput Wars
Bahadur and Sher Khan extended their rule, although Khanwa (1527)
Sultan Bahadur faced pressure in the east from Mughal conquest of Gujarat
sporadic conflicts with the Portuguese. (1535)
Mughal–Afghan Wars
In 1535 Humayun was made aware that the Sultan of Hisar Firoza (1526)
Gujarat was planning an assault on the Mughal Ghaghra (1529)
territories in Bayana with Portuguese aid. Humayun Chausa (1539)
gathered an army and marched on Bahadur. Within a Kannauj (1540)
month he had captured the forts of Mandu and Machhiwara (1555)
Champaner. However, instead of pressing his attack, Sirhind (1555)
Humayun ceased the campaign and consolidated his
newly conquered territory. Sultan Bahadur, meanwhile
escaped and took up refuge with the Portuguese.[13] Like his father, Humayun was a frequent user of
opium.[14] In a popular revolt Bahadur Shah recaptured all of Gujarat in 1536 and began an attack on
Malwa.[15]

Strife with Sher Shah Suri

Shortly after Humayun had marched on Gujarat, Sher Shah Suri saw an opportunity to wrest control of
Agra from the Mughals. He began to gather his army together hoping for a rapid and decisive siege of the
Mughal capital. Upon hearing this alarming news, Humayun quickly marched his troops back to Agra
allowing Bahadur to easily regain control of the territories Humayun had recently taken. In February
1537, however, Bahadur was killed when a botched plan to kidnap the Portuguese viceroy ended in a fire-
fight that the Sultan lost. Bahadur's passing caused a power vacuum in Gujarat, which ultimately paved
the way for the Mughals to become the region's dominant force.

While Humayun was occupied in Gujarat, in the east Sher Khan invaded Bengal and besieged Gaur, its
capital.[16] Humayun set off to relieve the siege, but was delayed while taking Chunar, a fort occupied by
Sher Shah's son, in order to protect his troops from an attack from the rear. Meanwhile, Gaur fell, the
 large stores of
grain there were
emptied, and
Humayun arrived
to see corpses
littering the
roads. [17] The
vast wealth of
Bengal was
depleted and
brought east,
The Water-carrier claims his reward from giving Sher Shah
Humayun a substantial war
chest.[18]

Sher Shah withdrew to the west, but Humayun did not follow;
instead, he "shut himself up for a considerable time in his
Harem, and abandoned himself to every kind of luxury".[19]
Hindal, Humayun's 19-year-old brother, had agreed to aid him
in this battle and protect the rear from attack, but he The Mughal Emperor Humayun, fights
abandoned his position and withdrew to Agra, where he Bahadur Shah of Gujarat, in the year
1535.
decreed himself acting emperor. When Humayun sent the
grand Mufti, Sheikh Buhlul, to reason with him; the Sheikh
was killed. Further provoking the rebellion, Hindal ordered that the Khutba, or sermon, in the main
mosque be surrounded.[19]

Humayun's other brother, Kamran Mirza, marched from his territories in the Punjab, ostensibly to aid
Humayun. However, his return home had treacherous motives as he intended to stake a claim for
Humayun's apparently collapsing empire. He brokered a deal with Hindal providing that his brother
would cease all acts of disloyalty[19] in return for a share in the new empire, which Kamran would create
once Humayun was deposed.

In June 1539, Sher Shah met Humayun in the Battle of Chausa on the banks of the Ganges, near Buxar.
This was to become an entrenched battle in which both sides spent a lot of time digging themselves into
positions. The major part of the Mughal army, the artillery, was now immobile, and Humayun decided to
engage in some diplomacy using Muhammad Aziz as ambassador. Humayun agreed to allow Sher Shah
to rule over Bengal and Bihar, but only as provinces granted to him by his Emperor, Humayun, falling
short of outright sovereignty. The two rulers also struck a bargain in order to save face: Humayun's troops
would charge those of Sher Shah whose forces then retreat in feigned fear. Thus honour would,
supposedly, be satisfied.[20]

Once the Army of Humayun had made its charge and Sher Shah's troops made their agreed-upon retreat,
the Mughal troops relaxed their defensive preparations and returned to their entrenchments without
posting a proper guard. Observing the Mughals' vulnerability, Sher Shah reneged on his earlier
agreement. That very night, his army approached the Mughal camp and finding the Mughal troops
unprepared with a majority asleep, they advanced and killed most of them. The Emperor survived by
swimming across the Ganges using an air-filled "water skin", and quietly returned to Agra.[21] Humayun
was assisted across the Ganges by Shams al-Din Muhammad.[22]

In Agra
When Humayun returned to Agra, he found that all three of
his brothers were present. Humayun once again not only
pardoned his brothers for plotting against him, but even
forgave Hindal for his outright betrayal. With his armies
travelling at a leisurely pace, Sher Shah was gradually
drawing closer and closer to Agra. This was a serious threat to
the entire family, but Humayun and Kamran squabbled over
how to proceed. Kamran withdrew after Humayun refused to
make a quick attack on the approaching enemy, instead opting
to build a larger army under his own name.

When Kamran returned to Lahore, Humayun, with his other

brothers Askari and Hindal, marched to meet Sher Shah 200 Humayun, detail of miniature of the
kilometres (120 mi) east of Agra at the battle of Kannauj on Baburnama, painted circa 1590
17 May 1540. Humayun was soundly defeated. He retreated
to Agra, pursued by Sher Shah, and thence through Delhi to
Lahore. Sher Shah's founding of the short-lived Sur Empire, with its capital at Delhi, resulted in
Humayun's exile for 15 years in the court of Shah Tahmasp I.[23]

In Lahore
The four brothers were united in Lahore, but every day they were informed that Sher Shah was getting
closer and closer. When he reached Sirhind, Humayun sent an ambassador carrying the message "I have
left you the whole of Hindustan [i.e. the lands to the East of Punjab, comprising most of the Ganges
Valley]. Leave Lahore alone, and let Sirhind be a boundary between you and me." Sher Shah, however,
replied "I have left you Kabul. You should go there". Kabul was the capital of the empire of Humayun's
brother Kamran, who was far from willing to hand over any of his territories to his brother. Instead,
Kamran approached Sher Shah and proposed that he actually revolt against his brother and side with Sher
Shah in return for most of the Punjab. Sher Shah dismissed his help, believing it not to be required,
though word soon spread to Lahore about the treacherous proposal, and Humayun was urged to make an
example of Kamran and kill him. Humayun refused, citing the last words of his father, Babur, "Do
nothing against your brothers, even though they may deserve it."[24]

Meeting with the Sikh Guru – Guru Angad Sahib

Humayun visited Guru Angad at around 1540 after Humayun lost the Battle of Kannauj, and thereby the
Mughal throne to Sher Shah Suri.[25] According to Sikh hagiographies, when Humayun arrived in
Gurdwara Mal Akhara Sahib at Khadur Sahib, Guru Angad was sitting and teaching children.[26] The
failure to greet the Emperor immediately angered Humayun. Humayun lashed out but the Guru reminded
him that “the time when you needed to fight when you lost your throne, you ran away and did not fight,
and now you want to attack a person engaged in prayer.”[27] In the Sikh texts written more than a century
after the event, Guru Angad is said to have blessed the emperor, and reassured him that someday he will
regain the throne.[25]

Withdrawing further
Humayun decided it would be wise to withdraw still further.
He and his army rode out through and across the Thar Desert,
when the Hindu ruler Rao Maldeo Rathore allied with Sher
Shah Suri against the Mughal Empire. In many accounts
Humayun mentions how he and his pregnant wife had to trace
their steps through the desert at the hottest time of year. Their
rations were low, and they had little to eat; even drinking
water was a major problem in the desert. When Hamida
Bano's horse died, no one would lend the Queen (who was
now eight months pregnant) a horse, so Humayun did so
himself, resulting in him riding a camel for six kilometres
(four miles), although Khaled Beg then offered him his
mount. Humayun was later to describe this incident as the
lowest point in his life. Humayun asked that his brothers join
him as he fell back into Sindh. While the previously
rebellious Hindal Mirza remained loyal and was ordered to
join his brothers in Kandahar, Kamran Mirza and Askari
Humayun's Genealogical Order up to
Mirza instead decided to head to the relative peace of Kabul. Timur
This was to be a definitive schism in the family. Humayun
headed for Sindh because he expected aid from the Emir of
Sindh, Hussein Umrani, whom he had appointed and who owed him his allegiance. Also, his wife
Hamida hailed from Sindh; she was the daughter of a prestigious pir family (a pir is an Islamic religious
guide) of Persian heritage long settled in Sindh. En route to the Emir's court, Humayun had to break
journey because his pregnant wife Hamida was unable to travel further. Humayun sought refuge with the
Hindu ruler of the oasis town of Amarkot (now part of Sindh province).[28]

Rana Prasad Rao of Amarkot duly welcomed Humayun into his home and sheltered the refugees for
several months. Here, in the household of a Hindu Rajput nobleman, Humayun's wife Hamida Bano,
daughter of a Persian family, gave birth to the future Emperor Akbar on 15 October 1542. The date of
birth is well established because Humayun consulted his astronomer to utilise the astrolabe and check the
location of the planets. The infant was the long-awaited heir-apparent to the 34-year-old Humayun and
the answer of many prayers. Shortly after the birth, Humayun and his party left Amarkot for Sindh,
leaving Akbar behind, who was not ready for the grueling journey ahead in his infancy. He was later
adopted by Askari Mirza.

For a change, Humayun was not deceived in the character of the man on whom he has pinned his hopes.
Emir Hussein Umrani, ruler of Sindh, welcomed Humayun's presence and was loyal to him, just as he
had been loyal to Babur against the renegade Arghuns. While in Sindh, Humayun alongside Hussein
Umrani, gathered horses and weapons and formed new alliances that helped regain lost territories. Until
finally Humayun had gathered hundreds of Sindhi and Baloch tribesmen alongside his Mughals and then
marched towards Kandahar and later Kabul, thousands more gathered by his side as Humayun
continually declared himself the rightful Timurid heir of the first Mughal Emperor, Babur.

Retreat to Kabul
After Humayun set out from his expedition in Sindh, along
with 300 camels (mostly wild) and 2000 loads of grain, he set
off to join his brothers in Kandahar after crossing the Indus
River on 11 July 1543 along with the ambition to regain the
Mughal Empire and overthrow the Suri dynasty. Among the
tribes that had sworn allegiance to Humayun were the
Leghari, Magsi, Rind and many others.[29]

In Kamran Mirza's territory, Hindal Mirza had been placed

under house arrest in Kabul after refusing to have the Khutba
recited in Kamran Mirza's name. His other brother, Askari
Mirza, was now ordered to gather an army and march on
Humayun. When Humayun received word of the approaching
hostile army he decided against facing them, and instead
sought refuge elsewhere. Akbar was left behind in camp close
to Kandahar, as it was December, too cold and dangerous to
include the 14-month-old toddler in the march through the
mountains of the Hindu Kush. Askari Mirza took Akbar in,
leaving the wives of Kamran and Askari Mirza to raise him.
The Akbarnama specifies Kamran Mirza's wife, Sultan Humayun and his Mughal Army defeats
Begam.[30] Kamran Mirza in 1553.

Once again Humayun turned toward Kandahar where his

brother Kamran Mirza was in power, but he received no help and had to seek refuge with the Shah of
Persia[31]

Refuge in Persia
Humayun fled to the refuge of the Safavid Empire in Persia, marching with 40 men, his wife Bega
Begum,[32] and her companion through mountains and valleys. Among other trials, the imperial party
were forced to live on horse meat boiled in the soldiers' helmets. These indignities continued during the
month it took them to reach Herat. However, after their arrival they were reintroduced to the finer things
in life. Upon entering the city his army was greeted with an armed escort, and they were treated to lavish
food and clothing. They were given fine accommodation and the roads were cleared and cleaned before
them. The Shah, Tahmasp I, unlike Humayun's own family, welcomed the Mughal, and treated him as a
royal visitor. After his arrival in Herat, Humayun went sightseeing and was amazed at the Persian artwork
and architecture he saw: much of this was the work sponsored by the Timurid Sultan Husayn Bayqarah
and his ancestor, princess Gauhar Shad. Thus Humayun was able to admire the work of his relatives and
ancestors at first hand.
The Mughal monarch was introduced to
the work of the Persian miniaturists, and
Kamaleddin Behzad sent two of his
pupils to join Humayun's court.
Humayun was amazed by their work and
asked if they would serve him if he
regained the sovereignty of Hindustan;
they agreed. With so much happening,
Humayun did not meet Tahmasp until
July, six months after his arrival in
Persia. After a lengthy journey from
Herat the two met in Qazvin where a Encounter of Humayun (left) and Shah Tahmasp I (right) in
Soltaniyeh in 1544. Chehel Sotoun Palace, Isfahan, painted
large feast and parties were held for the
circa 1647. Shah Tahmasp provided Humayun with 12,000
event. The meeting of the two emperors
cavalry and 300 veterans of his personal guard along with
is depicted in a famous wall-painting in provisions, so that his guest may recover his lost domains.[33]
the Chehel Sotoun (Forty Columns)
palace in Esfahan.

Tahmasp urged that Humayun convert from Sunni to Shia Islam in order to keep himself and several
hundred followers alive. Although the Mughals initially disagreed to their conversion they knew that with
this outward acceptance of Shi'ism, Tahmasp was eventually prepared to offer Humayun more substantial
support.[34] When Humayun's brother, Kamran Mirza, offered to cede Kandahar to the Persians in
exchange for Humayun, dead or alive, Tahmasp refused. Instead he staged a celebration, with 300 tents,
an imperial Persian carpet, 12 musical bands and "meat of all kinds". Here the Shah announced that
12,000 elite cavalry and 300 veterans of Shah's personal guard along with provisions were Humayun's so
that he could lead an attack on Kamran and recover his lost domains. All that Tahmasp asked was for
Kandahar would be his if Humayun's forces were victorious.

Kandahar and onward

On 21 March 1545, Humayun, with the Safavid support, reached the area around Kandahar with 14,000
Persian soldiers and began a siege. During the siege, he sent Bairam Khan to Kabul in an effort to win
over the Timurid princes and nobles. On 3 September 1545, Mirza Askari gave up the fort, and Kandahar
was handed over to the Persians as agreed. However, the Persian troops stopped offering further
assistance. With his own supporters gathering but lacking shelter, Humayun felt forced to act. One month
later, he launched a surprise attack on Kandahar, drove out the Persian garrison, and took control of the
city despite having promised it to Shah Tahmasp.[35] After appointing Bairam Khan as governor of
Kandahar, Humayun set off for Kabul. Mirza Hindal joined him on the journey, while desertions in his
own camp forced Kamran Mirza to escape into Sind. By 18 November 1545, Humayun entered Kabul
without resistance and soon met his son Akbar after nearly two years. With both Kandahar and Kabul
under his control, he effectively dominated southern Afghanistan.[35]

In March 1546, Humayun began a campaign in northern Afghanistan, Badakhshan, against the local ruler,
Mirza Sulaiman, who had recently been freed from Kamran’s influence in Kabul. Accompanied by
Askari, Humayun ordered the execution of Yadgar Nasir Mirza because he was showing signs of
disloyalty. At Tirgiran, he defeated Sulaiman, who then fled to Kulab. Humayun continued on to Kishm
and Qila Zafar, but a serious illness weakened his forces and allowed
Kamran to leave Sindh. With help from his father-in-law Shah Husain,
Kamran returned to Afghanistan, captured Ghazni (executing its
governor Zahid Beg), and advanced on Kabul. Kamran took Kabul by
force, terrorising many of Humayun’s supporters. Despite harsh winter
conditions, Humayun hurried back, besieged the city for several
months, and the fighting became so fierce that Kamran even placed
Akbar on the battlements, exposing him to enemy fire. Realising he
could not hold the fort, Kamran escaped through a breach in the wall
on 27 April 1547, narrowly avoiding capture. Initially seeking support
from Mirza Sulaiman, Kamran then allied with the Uzbek chief Pir
Muhammad Khan of Balkh to capture much of Badakhshan. In
response, Humayun launched a second campaign against Badakhshan
in June 1548. He travelled through Andarab, where Mirza Hindal
The infant Akbar presents a
joined him from Qunduz, to Taliqan, which he besieged. When Kamran painting to his father Humayun.
failed to secure further Uzbek support, he surrendered on 17 August Contemporary painting made
1548 and was granted Kulab, north of the Oxus, as his fief, a move that from life in Kabul, circa 1550-
was seen as an insult by the former rulers of Kabul and Badakhshan. 56
Humayun then returned to Kabul in October. [35] By February 1549,
Humayun led another campaign, this time against Balkh and the
Uzbeks, who had long been his enemies. Even though Mirza Hindal and Mirza Sulaiman supported him,
Kamran refused to help. Early successes against Pir Muhammad Khan’s forces nearly enabled Humayun
to capture Balkh, but the news of Kamran’s attack on Kabul demoralised his troops, resulting in a chaotic
retreat and heavy losses. Meanwhile, Kamran seized Taliqan and Qila Zafar and clashed with Mirza
Hindal, though he was eventually forced back into the Hazara region.[35]

Around mid-1550, Humayun marched from Kabul toward Ghurband to punish his unruly brother. In a
narrow pass known as the Qibchaq defile, Kamran ambushed him, causing significant casualties and
wounding Humayun. Kamran quickly took control of Kabul and held it for three months, while many
believed Humayun to be dead as he hid in Andarab. Reinforcements sent by Mirza Sulaiman’s wife
enabled Humayun to challenge Kamran, and after a hard-fought battle for Kabul, Kamran was forced to
flee. His ally, Mirza ‘Askari, was captured and exiled.[35] Even after regaining Kabul, Humayun still
faced the threat from Kamran, who had teamed up with the influential officer Haji Muhammad Khan. To
deal with this danger, Humayun recalled Bairam Khan from Qandahar. Bairam Khan succeeded in
persuading Haji Muhammad Khan to switch sides. Already hardened by past betrayals—evident in the
executions of Yadgar Nasir Mirza and the exile of ‘Askari—Humayun ordered the execution of Haji
Muhammad Khan. Kamran then rallied Afghan forces and stirred up trouble between Kabul and the
Indus. On the night of 20 November 1551, Kamran launched a surprise attack at Jiryar in Nangarhar.
Although Kamran was ultimately defeated, Mirza Hindal was killed in the conflict. Humayun pursued
Kamran, who fled to Punjab and sought refuge with Islam Shah, though he received little support there.
Eventually, Kamran found temporary shelter with Sultan Adam, a local Gakkhar chief, who hesitantly
handed him over to Humayun. On his nobles’ advice, Humayun had Kamran blinded in 1553 and sent
him off to Mecca. Later historians noted that Kamran suffered more from the turmoil than he caused.[35]

After these events, Humayun planned an expedition into Kashmir, where a brief Mughal rule under
Haidar Mirza had ended two years earlier, but opposition from his advisors forced him to return to Kabul
in December 1553.[35] Throughout these struggles in Afghanistan, Humayun’s position was strongly
supported by Bairam Khan, who managed Kandahar as a
secure base. By 1554, Bairam Khan left Kandahar to join
Humayun as he prepared for an Indian campaign. At that
time, Humayun had firm control over Kandahar, Kabul, and
Ghazni, and with his brothers out of the picture, no rival
threatened his throne. When news arrived of Islam Shah’s
death and of widespread chaos in India marked by the rule of
the young Firuz and civil war among the Afghans—Humayun
realized it was time to make another bid for the throne of
Delhi.[35][36]

Restoration of the Mughal Empire

Humayun gathered a vast army and attempted the challenging
task of retaking the throne in Delhi. Due to the Safavid role in
Humayun's army, the vast majority of the soldiers were of the
Shi’a faith. As one Shaikh Ahmad described to Humayun,
"My king, I see the whole of your army are Rafizi...
Everywhere the names of your soldiers are of this kind. I find Humayun is reunited with Akbar.
they are all Yar Ali or Kashfi Ali or Haider Ali and I have, not
found a single man bearing the names of the other
Companions."[37] Humayun placed the army under the
leadership of Bairam Khan, a wise move given Humayun's
record of military ineptitude, and it turned out to be prescient
as Bairam proved himself a great tactician.

Bairam Khan led the army through the Punjab virtually

unopposed. The only major battle faced by Humayun's armies
was against Sikandar Shah Suri in Sirhind, where Bairam
Khan employed a tactic whereby he engaged his enemy in
open battle but then retreated quickly in apparent fear. When
the enemy followed after them, they were surprised by
entrenched defensive positions and were easily
annihilated.[38] At the Battle of Sirhind on 22 June 1555, the
armies of Sikandar Shah Suri were decisively defeated and
the Mughal Empire was reestablished.[39]

After Sirhind fell, most towns and villages chose to welcome

the invading army as it made its way to the capital Delhi. On
23 July 1555, Humayun once again sat on Babur's throne in Humayun receiving the head of his
opponent, Qaracha Khan.
Delhi.[40]

Marriage relations with the Khanzadas

The Gazetteer of Ulwur states:
 Soon after Babur's death, his successor, Humayun,
was in AD 1540 supplanted by the Pathan Sher
Shah, who, in AD 1545, was followed by Islam
Shah. During the reign of the latter a battle was
fought and lost by the Emperor's troops at Firozpur
Jhirka, in Mewat, on which, however, Islam Shah
did not loose his hold. Adil Shah, the third of the
Pathan interlopers, who succeeded in AD 1552, had
to contend for the Empire with the returned
Humayun. In these struggles for the restoration of
Babar's dynasty Khanzadas apparently do not figure
at all. Humayun seems to have conciliated them by
marrying the elder daughter of Jamal Khan, nephew
of Babar's opponent, Hasan Khan and, by causing
his great minister, Bairam Khan, to marry a younger
daughter of the same Mewatti.[41]

An image from an album commissioned

Ruling Kashmir by Shah Jahan shows Humayun sitting
beneath a tree in his garden in India.
With all of Humayun's brothers now dead, there was no fear
of another usurping his throne during his military campaigns.
He was also now an established leader and could trust his
generals. With this new-found strength Humayun embarked on
a series of military campaigns aimed at extending his reign
over areas in the east and west of the subcontinent. His sojourn
in exile seems to have reduced his reliance, and his military
leadership came to imitate the more effective methods that he
had observed in Persia.[42] Copper coin of Humayun

Family

Consorts
Bega Begum (died 1581), daughter of Yadgar Beg;[43]
Gulbarg Begum, daughter of Nizam-ud-din Ali Barlas, Babur's Khalifa and Sultanum Begum;
She was a former wife of Mir Shah Hussain Arghun;[44]
Maywa Jan, daughter of Khazang yasawal and a servant of Gulbadan Begum;[45][46]
Hamida Banu Begum (m. 1541, died 1604), daughter of Sheikh Ali Akbar Jami;[47]
Mahchuchak Begum (m. 1546; murdered in 1564), sister of Bairam Oghlan and Faridun
Khan Kabuli;[48]
Khanisha Aghacha, daughter of Jujuq Mirza Khwarizmi;[49]
Agha Jan;[50]
Chand Bibi;[51]
 Shad Bibi;[52]
Gunwar Bibi;[53][54]

Sons
Al-aman Mirza (1528 – 1536). Heir apparent of Mughal Empire; With Bega Begum
Akbar I (15 October 1542 – 27 October 1605). Next emperor; With Hamida Banu Begum
Mirza Muhammad Hakim (29 April 1553 – 10 October 1585). He reigned as Subahdar of
Kabul; With Mah Chuchak Begum
Farrukh Fal Mirza (born 1554 — died young) — with Mah Chuchak Begum;
Ibrahim Sultan Mirza (born 19 April 1553) — with Khanish Aghacha;[55]

Daughters
Aqiqa Sultan Begum (1531 – 1539) — with Bega Begum;[56]
Bakshi Banu Begum (born 1540) - with Gunwar Bibi; Married to Mirza Sharif-ud-din Hussain
Ahrari;[57]
Jahan Sultan Begum (1545 – 1547);[58]
Bakht-un-Nissa Begum (1547 – 2 June 1608) — with Mah Chuchak Begum; Married twice,
and had two sons;
Sakina Banu Begum (died 25 August 1604) — with Mah Chuchak Begum; Married to Shah
Ghazi Khan;[59]
Amina Banu Begum — with Mah Chuchak Begum;[60]

Character
Edward S. Holden writes; "He was uniformly kind and considerate to his dependents, devotedly attached
to his son Akbar, to his friends, and to his turbulent brothers. The misfortunes of his reign arose in great
part, from his failure to treat them with rigor." He further writes: "The very defects of his character, which
render him less admirable as a successful ruler of nations, make us more fond of him as a man. His
renown has suffered in that his reign came between the brilliant conquests of Babur and the beneficent
statesmanship of Akbar; but he was not unworthy to be the son of the one and the father of the other."[61]

Stanley Lane-Poole writes in his book Medieval India: "His name meant the winner (Lucky/Conqueror),
there is no king in the history to be named as wrong as Humayun", he was of a forgiving nature. He
further writes, "He was in fact unfortunate ... Scarcely had he enjoyed his throne for six months in Delhi
when he slipped down from the polished steps of his palace and died in his forty-ninth year (Jan. 24,
1556). If there was a possibility of falling, Humayun was not the man to miss it. He tumbled through his
life and tumbled out of it."[62]

Humayun ordered the crushing by elephant of an imam he mistakenly believed to be critical of his
reign.[63]
Death and legacy
On 24 January 1556, Humayun, with his arms full of books,
was descending the staircase from his library Sher Mandal
when the muezzin announced the Azaan (the call to prayer). It
was his habit, wherever and whenever he heard the summons,
to bow his knee in holy reverence. Trying to kneel, he caught
his foot in his robe, slipped down several steps and hit his
temple on a rugged stone edge. He died three days later.[64]
His body was laid to rest in Purana Quila initially, but,
because of an attack by Hemu on Delhi and the capture of
Purana Qila, Humayun's body was exhumed by the fleeing
army and transferred to Kalanaur in Punjab where Akbar was
crowned. After young Mughal emperor Akbar defeated and
killed Hemu in the Second Battle of Panipat, Humayun's body
was buried in Humayun's Tomb in Delhi the first very grand
garden tomb in Mughal architecture, setting the precedent
later followed by the Taj Mahal and many other Indian
monuments. It was commissioned by his favorite and devoted
chief wife, Bega Begum.[65][66][67][68][69][70]
Tomb entrance view
Akbar later asked his paternal aunt, Gulbadan Begum, to
write a biography of his father Humayun, the Humayun
nameh (or Humayun-nama), and what she remembered of Babur. The full title is Ahwal Humayun
Padshah Jamah Kardom Gulbadan Begum bint Babur Padshah amma Akbar Padshah.[71] She was only
eight when Babur died, and was married at 17, and her work is in simple Persian style. Unlike other
Mughal royal biographies (the Zafarnama of Timur, Baburnama, and Akbar's own Akbarnama) no richly
illustrated copy has survived, and the work is only known from a single battered and slightly incomplete
manuscript, now in the British Library, that emerged in the 1860s. Annette Beveridge published an
English translation in 1901,[72] and editions in English and Bengali have been published since 2000.[73]

In popular culture
1945 Indian film Humayun, he was portrayed by Ashok Kumar
1997 Pakistan series Babar he was portrayed by Babar Ali
Ankur Nayyar portrayed Humayun in the 2017 Indian television series Akbar Rakht Se Takht
Ka Safar.
in the 2021 Indian drama " The Empire " he was portrayed by Aditya Seal

See also
Humayun (film)
Persian Inscriptions on Indian Monuments
Dara Shikoh
Footnotes
1. "Babur and Humayun with Courtiers, from the Late Shah Jahan Album" ([Link]
[Link]/object/S1986.401/). Smithsonian's National Museum of Asian Art. "The first Mughal
emperor, Babur, who reigned from 1526 to 1530, is shown seated on the right with his son
and successor, Humayun."
2. Mehta, Jaswant Lal (1981). Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India. Vol. II
(1st ed.). Sterling Publishers. p. 108. OCLC 221798951 ([Link]
1798951).
3. "Story of second Mughal emeperor Humayun | [Link]" ([Link]
n-the-merciful/?srsltid=AfmBOoopukcQMeNQ16gIf2aj4iUP7rt8nnghReCxhq-REgXPKt-Ya3f
j). April 2017.
4. Mitchiner, M. 1977. Oriental coins and their values: The world of Islam. London: Hawkins
Publications. p. 378.
5. Prasad, Ishwari (1955). The Life and Times of Humayun ([Link]
507583/page/n19/mode/1up?view=theater). Orient Longmans. p. 1-Footnotes.
6. Fazl, Abul (1907). The Akbarnama of Abu'l Fazl ([Link]
55648/page/n296/mode/1up?view=theater). Vol. I. Translated by Henry Beveridge. The
Asiatic Society. p. 285.
7. Sharaf Al-Din: "Zafar-nama".
8. Soucek, Svat (2000). A History of Inner Asia ([Link]
uc). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-65704-4.
9. William Bayne Fisher, Peter Jackson, Peter Avery, Lawrence Lockhart, John Andrew Boyle,
Ilya Gershevitch, Richard Nelson Frye, Charles Melville, Gavin Hambly, The Cambridge
History of Iran, Volume VI (1986), pp. 99–101
10. Roy, S. (1974). "Humayun" ([Link]
age/65/mode/1up). In Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra (ed.). The History and Culture of the
Indian People. Vol. VII. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. p. 65.
11. Saifi, Tanish (15 January 2023). "Top Interesting Facts about Humayun - TS HISTORICAL"
([Link] Retrieved 21 March 2025.
12. Keay, John (2000). India : A History. London: HarperCollins. p. 298. ISBN 0002557177.
13. Banerji 1938
14. Honchell, Stephanie (August 2010). Pursuing pleasure, attaining oblivion: the roles and
uses of intoxicants at the Mughal court ([Link]
cle=1627&context=etd) (M.A.). University of Louisville. doi:10.18297/etd/628 ([Link]
10.18297%2Fetd%2F628). Retrieved 9 September 2020.
15. V. D. Mahajan (2007). History of Medieval India ([Link]
Quf4oSIC&dq=tatar+khan+lodi+bahadur+shah&pg=RA2-PA24). S. Chand. p. 25.
ISBN 9788121903646.
16. Richards 1993, p. 10
17. Gascoigne 1971, pp. 50–51
18. Eaton, Richard Maxwell (2019). India in the Persianate age, 1000-1765. University of
California Press. p. 208. ISBN 978-0-520-97423-4.
19. Gascoigne 1971, p. 50: "Hindal ... had been stationed ... for the purpose of securing
Humayun's rear, but he had deserted his post ... another brother, Kamran, ... was also
converging on Delhi from his territories in the Punjap – ostensibly to help Humayun but in
reality ... to stake his own claim to his brother's crumbling empire. [Kamran] dissuaded
Hindal from further open disloyalty, but ... the two brothers now disregarded Humayun's
urgent appeals for help on his dangerous journey back through the territory which had been
relinquished by Hindal to Sher Khan."
20. Gascoigne 1971, pp. 50
21. Gascoigne 1971, pp. 50–51: "Humayun's brief advance brought his army out of its prepared
defensive position, and Sher Shah, having withdrawn a few miles, returned at night to find
the Mogul camp asleep and unprepared. The emperor himself escaped only because one of
his water-bearers inflated his water-skin with air for Humayun to hold in his arms and float
[across the Ganges] ... Humayun crept back to Agra."
22. Ruby Lal (22 September 2005). Domesticity and Power in the Early Mughal World ([Link]
[Link]/books?id=B8NJ41GiXvsC&pg=PA64). Cambridge University Press. p. 64.
ISBN 978-0-521-85022-3.
23. Sen, Sailendra Nath (2013). A Textbook of Medieval Indian History. Primus Books. p. 154.
ISBN 978-93-80607-34-4. "Kamran withdrew from Agra to Lahore. ... In the Battle of Kanauj
(17 May 1540) ... Humayun was defeated. His two younger brothers, Askari and Hindal, also
... Humayun fled to Agra but was pursued by the Afghans, who drove him first to Delhi and
then to Lahore. ... Finally ... he took shelter at the court of the Iranian king, Shah Tahmasp.
Thus began a weary exile which lasted for nearly 15 years."
24. Gascoigne 1971, pp. 47, 52
25. Singh, Pashaura; Fenech, Louis (2014). The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies (First ed.).
Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 41. ISBN 9780191004124.
26. Singh, Ajit (2005). Suraj Prakash Granth part 5 ras 4. p. 177. ISBN 81-7601-685-3.
27. Singh, Gurpreet (2001). Ten Masters. New Delhi: Diamond Pocket Books (P) Ltd. p. 53.
ISBN 9788171829460.
28. Sarwani, Abbas Khan (2006). Tareekh-i- Sher Shahi. Lahore, Pakistan: Sang-i-Meel
Publishers. ISBN 978-9693518047.
29. Humayun, Mirza Nasir al-Din Muhammad (14 March 2024). "Humayun" ([Link]
[Link]/biography/Humayun-Mughal-emperor). britannica.
30. Abū al-Faz̤ l ibn Mubārak, ch. 29, 194–95 in Henry Beveridge trans.; Henry Sullivan Jarrett
and Jadunath Sarkar, eds., The Akbar Nāmā of Abu-l-Fazl, Volume 1 (London: Royal Asiatic
Society, 1907), pp. 395–96. Jadunath's editorial footnote adds, "This lady went, after her
husband's death, to Mecca in company with Gulbadan Begam and others in 1574." (396)
Akbar himself remained between Kandahar and Kabul until 1551, the year of his first
marriage and imperial appointment, in Ghazni; see Mehta, Jaswant Lal (1984) [First
published 1981]. Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India ([Link]
m/books?id=-TsMl0vSc0gC&pg=PG189). Vol. II (2nd ed.). Sterling Publishers. p. 189.
ISBN 978-81-207-1015-3. OCLC 1008395679 ([Link]
9).
31. Ikram, S. M. (1964). "X. The Establishment of the Mughal Empire" ([Link]
itc/mealac/pritchett/00islamlinks/ikram/part2_10.html). Muslim Civilization in India. New
York: Columbia University Press. "He ... turned toward Qandahar where his brother Kamran
was in power, but he received no help and had to seek refuge with the Shah of Persia.".
32. Rapson, Edward James; Haig, Sir Wolseley; Burn, Sir Richard (1968). The Cambridge
History of India. Vol. 5. Cambridge University Press Archive. "The tomb was built by
Humayun's widow, Haji Begum, who shared his long exile at the court of the Safavids."
33. Eraly, Abraham (2000). Emperors of the Peacock Throne: The Saga of the Great Mughals (h
ttps://[Link]/books?id=04ellRQx4nMC&q=Shah+Tahmasp+Humayun+12,000+c
avalry&pg=PA108). Penguin Books India. ISBN 978-0-14-100143-2.
34. Richards 1993, p. 11: "At the Safavid court, Humayun, under extreme duress, accepted the
Shia faith in order to keep himself and several hundred followers alive. After this initial test,
Tahmasp grew more friendly and eventually agreed to underwrite Humayun's attempt to
regain power."
35. Majumdar, R. C. (1974). The Mughal Empire. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. p. 59.
36. Tripathi, Ram Prasad (1998). "The Turko-Mongol Theory of Kingship". In Alam, Muzaffar;
Subrahmanyam, Sanjay (eds.). The Mughal State 1526–1750. Oxford University Press.
p. 124. ISBN 0-19-563905-7.
37. Husain, Afzal; Husan, Afzal (1981). "LIBERTY AND RESTRAINT—A STUDY OF SHIAISM
IN THE MUGIAL NOBILITY" ([Link] Proceedings of the
Indian History Congress. 42: 276. JSTOR 44141140 ([Link]
0).
38. Sankaran, Sahaj. "22 June, 1555: Humayun Wins the Battle of Sirhind | Today in Indian
History from Honesty Is Best" ([Link]
2/mughal-restoration/). [Link]. Retrieved 29 August 2023.
39. "Battles for India at Sirhind" ([Link]
es-for-india-at-sirhind/). Times of India Blog. 18 March 2018. Retrieved 25 October 2022.
40. Toler, Pamela D. (February 2011). "An Untimely Death" ([Link]
[Link]/[Link]?direct=true&db=mat&AN=57855763&site=eds-live&scope=site.).
Calliope. 21 (5): 3 – via EBSCOhost.
41. Powlett, P. W. (1878). Gazetteer of Ulwur ([Link]
liala#page/8/mode/2up/search/bairam). London: Trübner & Co. pp. 7–8.
42. Prasad, Ishwari (1976). The Life and Times of Humayun ([Link]
d=-HxDAAAAYAAJ&q=Humayun). Central Book Depot.
43. Begum 1902, p. 218.
44. Begum 1902, p. 230.
45. Mukhia 2004, p. 124.
46. Begum 1902, p. 263.
47. Begum 1902, pp. 237, 240, 241.
48. Begum 1902, p. 260.
49. Begum 1902, pp. 189, 248.
50. Begum 1902, p. 131.
51. Begum 1902, p. 136.
52. Begum 1902, p. 282.
53. Begum 1902, p. 146.
54. Lal, Muni (1980). Akbar. Vikas. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-7069-1076-6.
55. Begum 1902, p. 248.
56. Begum 1902, p. 208.
57. Begum 1902, p. 214.
58. Begum 1902, p. 184.
59. Begum 1902, p. 275.
60. Begum 1902, p. 206.
61. Holden, Edward S. (2004) [1895]. Mughal Emperors of Hindustan (1398–1707). New Delhi,
India: Asian Educational Service. pp. 123–127. ISBN 978-81-206-1883-1.
62. Lane-Poole, Stanley (1903). Medieval India under Mohammedan Rule (712–1764). New
York, US: G. P. Putnam's Sons. pp. 230–237.
63. Eraly, Abraham. Mughal Throne: The Saga of India's Great Emperors, Phoenix House,
2005. ISBN 0-7538-1758-6, p. 45.
64. Smith, Vincent Arthur (1958) [First published 1917]. Akbar: The Great Mogul 1542–1605 (htt
ps://[Link]/details/[Link].2015.499248/page/n37/mode/1up) (2nd ed.). S. Chand &
Co. pp. 21–22.
65. Kamiya, Takeo. "Humayun's Tomb in Delhi" ([Link]
m_eng.htm). UNESCO. Retrieved 12 July 2013.
66. Banerji 1938, pp. 97, 232
67. Burke, S. M. (1989). Akbar, the Greatest Mogul ([Link]
g0000smbu/page/191/mode/1up). Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers. p. 191.
OCLC 243709755 ([Link] "The mausoleum which
Haji Begum built at Delhi to shelter her late husband's mortal remains ... Another pleasing
feature is the laying out of a large garden round the building."
68. Eraly, Abraham (2007). The Mughal world: Life in India's Last Golden Age ([Link]
g/details/mughalworldlifei00eral). Penguin Books. p. 369 ([Link]
worldlifei00eral/page/n374). ISBN 978-0-14-310262-5.
69. Henderson, Carol E. (2002). Culture and Customs of India. Greenwood Press. p. 90.
ISBN 978-0-313-30513-9. "After Mughal emperor Humayan's death in 1556, his wife, Hajji
Begum, assembled a team of architects and builders to create a grand tomb in Delhi. She
placed the tomb in a grid with a garden. This setting became a signature of Mughal
architecture and is most perfectly realized in the Taj Mahal."
70. "Mausoleum that Humayun never built" ([Link]
p://[Link]/thehindu/mp/2003/04/28/stories/[Link]). The
Hindu. 28 April 2003. Archived from the original ([Link]
3/04/28/stories/[Link]) on 8 July 2003. Retrieved 31 January 2013.
71. The Humayun Namah, by Gulbadan Begam, a study site by Deanna Ramsay ([Link]
[Link]/itc/mealac/pritchett/00litlinks/gulbadan/[Link])
72. Begam, Gulbaden (1902). Beveridge, Annette Susannah (ed.). The history of Humāyūn
(Humāyūn-nāma) ([Link] London: Royal
Asiatic Society. Retrieved 14 December 2017.
73. Bengali: trans by Pradosh Chattopadhyay, 2006, pub. Chirayata Prokashan, ISBN 81-
85696-66-7

References
Banerji, S. K. (1938). Humayun Badshah ([Link]
8mbp). Oxford University Press.
Gascoigne, Bamber (1971). The Great Moghuls ([Link]
gasc). New York: Harper & Row. ISBN 978-006-011467-1.
Mukhia, Harbans (2004). The Mughals of India. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-
631-18555-0.
Richards, John F. (1993). Johnson, Gordon (ed.). The Mughal Empire ([Link]
com/books?id=HHyVh29gy4QC&pg=PA11). The New Cambridge History of India. Vol. I.5.
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-25119-8.

Bibliography
Begum, Gulbadan (1902). The History of Humāyūn (Humāyūn-nāmah) (English translation
and Persian text) ([Link] Translated by
Annette S. Beveridge. Royal Asiatic Society.; English translation only, as text ([Link]
[Link]/main?url=pf%3Ffile%3D07701010%26ct%3D0)
 Jawhar (fl. 1554) (1832). The Tezkereh Al Vakiāt: Or, Private Memoirs of the Moghul
Emperor Humayun ([Link] Translated by
Charles Stewart. Oriental Translation Fund.
Haig, Wolseley, ed. (1928). The Cambridge History of India ([Link]
ridgehistory035492mbp). Vol. 3. Cambridge University Press.
Burn, Richard, ed. (1937). The Cambridge History of India ([Link]
idgeHistoryOfIndiaVol.4TheMughulPeriod/mode/2up). Vol. 4. planned by Wolseley Haig.
Cambridge University Press.
Irvine, William (1902). The army of the Indian Moghuls: its organization and administration
([Link] Luzac.
Gommans, Jos (2003). Mughal Warfare ([Link]
ontiers). New York: Routledge.
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Humayun" ([Link]
3%A6dia_Britannica/Humayun). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 13 (11th ed.). Cambridge
University Press. p. 872.

External links

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