HEAT

Transfer of Heat Notes

Sources of heat

 There are different sources of heat.

 Heat is helpful to us for cooking, drying and boiling water to make it safe for drinking and keep us warm in cold weather.

o The sun is the primary source of heat on Earth. Without the sun, Earth would be extremely cold, and organisms
would not be able to survive.
o Fuel, such as firewood and charcoal, produce heat when burnt.
o Geysers and volcanoes are natural sources of heat.
o In households, electricity is used to produce heat in electrical appliances such as a toaster, electric kettle, iron,
oven and water heater.

Transfer of heat

 Heat flows from a region of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature until both regions are of the same
temperature.
 The hotter object loses heat to the cooler object or surroundings.
 The cooler object gains heat from the hotter object or surroundings

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2|PA G E
Conduction of Heat Notes

Heat conduction

 The transfer of heat through a material without any movement of the material is called conduction.
 Heat conduction takes place through the movement of heat energy from particle to particle within the material.

 Materials differ in their ability to conduct heat.

o Liquids and gases, which have particles that are farther away from each other, tend to be poorer
conductors of heat than solids.
o Air is a poor conductor of heat.

o In general, metals are good conductors of heat while most non-metals are poor conductors of heat.
 An exception is diamond, which is a good conductor of heat.

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Applications of Good and Poor Conductors of Heat
 Good conductors of heat are used to make cooking utensils to conduct heat from the flame to the food quickly.
 Poor conductors of heat are used to make oven mitts to conduct heat from the hot tray to the user’s hands slowly,
preventing them from being burned.
 Winter clothes trap air, which is a poor conductor of heat, to reduce heat loss from the body to the cooler surroundings.

Surface area

 The exposed surface area of an object affects its ability to gain or lose heat.
 The greater the exposed surface area for heat transfer to take place, the greater the rate of heat transfer.

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Effects of Heat Notes

Change in state

 Heat gain or heat loss can cause matter to undergo a change in state.

Expansion and contraction

 In general, matter expands and takes up more space when it gains heat.
 Matter contracts and takes up less space when it loses heat.

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  Liquids expand and contract more than solids when heated or cooled.
 Gases expand and contract more than liquids when heated or cooled.

Applications of expansion and contraction

 Railway tracks are built with gaps to allow space for the metal tracks to gain heat from the surrounding air, expand and
become longer on a hot day without buckling.
 When a thermometer is placed in matter of a higher temperature, the liquid in the thermometer gains heat and expands,
causing it to move up the thermometer.
 When a thermometer is placed in matter of lower temperature, the liquid in the thermometer loses heat and contracts,
causing it to move down the thermometer.
 Telephone or power lines are hung slack to prevent them from snapping when they lose heat to the surrounding air,
contract and become shorter in cold weather.

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Heat Energy Notes

Heat energy

 Heat is a form of energy.

 Heat is not matter and does not have mass.
 The amount of heat energy in a given object depends on its temperature and mass or volume.
 The greater the mass or volume, the greater the amount of heat energy.
 The higher the temperature, the greater the amount of heat energy.
o Temperature is the measure of the degree of hotness of an object and is not the same as heat energy.
o For example, due to the difference in mass, a cup of hot water at 85 °C has a higher temperature than a
1-tonne block of ice, but contains less heat energy.

MATTER

Mass and Volume Notes

Matter

 Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass

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Volume

 Volume is a measure of the amount of space that an object occupies.

 The units of measurement for volume include cubic centimetre (cm 3), litre (ℓ) and millilitre (mℓ).
 The volume of objects with irregular shapes can be determined by measuring the volume of water they displace, using a
measuring cylinder and/or a displacement can.
 Since objects occupy space, the volume of water displaced is equal to the volume of the object.

Measuring the volume of objects

 A small object can be lowered directly into a measuring cylinder of water to find out the volume of water it displaces.
 For larger objects that cannot fit into a measuring cylinder, a displacement can may be used.
 The objects need to be fully submerged in the water.

Mass

 Mass is a measure of the amount of matter in an object.

 The units of measurement for mass include kilogram (kg) and gram (g).
 The mass of objects can be measured using a beam balance or a scale.

States of Matter Notes

States of matter

 All matter is made up of small, discrete particles.

 These particles move all the time in random directions.
 Depending on the arrangement of the particles and how much freedom they have to move around, matter can be in the
solid, liquid or gaseous state.

Solids

 The particles in a solid are packed closely together in a regular pattern.

 Examples of solids include an apple, a marble and an ice cube.
 Solids have a definite shape.
o A marble has the same shape and occupies the same amount of space when it is placed in different
containers.
o Objects such as sand, salt and plasticine are also solids.
 Sand and salt are made up of small particles which are able to move around each other
to take the shape of the container. Each particle, however, is a solid and has a definite
shape.
 Plasticine is a solid which has a definite shape. It can only change in shape when a
force is applied to it.

 Solids have a definite volume and cannot be compressed.

Liquids

 The particles in a liquid are not held in a regular pattern and are not packed as closely as those in a solid.
 Examples of liquids include water, oil and coffee.
 Liquids do not have a definite shape.
o They flow to take the shape of the container they are contained in.
o The same volume of water takes the shape of the container it is placed in.

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 o Even when the container is tilted, the surface of the water remains horizontal.
o Liquids have a definite volume and cannot be compressed.

Gases

 The particles in a gas are widely spaced in an irregular manner. The large spaces between the particles enable the
particles to be forced together to occupy a smaller space.
 Examples of gases include air, oxygen and carbon dioxide.
 Gases have no definite volume and can be compressed.
 Gases occupy the available space in the container holding them.
 Gases have no definite shape.
o Gases take the shape of the container holding them.

Summary of the properties of solids, liquids and gases

Solid Liquid Gas

 Has a
 Does not have a  Does not have a
definite
Shape definite shape definite shape
shape

 Has a
 Does not have a
definite  Has a definite volume
definite volume
volume  Cannot be
 Can be
Volume  Cannot be compressed
compressed
compressed

Displacement of Matter Notes

Displacement of matter

 Matter occupies space.

 In order for matter to occupy the space previously occupied by a solid, liquid or gas, it must first displace the solid, liquid
or gas.

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Experiments involving the displacement of matter

Applications of the displacement of matter

Comparing the displacement of air with the compression of air

 While air, which occupies space, must usually be displaced in order for other matter to occupy its space, other matter can still
occupy its space (to a limited extent) as air has no definite volume and can be compressed.

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 LIGHT

Sources of Light

Sources of light

 Light is a form of energy that allows us to see.

 Objects that give off their own light are known as sources of light.
 Sources of light may be natural or artificial.
 Some examples of natural sources of light include the Sun, fire, fireflies, deep sea creatures and glow-worms.
 Some examples of artificial sources of light include glowing light bulbs and glow sticks.
 Not all objects give off their own light.
 Non-luminous objects do not give off their own light.
 Such objects can only be seen when light from a light source reflects off the object and enters our eyes.
 The moon is only visible when light from the Sun reflects off the moon into our eyes.
 It is an example of an object that does not give off its own light.

Properties of Light

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Light travels in straight lines

Light can be reflected

 All objects can reflect light.

 Light from a light source reflects off objects into our eyes, allowing us to see the objects.

Transmission of light

 Objects that transmit light enable light to pass through them.

 Materials such as clear glass and clear plastic allow most light to pass through. Such materials are transparent.
 Some materials such as frosted glass and tracing paper allow some light to pass through. Such materials are
translucent.
 Other materials such as wood and metal allow no light to pass through. Such materials are opaque.

Shadows

Shadows

 A shadow is formed when light travelling in a straight line is blocked by an object that allows some or no light to pass
through.
 To form a shadow, there needs to be a light source, an object that can block light and a surface or screen on which light
can fall.

The darkness of a shadow

 Changing the material of an object changes the darkness of the shadow formed.

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The size of the shadow

 Changing the position of the object, light source and screen changes the size of the shadow formed.

Changing the position of the object

Changing the position of the light source

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Changing the position of the screen

The shape of a shadow

 Changing the orientation of an object relative to the light source can create shadows of different shapes.

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Changing the orientation of an object

Changing the angle of the light source

 Changing the angle of the light source relative to the object changes the shape and length of the shadow formed.

Changing the angle of the light source

 Changing the angle of the light source relative to the object changes the shape and length of the shadow formed.

 This also accounts for why the shadow of an object in a sunny place changes at different times of the day.
 As the Sun rises in the east and sets in the west, sunlight shines on the object at different angles.
 Shadows are shortest at noon when the Sun is directly overhead, and longest near sunrise and sunset.

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 PLANT SYSTEM

Plant Systems Notes

 A system consists of different parts working together to perform a function.

 Flowering plants have two main systems: the root system and the shoot system.

Parts and Functions of the Leaf Notes

Parts of a leaf

 Leaf stalk

o The leaf stalk attaches the leaf to the stem.

o It contains tubes that transport water from the stem to the leaf veins, and tubes that transport food from the leaf to the
stem.

 Leaf edge

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 o The leaf edge is the outline of the leaf.

 Leaf blade

o The leaf blade is the flat, broad portion of the leaf.

o It contains chlorophyll and is where tiny openings known as stomata are located.

 Leaf vein

o The leaf veins branch out from the leaf stalk and help to distribute substances further.

o They also provide shape and support for the leaf.

Functions of a leaf
Photosynthesis

 The leaves trap light to make food for the plant by photosynthesis.
 Photosynthesis only occurs when there is light.
 During photosynthesis, the leaves of a plant take in carbon dioxide from the surroundings through the stomata and
combine it with water that has been absorbed by the roots and transported up through the stem.

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Gaseous exchange

 The leaves allow exchange of gases between the plant and the surroundings through the stomata.
 The leaves of a plant take in oxygen and give out carbon dioxide during respiration at all times.
 When light is present, the leaves of a plant take in carbon dioxide and give out oxygen during photosynthesis.

Parts and Functions of the Stem Notes

Parts of a stem

 Food-carrying tube (phloem)

o Carries food from the leaves to all parts of the plant.

 Water-carrying tube (xylem)

o Carries water and mineral salts from the roots to all parts of the plant.
Functions of a stem

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Support

 The stem holds the plant upright so that the leaves can trap enough light to make food by photosynthesis.
 Transport

Storage

 Some plants store food in their stems. This causes the stems to become thick and swollen.

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Photosynthesis

 In some plants, the stem contains chlorophyll that traps light to make food by photosynthesis.

 Stem
o The stem contains chlorophyll and takes over the function of photosynthesis from the leaves.

 Needle-like leaves
o The leaves of the cactus have been reduced to needles or spines (in order to reduce water loss in hot and dry
environments).

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Parts and Functions of the Root Notes

Root

 The root is the part of the plant that generally lies below the surface of the soil.

Functions of roots
Anchorage

 Roots anchor (or hold) the plant firmly to the ground.

 This prevents the plant from falling over easily in the presence of wind.
 When a plant has more roots, it is anchored (or held) more firmly to the ground.

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Absorption

 Roots absorb water and mineral salts from the soil.

 Water is needed by the leaves to make food by photosynthesis while mineral salts are required by the plant to stay
healthy.

Storage

 Some plants, such as the sweet potato and tapioca, store food in their roots.

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 CELLS

Parts and Functions of Cells Notes

Cells

 A cell is the basic unit of life in all living things.

 They can carry out basic life processes including growth and respiration.
 A living organism whose body is made up of one cell is known as a unicellular organism.
 A living organism whose body is made up of two or more cells is known as a multicellular organism.

Structure of cells and their functions

 The cells of animals and plants are made up of three basic structures: the cell membrane, the nucleus and the
cytoplasm.
 The diagram below shows important cell parts found in a typical animal cell.

Cell membrane

Description

 It is the thin outer layer of an animal cell.

 It is selectively permeable.

Function

 It controls the movement of substances into and out of the cell.

Nucleus

Description

 It contains genetic material.

 It is separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane.

Function

 It controls all the activities in the cell such as respiration and cell repair.

 It allows the cell to undergo cell division to replace old, dead and damaged cells.

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Cytoplasm

Description

 It is a jelly-like substance that is mostly made up of water.

 It contains cell parts.

Function

 It is the site where activities take place in the cell.

 It allows substances to be transported within the cell.

Chloroplast

Description

 It is found in some plant cells such as the cells of leaf and cells of cactus stem.

 Cells from other parts of a plant such as the roots, flowers and fruits do not have chloroplasts.

Function

 It contains chlorophyll that traps light to make food through photosynthesis.

Cell wall

Description

 It is found in all plant cells but not in animal cells.

 It is a rigid outer layer.

 It is fully permeable.

Function

 It supports the plant cell and helps the cell to maintain its regular shape.

 It prevents the cell from bursting when too much water enters the cell.

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25 | P A G E
Comparison between plant cells and animal cells

 Both plant and animal cells have a nucleus, cell membrane and cytoplasm.
 The table below shows the differences between plant cells and animal cells.

Plant cell Animal cell

Cell wall is present. Cell wall is absent.

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 Chloroplasts are absent.
Chloroplasts are present.

Has a regular shape. Has an irregular shape.

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28 | P A G E
 REPRODUCTION AND HEREDITY

Parts and Functions of Human Reproductive System Notes

 Reproduction is the biological process by which new individual organisms are produced.
 All living things reproduce to ensure the continuity of their own kind.
 When living things reproduce, the parents pass on characteristics to their offspring. This process is known as heredity.

Reproductive system of the human female

 The female reproductive system includes ovaries, fallopian tubes, womb and vagina.

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  The table below shows the characteristics and functions of different parts of the female reproductive system.

Part of organ Characteristic and function

Ovary  Produces eggs.

(plural: ovaries)

 Close to each ovary is the opening of the fallopian tube.

 The inner lining of the fallopian tube is covered with many finger-like projections, which
help move the egg towards the womb.
Fallopian tube
 Fertilisation occurs in the fallopian tube, after which the fertilised egg will be passed
through the fallopian tube towards the womb.

 A structure made up of a thick wall of muscle.

Womb
 This is the place where the fertilised egg will be implanted and where the foetus
develops.

 A muscular tube which receives sperm.

Vagina  It is also the birth canal for the baby.

Reproductive system of the human male

 Two distinct parts of the male reproductive system, the testes and the penis, are located externally on the body.

 The table below shows the characteristic and function of different parts of the male reproductive system.

Part of organ Characteristic and function

Testis  Produces the sperm cells.

(plural: testes)

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  Ejects sperm and deposits them in the vagina of the female reproductive organ.
Penis

Human reproductive cells

 The table below shows the different characteristics of the egg and sperm cell.

Characteristic EGG SPERM CELL (PLURAL: SPERM)

Diagram

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 Reproductive cell
The egg is the female reproductive cell. The sperm cell is the male reproductive cell.

When a female is born, each ovary already contains

Production About two billion sperm are produced by a male
thousands of unripe eggs. From puberty onwards,
every day. This increases the chance of a sperm cell
the eggs will then start to mature and be released
reaching the egg for fertilisation to occur.
periodically.

Structure The egg consists of a nucleus and cytoplasm that

Each sperm cell has a head containing a large
contains stored food. Each egg is surrounded by a
nucleus, and a tail.
protective layer of jelly.

Mobility Unlike sperm, the egg cannot move on its own and
The tail enables the sperm cell to move by lashing
requires tiny hairs lining on the walls of the
about, propelling it forward.
fallopian tube to sweep it towards the womb.

Fertilisation and Development of Foetus Notes

 Fertilisation is the process where the nucleus of the sperm cell and the nucleus of the egg cell fuse, producing a fertilised
egg.

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Development of foetus in the womb

 After fertilisation, the fertilised egg moves slowly down the womb. After about two weeks, it will be implanted in the wall
of the womb.
 The umbilical cord, which contains only the foetus’ blood vessels, connects the foetus to the placenta.
o The umbilical cord transports nutrients and oxygen in the blood from the mother to the foetus.
o It also transports carbon dioxide and waste materials in the blood from the foetus to the mother.
 The placenta* is the organ that allows nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide and waste to be exchanged between the blood
of the mother and the blood of the foetus.

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  The diagram below shows the summary of the process of reproduction in humans.

Heredity and Family Trees Notes

Heredity

 Heredity is the passing of genetic traits from parents to their offspring through their genetic material.
 During fertilisation, genetic material from the nuclei of the sperm and egg fuse together.
 Hence, the offspring that develops from the fertilised egg will have traits from both parents.
 The table below shows some examples of hereditary and non-hereditary characteristics.

Hereditary characteristics

 Presence of dimples
 Double eyelids
 Attached earlobes
 Colour of skin
 Blood type
 Hitchhiker’s thumb

Family trees

 A family tree can be used to keep track of the traits passed down from generations.

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  In general, squares represent males and circles represent females, but always check the key provided to be sure.
 A horizontal line connecting a male and a female indicates a marriage, with offspring listed below.

o The diagram below shows Caeden’s family tree. It also shows whether an individual in his family has single eyelids or double
eyelids.
o Only people who are biologically related to Caeden are labelled.

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 REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

Parts and Functions of a Flower Notes

 The diagram below shows the processes involved in the sexual reproduction of plants.

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Reproductive structures in a flower

 The male parts of a flower include the filament and the anther.
 The female parts of a flower include the stigma, style, ovary, and ovules.
 The diagram below shows the characteristics and functions of the male parts and female parts of a flower.

Stigma

Characteristic and function

 Found at the tip of the style

 Receives pollen grains during pollination

FEMALE

Style

Characteristic and function

 Connects the stigma to the ovary

 Holds the stigma in a suitable position to receive pollen grains

Ovary

Characteristic and function

 Contains the ovules

 Some flowers may have only one ovule in one ovary
 Develops into a fruit after pollination and fertilisation

Ovule

Characteristic and function

 Contains the female reproductive cell

 Site where fertilisation occurs
 Develops into a seed after pollination and fertilisation

MALE

Filament

Characteristic and function

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  Holds the anther in a suitable position to release pollen grains

Anther

Characteristic and function

 Found at the tip of the filament

 Produces and stores pollen grains
 Each pollen grain contains the male reproductive cell
 Many pollen grains are released by the anthers each time to increase the chances of pollination occurring

Pollination and Fertilisation Notes

Pollination

 Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the ripe anther to the stigma.

SELF-POLLINATION

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CROSS-POLLINATION

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Methods of pollination

 Flowers have different structures depending on whether they are pollinated by animals or wind.

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Process of pollination by animals

 When a pollinator such as a bee collects nectar from a flower, pollen grains from the anther will be stuck on the bee.
 When the bee collects nectar from another flower, the pollen grains will be transferred to the stigma of the flower, thus
pollinating the flower.

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Fertilisation

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  The table below shows the development of each part of a flower after fertilisation has taken place.

Parts of flower Development after fertilisation

 Petals, anther, filament stigma and

 Wither and fall off
style

 Ovule  Develops into a seed

 Ovary  Swells and develops into a fruit

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Seed Dispersal Notes

 Before germination takes place, plants will disperse their seeds so as to avoid overcrowding and to reduce competition
between the young and parent plants for light, mineral salts, water and space.
 Seed dispersal also allows species to colonise new areas. Plants disperse their fruits and seeds in four main ways: by
water, wind, splitting and animals.

Dispersal by water

Structure Function(s)

 Fibrous structure traps air, enabling the fruit to float on water.

 Fibrous husk or structure  Waterproof outer covering prevents fruits from absorbing water and
 Waterproof outer covering sinking.

Dispersal by wind

Structure Function of adaptation

 Wing-like structures or fine hairs increase the surface area exposed to

 Small and light the surrounding air and hence increasing the air resistance experienced
by the fruit or seed.
 Wing-like structures or

44 | P A G E
  Fine hairs
 This allows them to stay afloat for a longer period of time so that the
wind can carry them farther from the parent plant.

Dispersal by animals (eaten)

Structure Function of adaptation

 To attract animals to feed on the fruits.

 Large, inedible seeds are carried away from the parent plant and
 Sweet and juicy flesh discarded.
 Large, inedible seeds or  Small, indigestible seeds are swallowed along with the flesh of the fruits
 Small, indigestible seeds and passed out in the animals' waste. The waste also serves as nutrients
for the seedlings to grow more healthily.

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Dispersal by animals (passing by)

Structure Function of adaptation

 To attach to the fur or feathers of passing animals to be carried away

 Hooks from the parent plant and brushed off in a different place.

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Dispersal by splitting

Structure Function of adaptation

 To release the seeds when the fruit splits open.

 Some fruits, such as those of the rubber plant or balsam, split open with
explosive force, allowing the seeds inside to be scattered farther.
 Pod-like structure that splits
 Some fruits, such as those of the kapok of African tulip, split open to
open along a seam when dry
release seeds which have fine hairs or wing-like structures which are
carried away by the wind.

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 WATER AND CHANGES OF STATE

Changes of State Notes

 Water can exist in different states, depending on the surrounding temperature.

 The three states of water are solid (e.g. ice), liquid (e.g. tap water) and gas (e.g. steam).
 Depending on whether water gains or loses heat, it can change its state from solid to liquid, liquid to gas, or back.

48 | P A G E
Melting and Boiling Notes

Melting

 Melting is the process by which a solid gains heat from the surroundings and becomes a liquid.
 The melting point of pure ice is 0 °C. If the surrounding temperature is above 0 °C, ice will gain heat from the
surroundings and melt to form water.

 The graph above shows the change in the temperature of ice after it was taken out from a freezer.
 A to B: The ice gains heat from the surroundings and its temperature increases.
 B to C: When the temperature of the ice reaches 0 °C (melting point of ice), the ice starts to melt.
 Since all the heat gained by the ice is used to change its state from solid to liquid, the temperature of the ice and water
mixture remains constant at 0 °C until all the ice has melted into water.
 C to D: The temperature of the water continues to increase as the water gains heat from the surroundings. Eventually, it
reaches the same temperature as the surroundings.

Boiling

 Boiling is the process by which a liquid gains heat from the heat source and becomes a gas.
 When liquid water is heated to a specific temperature called its boiling point, it will become a gas. The boiling point of
pure water is 100 °C.
 Bubbles form in boiling water. These bubbles contain steam (or hot water vapour), which is water in its gaseous state.

49 | P A G E
  The graph above shows the change in the temperature of water as it is being heated continuously from 25 °C in an
airtight beaker.
 A to B: The water in the beaker gains heat from the flame and its temperature increases.
 B to C: When the temperature of the water reaches 100 °C (boiling point of water), the water starts to boil. The steam
that is formed escapes as bubbles from the water.
 Since all the heat gained by the water is used to change its state from liquid to gas, the temperature of the water
remains constant at 100 °C until all the water has boiled to form steam.
 From C onwards: The temperature of the steam will continue to increase as long as it is being heated.

50 | P A G E
Evaporation Notes

Evaporation

 Evaporation is the process by which a liquid gains heat from the surroundings and becomes a gas at temperatures below
its boiling point.
 Unlike boiling, evaporation only occurs on the surface of the liquid and does not take place only at a specific
temperature.
 As long as the matter is in liquid form, evaporation can take place over a range of temperatures. For pure water,
evaporation occurs between 0 °C and 100 °C.

Factors affecting the rate of evaporation

 Temperature of water or surrounding air

o Higher temperatures increase the rate of evaporation. The higher the temperature of the water or the
surrounding air, the greater the rate of evaporation of the water.

 Wind speed /Presence of wind

o Wind removes water vapour near the surface of the water more quickly, allowing more evaporation to
occur. As such, the presence of wind results in a greater rate of evaporation of water. The higher the
wind speed, the greater the rate of evaporation of water.

51 | P A G E
  Exposed surface area of water
o Evaporation occurs only at the surface of water. The greater the exposed surface area of the water, the
greater the rate of evaporation of water.

Evaporative Cooling

The evaporation of a liquid can be used to cool its surroundings. As a liquid gains heat from its surrounding air to evaporate, the
surrounding air loses heat and cools down.

When we perspire, the water in our perspiration gains heat from our body to evaporate, causing our body to lose heat and cool down.

Freezing and Condensation Notes

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Freezing

 Freezing is the process by which a liquid loses heat to the surroundings and becomes a solid. It is how hail, sea ice and
icicles are formed.
 When liquid water is cooled to a specific temperature called its freezing point, it will become solid ice. The freezing point
of pure water is 0 °C.

 The graph above shows the change in the temperature of water as it was cooled from 25 °C (room temperature) to -10
°C in a freezer.
 A to B: Water in the beaker loses heat to the cooler air in the freezer and its temperature decreases.
 B to C: When the temperature of the water reaches 0 °C (freezing point of water), the water starts to freeze into ice.
 The temperature of water remains constant at 0 °C until all the water has frozen into ice.
 C to D: The temperature of the ice in the beaker continues to decrease as it loses heat to the air in the freezer until it
reaches the same temperature as the air in the freezer.

Condensation

 Condensation is the process by which a gas loses heat to the surroundings and becomes a liquid.

 Hot water in the beaker evaporates to form water vapour.

 The warmer water vapour rises, comes into contact with and loses heat to the cooler underside of the tray, condensing
to form water droplets.

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  The lenses of a pair of spectacles became misty after the user walked out from an air-conditioned room.
 The lenses lost heat to the cooler surrounding air in the air-conditioned room and became cooler.
 When the user walked out, the warmer water vapour in the surrounding air outside the room came into contact with and
lost heat to the cooler surface of the lenses, condensing to form tiny water droplets which are the mist on the lenses.

Factors affecting rate of condensation

 Temperature difference between the water vapour and the surface for condensation
o The greater the temperature difference between the water vapour and the surface for condensation,
the greater the rate of condensation of the water vapour to form more water droplets.

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The Water Cycle Notes

 The water cycle ensures that there is a continuous supply of fresh water available for living things on Earth to use to
sustain their life processes. The water cycle consists of different processes, namely evaporation, condensation,
precipitation and runoff.

 The Sun heats up the land and sea during the day, and as a result, water from water bodies such as oceans, seas and
lakes gains heat and evaporates to become water vapour. Plants and animals also give off water vapour during
transpiration and perspiration respectively.
 As water vapour rises into the atmosphere, it loses heat and condenses into tiny droplets of water in the air, forming
clouds.
 When these tiny droplets become bigger and heavier due to more water vapour condensing to form more water
droplets, they will fall back to the land and sea as precipitation.
 Some rainwater seeps into the ground, while some falls into streams and rivers, eventually flowing back to the sea.
Excess water which flows over the land when the soil cannot absorb it any more is known as runoff.

AIR AND LIVING THINGS

Respiratory System Notes

Human respiratory system

 The human respiratory system allows gaseous exchange between the body and the surroundings.

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  The blood at Part A has a low concentration of oxygen and a high concentration of carbon dioxide.
 After oxygen has been absorbed into the bloodstream and carbon dioxide has been removed from the bloodstream, the
blood at Part B has a high concentration of oxygen and low concentration of carbon dioxide.

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RESPIRATORY SYSTEM IN FISH

Oxygen and carbon dioxide dissolve in water, and most fishes exchange dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide in water by means of
the gills. The gills lie behind and to the side of the mouth cavity and consist of fleshy filaments supported by the gill arches and filled with
blood vessels, which give gills a bright red colour. Water taken in continuously through the mouth passes backward between the gill bars
and over the gill filaments, where the exchange of gases takes place. The gills are protected by a gill cover in teleost and many other
fishes but by flaps of skin in sharks, rays, and some of the older fossil fish groups. The blood capillaries in the gill filaments are close to
the gill surface to take up oxygen from the water and to give up excess carbon dioxide to the water.

Breathing

 Breathing is the physical process of taking in air from the environment into the lungs (inhalation) and expelling air from
the lungs into the environment (exhalation).

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Breathing rate

The effects of exercising on our breathing rate

 When we exercise, our body requires more energy.

 Thus, we breathe faster to take in more oxygen to undergo a greater rate of respiration to release more energy.
 It also allows our body to expel the carbon dioxide released during respiration faster.

AIR SACS OF A SMOKER | AIR SACS OF A NON SMOKER

 The inner walls of the air sacs of a smoker are coated with tar, reducing the exposed surface area available for gaseous
exchange (between the air in the lungs and the bloodstream) to take place.
 A smoker will have to breathe faster than a non-smoker in order to obtain the same amount of oxygen to undergo
respiration.

Circulatory System Notes

Circulatory system of humans

 The human circulatory system transports nutrients, water and oxygen to body cells and carries waste materials like
carbon dioxide away from the body cells.
 It consists of the heart, blood, and blood vessels.

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

*A BIT ADVANCED

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The blood circulatory system (cardiovascular system) delivers nutrients and oxygen to all cells in the body. It consists of the heart and
the blood vessels running through the entire body. The arteries carry blood away from the heart; the veins carry it back to the heart. The
system of blood vessels resembles a tree: The “trunk” – the main artery (aorta) – branches into large arteries, which lead to smaller and
smaller vessels. The smallest arteries end in a network of tiny vessels known as the capillary network.

There isn't only one blood circulatory system in the human body, but two, which are connected: The systemic circulation provides organs,
tissues and cells with blood so that they get oxygen and other vital substances. The pulmonary circulation is where the fresh oxygen we
breathe in enters the blood. At the same time, carbon dioxide is released from the blood.

Circulatory system of fish

 The circulatory system of a fish is described as having single circulation as blood passes through the heart once around
the body.

Heart rate

 The heart rate is the number of heartbeats in a minute, expressed as "beats per minute" (bpm).
 The heart rate changes according to a person's activity.

The effects of exercising on our heart rate

 When we exercise, our body needs more energy.

 Thus, our heart pumps faster to transport more oxygen and digested food in the blood to our body cells faster to
undergo a greater rate of respiration to release more energy.
 This also allows carbon dioxide released during respiration to be transported to the lungs to be removed faster.
 When we are asleep, our body’s energy demand drops, and our heart pumps slower than it does at rest.

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 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

Electric Circuits Notes

Electricity

 Electricity is a phenomenon which arises due to the flow of electric charge.

 Electricity can be produced by power generators in power stations or by chemicals stored in batteries.

Electric circuits

 An electric circuit is the path through which electric current flows.

o A closed circuit is formed when there is a complete path for electric current to flow.
o An open circuit is formed when any part of the circuit is broken, for example if the switch is open or a
non-conductor of electricity such as glass is connected to the circuit.

Structure of a light bulb

 The filament of a bulb is held up by two wires, one of which is fixed to the metal casing, while the other is fixed to the
metal tip.
 When connecting a bulb, one wire must be connected to the metal casing and the other to the metal tip.
 The other ends of each wire must then be connected to the positive and negative terminals of the battery respectively.
 If a bulb is connected to too many batteries, too much heat will be produced, causing the filament to melt and the bulb
to fuse.

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Electrical Conductors and Insulators Notes

Electrical conductors and insulators

Electrical conductor Electrical insulator

 Does not allow electric current to flow through

 Allows electric current to flow through them them, thus enabling us to handle electrical
appliances safely

 All metals, including copper, silver,  Non-metals, including cotton, rubber, wood, glass,
aluminium, nichrome and iron plastic, ceramic
 Graphite (a non-metal used as pencil lead)  Air
 Saltwater and tap water  Pure water

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Arrangement of Electrical Components Notes

Arrangement of batteries in series

 As the number of batteries connected in series in a circuit increases, the brightness of the bulb increases.

Arrangement of light bulbs in series

 As the number of bulbs connected in series in a circuit increases, the brightness of each bulb decreases.

 In addition, electric current passes through each filament in the bulbs before returning to the batteries, hence if one bulb
fuses, an open circuit is formed and the other bulbs would not light up.

Arrangement of light bulbs in parallel

 As the number of bulbs connected in parallel in a circuit increases, the brightness of the bulbs remains the same.

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  When the bulbs are connected in parallel, each bulb in the circuit will be brighter than when they are all arranged in
series.
 When bulbs are arranged in parallel, there are different paths along which an electric current from batteries can flow
through. Hence, even if the bulb in one path fuses, the bulbs in the other paths will remain lit.
 Electrical circuits in households are usually connected in parallel arrangement, so that each appliance can be controlled
independently with a switch, thus conserving electricity.

Electromagnets

 An electromagnet consists of a wire coiled around a rod made of a magnetic material, such as iron. When electric current
flows through the wire coils, the rod becomes magnetised.
 When electric current stops flowing through the wire coils, the rod will lose its magnetism.
 The greater the amount of electric current, the greater the magnetic strength of the electromagnet.
 The greater the number of coils of wire around the rod, the greater the magnetic strength of the electromagnet.

 Initially, the iron ball is touching the copper plates and a closed circuit is formed.
 Electricity flows through the bulb and the electromagnet.
 The bulb is lit and the electromagnet becomes magnetised, causing it to attract the magnetic iron ball.
 The iron ball moves up towards the electromagnet and stops touching the copper plates, forming an open circuit.
 Electricity stops flowing through the bulb and the electromagnet, causing the bulb to stop lighting up and the iron ball to
drop back down to touch the copper plates.

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  This forms a closed circuit again. The process repeats continuously, causing the iron ball to move up and down and the
light bulb to flash on and off.

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