Harvard Model United

Nations 2023

A Background Guide for

Special Political and Decolonization
Committee
Written By: Selam Ambaw
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Letter from the Secretary-General................................................................................ 3

Letter from the Under-Secretary-General.................................................................... 4
Letter from the Director.............................................................................................. 5

Introduction................................................................................................................ 6
History of the Committee........................................................................................... 6
Committee Structure...................................................................................................6
Statement of the Problem............................................................................................ 7
History of the Problem................................................................................................ 8
Case Study A.............................................................................................................10
Case Study B............................................................................................................. 13
Points of Contention................................................................................................. 15
Questions a Resolution Must Answer........................................................................ 16
Suggestions for Further Research............................................................................... 16

Closing Remarks....................................................................................................... 16
Endnotes....................................................................................................................17
 HARVARD MODEL UNITED NATIONS 2023
A LETTER FROM THE SECRETARY-GENERAL

Dear Delegates,

Welcome to your first step of preparation for Harvard Model United Nations 2023! The
background guide you are about to read is the product of months of research and writing.
Ruhi Nayak Your director began this process last February and has been looking forward to seeing this
Secretary-General
topic debated ever since. In addition to the background guide, you will find sections at the
Alexander E. Chan end of this document directing you to other resources you may find helpful for further
Director-General research. Background guides give you an introduction to your topic and serve as the best
resource for gaining general knowledge of a committee topic, but delegates will be expected
Angela Dela Cruz to individually conduct further research on their country, their country’s position, and
Under-Secretary-General
Administration
potential solutions to the problems posed by the committee topic.

Kaleena R. Roeva As the culmination of your research, you are asked to compose a position paper for your
Under-Secretary-General country. These position papers will then be shared with your director for review. Instructions
Business for writing position papers will also be found in this guide. I hope delegates will enjoy using
the position papers as a chance to share their perspectives, reflect, and otherwise enhance
Justin S. Xu their committee experience leading up to the conference.
Comptroller
Students who attend HMUN have always debated issues pertinent to past, present, and
Kaylee E. Kim
Under-Secretary-General
future crises on a global scale. Each year they have demonstrated an unparalleled capacity to
Operations collaborate and negotiate with fellow delegates on some of the most divisive issues. The skills
delegates will learn at HMUN—effective negotiating, public speaking, critical thinking,
Aaron G. Eudaimon and teamwork—are intended to inform their understanding of how to tactically approach
Under-Secretary-General
small- and large-scale issues both as students and future leaders. The topics we address in
General Assembly
committees are intended to prepare delegates for the challenges the world is facing and will
Katherine Y. Zhu face in the coming decades including wars, pandemics, climate change, and challenges of
Under-Secretary-General governance. Perhaps the greatest educational opportunity at HMUN lies in the lessons the
Economic and Social delegates learn from their diverse group of peers coming from radically different backgrounds,
Council
from all around the world.
Samuel Guerrero This year, we want to impart the message that by working together, especially through what
Under-Secretary-General
Regional Bodies many perceive as divided times, delegates can find common ground and make our world a
better place. Please know we understand that delegates make sacrifices to fully participate in
Alexander P. Glynn HMUN, often placing important assignments, social engagements, family commitments,
Under-Secretary-General and much more on hold for four days. We want to take the time to understand the varying
Specialized Agencies
backgrounds we are all coming from and bridge these divides through collaboration and
understanding. As your Secretary-General, I am here as a resource for you should you have
any questions. Please feel free to reach out to me directly at sg@[Link].

Sincerely,

59 Shepard Street, Box 205

Cambridge, MA 02138
Ruhi Nayak
Voice: 617-398-0772
Fax: 617-496-4472 Ruhi Nayak
Email: info@[Link] Secretary-General
[Link]
Harvard Model United Nations 2023
 HARVARD MODEL UNITED NATIONS 2023
A LETTER FROM THE UNDER-SECRETARY GENERAL

Dear Delegates,

Welcome to the General Assembly of Harvard Model United Nations 2023! Thank you
for choosing to attend HMUN, and I cannot wait to hear you discuss and debate topics of
Ruhi Nayak international importance throughout the weekend in January.
Secretary-General

The General Assembly prides itself on most accurately simulating the actual United Nations,
Alexander E. Chan
Director-General in which all member states are represented and have equal power, voice, and representation in
debating the most pressing issues of global concern. You as delegates have enormous potential
Angela Dela Cruz to instigate change and drive momentum, whether it be through learning about new issues,
Under-Secretary-General meeting fellow delegates from around the world, or engaging with your committees to create
Administration
feasible yet innovative solutions.
Kaleena R. Roeva I would be remiss not to acknowledge the unique circumstances in which we find ourselves
Under-Secretary-General
Business entering this year’s iteration of HMUN. The challenges faced by leaders across the world
today are indeed a vindication of the importance of empowering each other to lead by
Justin S. Xu example, and to tackle the problems facing our generation with determination and integrity.
Comptroller Certainly, the topics that we will be discussing in this year’s General Assembly will challenge
you to confront these issues head-on. I encourage you to use your Directors, Moderators
Kaylee E. Kim
Under-Secretary-General
and Assistant Directors as support in your efforts to come up with solutions to these issues.
Operations They care deeply about the topics you will be debating and would love to engage with you as
collaborators and partners.
Aaron G. Eudaimon
Under-Secretary-General I would like to briefly discuss the Background Guide. This guide is the result of months of
General Assembly
work by your Directors. The guides are meant to familiarize you with the issues that will
be discussed over the weekend and to offer you a framework to refer to when conducting
Katherine Y. Zhu
Under-Secretary-General research. These guides are not intended to be exhaustive resources to the topics discussed, or
Economic and Social be a reflection of what we personally believe about these issues. What matters most is that
Council you confidently are able to represent your country’s position on a subject of debate.
Samuel Guerrero My passion for the General Assembly came from my first year at college during HMUN
Under-Secretary-General
Regional Bodies
2021 when I was myself an Assistant Director. Being part of that conference and working
alongside my amazing Director to guide and mentor the delegates was an eye-opening
Alexander P. Glynn experience. I truly believe that the environment of the GA is uniquely educational. So, I urge
Under-Secretary-General you take advantage of this weekend to engage in debate, take risks, and develop meaningful
Specialized Agencies relationships. I promise you will that this conference will be a transformative experience.

Aaron Eudaimon
Sincerely,

59 Shepard Street, Box 205 Aaron Eudaimon

Cambridge, MA 02138
Voice: 617-398-0772 Under-Secretary-General for the
Fax: 617-496-4472 General Assembly
Email: info@[Link] Harvard Model United Nations 2023
[Link]
 HARVARD MODEL UNITED NATIONS 2023
A LETTER FROM THE DIRECTOR

Dear Delegates,

Welcome to the United Nations Special Political and Decolonization Committee! My name
is Selam Ambaw and I am incredibly excited to be your director at HMUN 2023!
Ruhi Nayak
Secretary-General I am a sophomore at Harvard living in Dunster House concentrating in Sociology,
Government, and/or Comparative Study of Religion with a secondary in Linguistics. I was
Alexander E. Chan
Director-General born in Dallas, Texas, but grew up in Flemington, New Jersey. I guess you could say MUN
was one of my favorite parts about high school; I mean, I liked it enough to serve as Secretary
Angela Dela Cruz General of my primary conference my senior year. While I myself am no stranger to Model
Under-Secretary-General UN, my first experience with HMUN was as an Assistant Director for Operations, with
Administration
a brief stint co-Directing the Commission on the Status of Women. HMUN has been a
Kaleena R. Roeva thoroughly rewarding experience so far, and I cannot wait to continue that with y’all.
Under-Secretary-General
Business As I previously mentioned, I was an Assistant Director for Operations at HMUN 2022. At
HNMUN 2022 I served as an Assistant Director of UNHCR and will be serving as the
Justin S. Xu committee’s Director at HNMUN 2023. Besides MUN, I serve on the board of the Harvard
Comptroller Votes Challenge, currently directing the Boston Votes Coalition in its efforts to expand
voter engagement in the greater Boston area. I am also a member of the Harvard College
Kaylee E. Kim
Under-Secretary-General
Consulting Group, where I have conducted a range of case work as an Analyst and now as an
Operations Associate. I have also been and will continue to serve on the organization’s Diversity Advisory
Council. In my free time – which I always wish I had more of – I love to read, draw, or just
Aaron G. Eudaimon spend time relaxing with friends. Perhaps even going on a walk on those few days Cambridge
Under-Secretary-General
weather decides to cooperate.
General Assembly

I hope that y’all look forward to your time at HMUN this year as we will be tackling the
Katherine Y. Zhu
Under-Secretary-General critical issue of left-behind, unexploded ordnance (UXOs) around the word. In addressing
Economic and Social this, we will be going over some case studies, most notably Laos, where approximately one-
Council third of the land is contaminated by unexploded ordnance. I know conferences, and larger
committees such as this one can be a bit overwhelming. However, you can all enter HMUN
Samuel Guerrero knowing that I, my fellow members of the dais, and your fellow delegates are all part of an
Under-Secretary-General
Regional Bodies experience that is meant to be engaging, exciting, and entertaining (and perhaps educational
along the way).
Alexander P. Glynn
Under-Secretary-General Super pumped about the conference and am looking extremely forward to meeting all of
Specialized Agencies you in January! If you have any questions or concerns, whether it is about HMUN, life at
Harvard, or otherwise, please feel free to reach out. Excited to start this experience with y’all!

Selam Ambaw
Sincerely,

59 Shepard Street, Box 205

Cambridge, MA 02138
Voice: 617-398-0772 Selam Ambaw
Fax: 617-496-4472 Director for the Special Political and
Email: info@[Link] Decolonization Committee
[Link]
Harvard Model United Nations 2021
6 Background Guide: Special Political and Decolonization Committee

INTRODUCTION with the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for
Palestinian Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA), and
Unexploded ordnance (UXOs) pose a real and international cooperation in the peaceful uses of space.
present threat despite some originating from the The Special Political and Decolonization Committee
first World War more than one hundred years ago. also specializes in UN peacekeeping operations as well
Today, 78 countries are contaminated by landmines as discussions surrounding the funding and training of
alone, not to mention other forms of ordnance. the peacekeepers as well as the allocation of resources
Collectively, these explosive remnants of war (ERW) for peacekeeping operations. The committee discusses
result in the deaths or maimings of more than 15,000 topics such as economic sanctions and peacekeeping
people each year. Of that number, 80% are civilians, efforts for the UN Security Council to decide whether
including thousands of children.1 These countries or not to enforce resolutions.
span across the globe, with Southeast Asia, the As a specialized UN service within the
Middle East, North and East Africa, and the former Department of Peace Operations, the mandate
Soviet bloc being among the most impacted regions. of the UN Mine Action Services (UNMAS) is
Internal and international conflicts have littered the derived from and reviewed by the Special Political
land with munitions that limit not only mobility, but and Decolonization Committee. Other relevant
development in many parts of the world. Existing departments and legislation, elaborated on later,
clearance and demining programs frequently lack are also linked to the responsibilities of the Special
sufficient funding to efficiently address the issue. Political and Decolonization Committee. The most
In discussing the topic of anti-personnel mines, recent resolution regarding explosive remnants of war
cluster bombs, and explosive remnants of war, delegates was passed in 2017, the first of the Security Council
should take away in this committee an understanding – partner of the Special Political and Decolonization
of the responsibilities of the Special Political and Committee in overseeing UNMAS – addressing mines
Decolonization Committee to act for the purpose and other explosive remnants of war.3
of eliminating threats of bodily, environmental, and The Special Political and Decolonization
economic harm, and understanding the consequence Committee, in the 76th session of the UN, has
of such legacies of war. The overarching questions this been primarily focusing on the plight of Palestinian
committee should answer are how to most effectively refugees and the issue of the Israel-Palestine conflict
clear existing explosive remnants of war, remedy their in the region of Jerusalem. Under its specialization
consequences, and prevent their future impact. of peacekeeping oversight, the Special Political and
Decolonization Committee has been discussing
HISTORY OF THE COMMITTEE the operations and pecuniary issues of the United
Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestinian
Founded in 1945, the UN was established to Refugees in the Near East, specifically expressing how
resolve international conflicts in a peaceful manner it was “deeply concerned about the extremely critical
between nations. In the Charter of the United Nations, financial situation of the Agency.”4 The committee
it is specified that a central purpose of the United has been “expressing grave concern in particular at
Nations is “promoting and encouraging respect for the grave humanitarian situation and socioeconomic
human rights and for fundamental freedoms for conditions of the Palestinian refugees in the Gaza
all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or Strip,” displaying its commitment to the safety of
religion.” It is the obligation of the United Nations to refugees in the region as well as emphasizing the
uphold the principles such as the right to privacy and importance of the humanitarian situation. As tensions
the freedom of information which are critical to the continue to escalate in the Israel-Palestine region, the
promotion of human rights.2 trajectory of the Special Political and Decolonization
The Special Political and Decolonization Committee will be expected to focus on the situation
Committee (SPECPOL) is the Fourth Committee regarding the Palestinian refugees.
of the UN General Assembly. It was established on
17 August 1993 in accordance with GA Resolution
47/233 when the previous Fourth Committee and
COMMITTEE STRUCTURE
the Special Political Committee were merged together. The mandate of the Special Political and
The Committee focuses especially on decolonization- Decolonization Committee is to set policy action for
related topics, atomic radiation, questions regarding the international community, which encompasses
information, tensions in the Israel-Palestine region the areas of decolonization, the effects of atomic
 Harvard Model United Nations 2023 7

radiation, questions relating to information,

peacekeeping operations, the United Nations Relief
and Works Agency for Palestinian Refugees in the
Near East (UNRWA), and the Report of the Special
Committee on Israeli Practices.5 By virtue of being
under the General Assembly, the committee lacks the
necessary authority and power to enforce its policy
items.6 However, the General Assembly still holds
significant influence by encouraging nations to act
in certain ways through policy resolutions. For this
conference, the committee will focus on questions
Special Political and Decolonization Committee-https://
regarding the use of anti-personnel mines and the [Link]/dppa/decolonization/en/fourth-committee
explosive remnants of war.
The goal of the committee this year is to review
session later in the day. Voting will proceed on Sunday
existing legislation regarding anti-personnel mines
once all the draft resolutions have been presented.
and other explosive remnants of war in order to
Cooperation between the delegates will be
establish new frameworks of accountability as well as
emphasized during the committee as this simulation
more effective and efficient means of removing the
of model UN requires delegates to be involved in a
environmental and bodily threat of these explosives.
multilateral process to answer important questions
Delegates are expected to come prepared with the
regarding the freedom of information. While
knowledge of their nations’ involvements with anti-
cooperation will be a priority, delegates should also
personnel mines and other explosives, like cluster
deliver arguments that are both compelling and
bombs, to adequately represent the interests of their
substantive. In doing so, it is expected that delegates
nations. In their position papers, delegates should
do not digress from either of the subtopics during
lay out concrete steps that can be taken to further
their remarks and to stay focused on the policy of
restrict the use of such weaponry, as well as guide and
mass surveillance. Arguments that are compelling and
support means of addressing explosive remnants of
substantive will be ones that involve creative solutions
war and their consequences. Regarding the process in
to the problems presented.
restricting and addressing the use and consequence of
such weaponry, the necessary steps in doing so can
be approached by focusing on measures to enforce STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
or expand existing bans. Concerning addressing the While Protocol V of the Convention on Certain
impact of explosive remnants of war, delegates can Conventional Weapons requires the clearing of
consider reparative and accountability measures, “explosive remnants of war” once active hostilities
as well as broader initiatives to support demining, have ceased (with Protocol II similarly addressing
clearance, and rebuilding efforts. In all, it will be landmines), in actuality that has not been executed
an interrogation of and reflection on the role of with expediency.7 Unexploded ordnance (UXOs),
multinational organizations in addressing this legacy some from wars more than one hundred years ago,
of war and its causes. continue to pose a real and present danger.
The committee will commence on Thursday Today, 78 countries are contaminated by
with moderated caucuses as delegates deliver their landmines–not to mention other forms of ordnance–
opening remarks regarding the topics. No writing will which result in the deaths or maimings of upwards
be allowed on Thursday in order to allow delegates of 15,000 people each year. Of that number, 80% are
to take in the variety of propositions. On Friday, civilians. Children in particular are deeply affected.
writing will be allowed, so delegates will form blocs As antipersonnel mines are designed to injure adult
with delegates of other nations with similar interests enemy combatants, they often prove fatal for children,
and draft working papers to ultimately present them. with an estimated 85 percent dying before reaching
Working papers should also touch on both the the hospital.8 Those who survive are often pulled
subtopics. On Saturday, the working papers will be from school due to their injuries, limiting their future
debated, blocs will be able to merge to write draft economic and educational prospects. Communities
resolutions, and the amendment process will be in as a whole face difficulties as well, with unexploded
effect. Presentations of the draft resolutions along ordnance being known to impede economic growth
with a Q&A session will take place in a committee
8 Background Guide: Special Political and Decolonization Committee

and development by restricting the use of natural 200,000 tons of bombs were dropped on Okinawa
resources and farmland. alone, with thousands of tons having been found and
Beyond this risk of explosion, unexploded cleared in the decades since the war’s conclusion.14 At
ordnance also presents significant environmental risk, the war’s end, the Solomon Islands were left littered
with harmful pollutants being released by degrading with sunken ships, burnt-out tanks, stockpiles of
ordnance. These chemicals are known to be toxic to weapons and ammunition, and unexploded ordnance
humans, plants, and animals; and with many being by Allied and Axis forces. These munitions were then
soluble they often leak into waterways, endangering repurposed during their Civil War, leaving them even
communities and ecosystems.9 more scattered and thereby difficult to locate.15 The
War reverberates through generations, and Solomon Islands are a pertinent example of the legacy
exploded ordnance is an echo of that violence, of violence and exploded ordnance in the Pacific.
leaving many without peace even in peacetime. A battleground for British, German, and Italian
The consequence of international conflicts that, forces, mines and unexploded ordnance from WWII
though they may have concluded, have never fully have left the coast of the Matrouh Governorate, a
resolved, unexploded ordnance require international resource-rich area comprising nearly 22% of Egypt’s
intervention. Given the origin of the unexploded total territory, is inaccessible due to the presence of
ordnance is often from outside of the countries it now these unstable munitions.16 Later wars with Israel
lies in, its extraction requires transnational cooperation between 1956 and 1973 have also left parts of the
and support to resolve the physical, mental, economic, Sinai Peninsula and Eastern Desert littered with
and environmental turmoil left behind. unexploded ordnance.17 All of this has left Egypt as a
state with thousands of casualties among its civilians,
HISTORY OF THE PROBLEM inaccessible resources, and more than 20% of the
world’s landmines.18
Precursors to modern antipersonnel mines and The Korean War saw more of this. In all, the
other munitions were introduced over 150 years ago United States dropped 635,000 tons of bombs on
in the Crimean War.10 Used again in the American Korea from years of the war, most of it in what is
Civil War, from 1861 to 1865, an estimated 1.5 now North Korea. In line with other Cold War era
million artillery shells were fired, with up to 20% conflicts, the Korean War also saw miles of landmines
not exploding.11 From college campuses to new laid along borders. The Demilitarized Zone (DMZ)
developments, UXOs from the Civil War and later is a four-kilometer-wide, 250-kilometer-long buffer
American military testing continue to surface and area between present day North and South Korea. It
endanger lives in the United States. is not only heavily mined with anti-personnel and anti-
Explosive ordnance also made an appearance in vehicle landmines, but also riddled with unexploded
the first World War, at times combined with chemical ordnance resulting from both ground battles and
weapons such as mustard gas. In certain cases, like heavy aerial bombardment.19
following the Battle of Verdun, large swaths of land The Vietnam War saw the introduction of
were sealed off. At Verdun, the longest sustained cluster bombs. These, containing bomblets, with a
conflict of World War I that cost more than 300,000 nonthreatening, toy-like appearance, have resulted
lives in 1916, saw millions of artillery shells fired. With in numerous fatalities and maimings among children
the war’s end in 1918, the environmental damage was in Southeast Asia and around the world. Much of
determined to be so extensive, the danger so high, and Vietnam and other parts of Southeast Asia were
rehabilitation so costly that the French government contaminated by exploded ordanance in thirty years
elected to conduct a forced relocation of the area’s of conflict stretching from World War II through the
inhabitants. The government moved people out of Vietnam War, including US bombing campaigns and
the area and created the Zone Rouge, 42,000-acres landmines laid in conflicts between Cambodia and
of uninhabited land with limited human access even Vietnam (1975-1978), China and Vietnam (1979-1990)
a century later.12 In inhabited areas, these munitions and during the Cambodian civil war (1978-1991). In
continue to pose a significant threat as well, resulting each of the more than 45 years sense the United
in everything from bodily injury to forest fires.13 States concluded its bombing campaigns in Cambodia,
Despite this clear and long-lasting damage, it was Laos, and Vietnam, there have been hundreds of
not until the second World War (WWII) that more civilian casualties. With an estimated 20% or more
modern forms of antipersonnel mines and aerial of the land in Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam being
bombardments were used in warfare. In Japan, about contaminated by unexploded ordnance, lives continue
 Harvard Model United Nations 2023 9

to be lost or irrevocably changed.20 The majority of

this unexploded ordnance in Vietnam is concentrated
in provinces that adjoin the former Demilitarized
Zone, including Quang Tri, Quang Binh, Thua Thien
Hue, and Quang Nam Provinces. Parts of southern
Vietnam and the country’s northern border with
China also remain contaminated with unexploded
ordnance and some landmines.
As a result of operations conducted during the
Balkan Wars, World Wars and Yugoslav Wars, Serbia,
like many Eastern European countries, remains
affected by numerous pieces of unexploded ordnance,
including nearly identified 200 aerial bombs and
missiles as well as sunken ships filled with munitions.21
The Kosovo War saw Albania both mined and shelled, Zone Rouge in France, 10 years after the devastating Battle
of Verdun-[Link]
leaving behind a myriad of exploded ordnance source/red-zone#undefined
that continue to endanger civilians as well.22 Soviet
military exercises, not just active wars, have also seen Even after decades of UN-backed clearance
Eastern Europe littered with ordnance, resulting in operations, Afghanistan continues to rank as one
environmental contamination as well as casualties.23 of the most landmine-affected and unexploded
Between 1990 and 2013, Colombia saw ordnance-impacted countries in the world. Since
more than 11,000 casualties from unexploded 2001 alone, upwards of 20,000 tons of munitions
ordnance, 26% of which were children. The more have been dropped in Afghanistan; an estimated 10%
than 50 years of conflict between the Colombian of that can be classified as unexploded ordnance.29
government and the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Persistent conflict in the state has impeded clearance
Colombia (FARC) left 31 of Colombia’s 32 regions efforts, leaving civilian populations at risk; this is on
contaminated by unexploded ordnance. Colombia has top of the more than 30,000 existing casualties, many
the second largest number of mine victims, following of them children.30 Another seriously impacted state
Afghanistan, according to the 2013 Landmine Monitor is Iraq. Iraqi civilians are threatened by unexploded
Report. Acting in Colombia since 1998, and fighting ordnance from several conflicts, including the Iran–
against landmines since 2005, Handicap International Iraq War (1980–1988), the Gulf War (1990–1991), the
is one of two humanitarian organizations accredited Iraq War (2003–2011) and the Iraqi Civil War (2014–
to demine in Colombia. Issue persists even with the 2017). In the first weeks of the 2003 invasion of Iraq
signing of a peace agreement in 2017.24 Not only alone, millions of cluster bombs were dropped in
are civilians most affected by anti-personnel mines densely populated civilian areas by Coalition forces.
and unexploded ordnance, despite the government’s It is estimated that 30% of munitions from these
extensive demining initiatives, but there has been a conflicts failed to detonate, regularly causing bodily
disproportionate impact on people of indigenous and harm to civilians and restricting access to otherwise
afro-descent.25 Those in rural areas have also been viable land.31
significantly impacted as the presence of ordnance has Decades of conflict, like that between the rebel
persistently hindered development.26 Similar patterns Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA) and the government
of risk, particularly that to children, have been seen in of Uganda, have left many civilians at risk. The
other South and Central American countries, such as unexploded ordnance, scattered and thereby difficult
El Salvador.27 to map and avoid, have resulted in numerous casualties,
Western Asia is also impacted. Ordnance, including the deaths of children within refugee
particularly mines, left behind by Azerbaijani and settlements.32 In South Sudan, unexploded ordnance,
Armenian forces during and following the First some even from the start of the Sudanese Civil
Nagorno-Karabakh War in the early 1990s continues War’s beginnings in the 1980s, continue to endanger
to impact life more than twenty-five years later. Not civilians. Since 2004 alone, more than 5,000 people
only has there been a loss of life in the region, but have been injured or killed. Hundreds of that 5,000
economic stagnation as well, resulting from a restricted were children, intrigued by the toy-like appearance of
use of natural resources and farmland showered some of the explosives.33
indiscriminately with unexploded ordnance.28
10 Background Guide: Special Political and Decolonization Committee

Unexploded ordnance exists in a myriad of people. This includes potential infringements on the
forms in states across the world, impacting people of rights guaranteed by the Universal Declaration of
countless nations. It is an issue with global impact of Human Rights.
immense international importance for humanitarian,
developmental, economic, and environmental reasons. Categorizations/Frameworks/
Without action to limit the further dispersal of Definitions
unexploded ordnance and clear existing munitions, Unexploded ordnance (UXOs): used in this
people, especially children, for generations to come context to refer to all explosive remnants of war,
around the world will live in strife because of wars primarily that which was “primed, fused, armed, or
long dead. otherwise prepared for use and used in an armed
Relevant UN / International conflict”, but also including abandoned munitions
Action and antipersonnel mines.36
Anti-personnel mines: munitions designed to be
Since the 1980s, the United Nations has been under or near the surface to be exploded by contact
working to address the threat posed by unexploded with or proximity to a person with the purpose of
ordnance. Among the most prominent examples of causing incapacitation, bodily harm, or death. 37
that are the enactment of the 1980 Convention on Cluster bombs: munitions containing and
Certain Conventional Weapons. Known colloquially dispersing submunitions known as bomblets over a
as the Inhumane Weapons Convention, the addition wide area. These bomblets can vary in number from
of Protocol V updated the convention to include a few dozen to over 600 and were designed to kill
all explosive remnants of war, not just landmines. It or injure combatants. However, they have significant
also includes language to account for the existence failure rates, leaving land littered with unstable
and mobilization of such munitions during internal munitions even in peacetime.38
conflicts. 1996 also saw the inclusion of a requirement Reparation: according to the UN General
that all mines be detectable. The following year saw Assembly (UNGA) resolution 60/147, adequate,
the passage of the UN Convention on the Prohibition effective and prompt reparation is a method of redress
of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer for victims of “Gross Violations of International
of Anti-personnel Mines and on Their Destruction, Human Rights Law and Serious Violations of
referred to colloquially as the Mine Ban Convention. International Humanitarian Law”. Such “reparation
Fourteen different UN agencies, departments, should be proportional to the gravity of the violations
programs, and funds play an active role in the issue and the harm suffered”. Further specification can be
of mines and other unexploded ordnance across the found in Section IX. Reparation for harm suffered of
world. These activities are coordinated by the UN UNGA resolution 60/147.
Mine Action Service (UNMAS), which was founded Public Apology: A form of reparation of the
in 1997. While advocating for a global ban on anti- ‘satisfaction variety, formal public apologies must
personnel landmines, the UNMAS is also responsible include an acknowledgement of a deliberate or
for regularly monitoring and assessing the threat of negligent wrong, a “truthful admission” on the part of
unexploded ordnance and subsequently developing the responsible party, a public statement of remorse
policies.34 and a “guarantee of non-recurrence”.
Among the most significantly impacted
populations by unexploded ordnance is children; as CASE STUDY A: LAOS
such, the Convention of the Rights of the Child (CRC)
is a notable consideration. The most widely ratified
human rights treaty in history, the CRC articulates Explaining the Problem
centrality of the physical and psychological protection Bordered by China and Myanmar to the North,
of children, as well as their right to an education, in a Cambodia to the South, Vietnam to the East and
humanitarian context.35 Thailand to the West, Laos in the late twentieth century
Unexploded ordnance is disruptive and was an officially neutral country that became a Cold
destructive features of life for those residing on War battleground. China’s proximity made the state
or passing through contaminated land. Explosive critical to US President Dwight D. Eisenhower’s anti-
remnants of war have a critical impact on the health, communist strategy, known as his Domino Theory.
mobility and economic opportunities accessible to Eisenhower and his successors, initially through
 Harvard Model United Nations 2023 11

covert attempts by the Central Intelligence Agency

(CIA), sought to seize power from the Pathet Lao, a
communist group founded in 1950 with strong ties
to communist leadership in Vietnam. Under the rule
of their leader, Prince Souphanouvong, government
troops and the Pathet Lao began to clash in the
Northeast along the border of Vietnam. At the time,
US President Kennedy announced his support for
neutralizing Laos; however neutralization on paper
and in practice look quite different.
Although the 1962 International Agreement on
the Neutrality of Laos, signed by among others, China,
the Soviet Union, Vietnam, and the United States,
forbids the direct invasion of Laos or establishment
of military operations within its borders, initiatives
approved by Eisenhower and his successors John
F. Kennedy, Lyndon B. Johnson and Richard Nixon
continued to fuel what became known as the ‘secret
war’ in Laos, with aerial bombardments and other
forms of interventions beyond aerial bombardments
Laos’ proximity to both China and Vietnam made it a signifi-
becoming a more prominent feature of intervention cant area of interest in the US anti-communism agenda. The
in later years.39 Ho Chi Minh Trail, which cuts through part of eastern Laos,
From 1964 to 1975, in its attempt to block the was used by Northern Vietnamese forces to move supplies
and soldiers into South Vietnam during the Second Indochina
flow of North Vietnamese troops and arms through War (also known as the Vietnam War). In an effort to cut off
Laos, the United States dropped 2.5 million tons this supply route, this area was the center of the majority of
the years-long US bombing campaign in Laos.-[Link]
of ordnance on the neutral state. These bombs [Link]/news/laos-most-bombed-country-vietnam-war
included canisters carrying up to 600 cluster bomb
units, scattering the munitions over a large area. which is popular in Laos, look very similar to these
Every eight minutes for nine years, the equivalent of explosives.45 Children, mistaking these unexploded
a planeload of bombs was dropped on the state of ordnance for harmless toys, repeatedly find themselves
Laos. approximately 30% of which did not detonate. in life-threatening, if not life-ending, situations.
According to sources, “American forces flew more The physical injuries of those who survive, among
than 580,000 bombing missions, the equivalent of other consequences of the high degree of UXO
one raid every eight minutes for nine years.”40 More contamination, have deprived many Lao children of
bombs were dropped on Laos than were dropped by their education for decades.46 The psychological toll
all parties during the Second World War. on the people is extreme. Subsistence farmers live in
By the end of the Vietnam War in 1975, 10% daily fear that they or their children will be injured
of the Laotian population, or 200,000 people, were or killed. This impact on education only further
among the fatalities, with twice that number among exacerbates the limitations the unexploded ordnance
the injured.41 Fifty-thousand of those casualties’ were put on Laos’ development.
from US bombs, and 98% percent were civilians. The Lao Unexploded Ordnance Programme
Of the surviving members of the people, 25%, or (UXO Lao) was established by the government of
750,000 people, were made refugees by the conflict. 42 Laos in 1996. Their collaboration with the British
Since the war’s end, there have been 20,000 casualties Mines Advisory Group (MAG) as well as the German
resultant from the estimated 80 million bombs left UXO clearance organization GEBERA, Handicap
behind. Each year, approximately 50-300 people have International, and Norwegian People’s Aid Cambodia
been killed each year by unexploded ordnance in began the following year. UXO Lao also receives
Laos.43 support and funding from the likes of the US
Children have been particularly impacted by government. The first visit to Laos by a sitting US
unexploded ordnance, comprising 40% of its president was in 2016 by President Barack Obama.
casualties.44 Cluster bomb munitions, known as locally President Obama also pledged US$90 million to
as “bombies”, are abundant and often look like toys. support the Laotian effort to clear ordnance, nearly
For example, the balls used in the game petanque,
12 Background Guide: Special Political and Decolonization Committee

Laos’ industrialization and economic development, as

building infrastructure like dams is a hazardous affair
amidst unexploded, and often buried munitions. Need
in the face of such economic barriers have resulted
in many civilians partaking in the scrap-metal trade,
utilizing the metal of shell casings for necessary tools
or products to sell. The additional income does not
come without tremendous risk, with many injuries
and fatalities resulting from participation in the trade.

Areas of Reform
While Laos may have an established demining
and clearance program, like many other countries it
lacks sufficient funding to completely clear all the
contaminated land within its borders on any rapid
timescale. It is necessary to reflect on how role of
states directly responsible in bombing campaigns,
like that conducted by the United States, influences
said states’ contributions to the clearance initiatives
of impacted countries. It is a point of consideration
whether such aid should be targeted in that way or
be a heftier contribution to a centralized fund and/or
Map based on data from the National Regulatory Authority
for UXO/Mine Action Sector in Lao PDR illustrating the lo- body within the United Nations. The United States
cations and concentrations of US bombing missions in Laos, is the world’s single largest financial supporter of
centering on the Ho Chi Minh Trail, as well as the Plain of
Jars to the north.-[Link] efforts to clear landmines and explosive remnants
[Link]/us-bombs-laos of war. However, it is arguably also the single largest
contributor to the issue as well, so delegates will have
doubling the US$100 million spent prior.47 However, to grapple with these conflicting histories. In the same
this effort and other acknowledgements aside, to this vein as reparative aid, more explicitly enumerated
day the United States has not formally apologized for repercussions for violating the peace and sovereignty
its near unilateral role in the bombardment of Laos of another, neutral country are critical. At present,
during the Vietnam War.48 there is no real predetermined recourse for those like
UXO contamination has been – and continues to the Laotian people seeking both substantial aid and a
be – a significant factor in the perpetuation of poverty sufficient and significant apology.
in Laos and a primary cause of the state’s limited
development in the long term. It largely comes down
to the inaccessibility of land and basic resources.
In Laos, 25% of farmable land has been deemed
otherwise unusable due to UXO contamination.
Without clearance, farmers and other civilians are put
at risk tending and passing over otherwise tenable
land contaminated by unexploded ordnance.49 A
survey from Mines Advisory Group (MAG), a British
NGO, suggests that 80% of people in areas with
cluster bombs still use the farmland despite knowing
or suspecting it to be contaminated with deadly
explosives. Two-thirds of the rural population are
either food insecure, or living on the edge of food
Known colloquially as the “pineapple bombie”, the BLU-3 is
security, living below the poverty line of US $1.25 a day. a cluster submunition. It has stabilizing drag vanes that pop
Agriculture remains the primary form of subsistence. out with the object’s release. Commonly defused and repur-
Leaving a field unploughed could mean further food posed as oil lamps, the bombs carry the risk of dispersing
200 steel pellets at high speed should they explode.-https://
scarcity or starvation. This also stands in the way of [Link]/us-bombs-laos
 Harvard Model United Nations 2023 13

Another serious issue is the popularity and risk Key Questions

of the scrap-metal trade. The underlying need driving
Laotians to such dangerous lengths, particularly How can an educational program warning people
impoverishment and limited access to other metal, to stay away from various forms of UXO best be
must be addressed to properly and equitably implemented?
disincentivize the dangerous practice and incentivize Should it be taught to children? Or should it be
alternative behavior. Widespread awareness campaigns shared by trusted community members with their
should also be considered. Existing educational locality’s adult combination? Should it be implemented
measures range from a traditional curriculum to the in the immediate future, or be integrated into curricula
proliferation of the Bombie song, a popular tune at the conclusion of the present conflict?
warning of the dangers of unexploded ordnance.50 How can perpetrators of violence and violators
Though they need to become more accessible, the of existing conventions be better held accountable
success of awareness programming and UXO and sufficiently disincentivized from repeating such
education conducted by the Lao government and non- bombing and/or mining?
governmental organizations illustrates the viability of
the method for mitigating UXO casualties. As a final, CASE STUDY B: UKRAINE
more overarching point of reform, the clearance of
unexploded ordnance mitigates their impact on the
level of poverty and development in Laos. For people
Explaining the Problem
to move freely in order to properly cultivate their land, unexploded ordnance that litter Ukrainian
pursue economic opportunities, receive health care, soil comes from numerous conflicts and military
and bolster their education, the land they inhabit, and operations over the last century. These include
travel must be conducive. munitions from the second World War and remnants
from Soviet-era military training.
The last twenty years have seen the proliferation
of Ukrainian demining and clearance. For example, a
program was established in 2001 to clear out World
War II era ordnance. This included thousands of tons
of ammunition in Soviet weapon stores, like at the
Crimean mine shafts known as the Inkerman Adits.
The problem persisted, however, with risk extending
beyond explosions to the destructiveness of fires, like
that at the Novo Bogdanovka ammunition base on 6
May 2004.51
Though these stockpiles do pose a significant
threat, targeted and deliberate attacks are the primary
producer of unexploded ordnance in Ukraine. While
Ukraine ratified the 1997 mine ban treaty, conflict
within the state has seen the use of stockpiles of
Soviet-era devices. The conflict between Ukraine and
Russia spanning between 2014 and 2016 left behind a
range of unexploded ordnance, including landmines,
artillery, and cluster bomblets, leaving eastern Ukraine
among the most UXO-contaminated areas in the world.
Conservative estimates were that hundreds of square
kilometers of land were contaminated by mines alone,
an area beyond the capacity of present demining
efforts.52 In those two years alone, unexploded
After his wounds became reinfected, then 10 year old Bich ordnance, including landmines, have resulted in 600
was brought back to the hospital. While working in his fatalities and over 2,000 wounded, including many
family’s field, the boy had sustained significant injuries to
his leg, groin, and jaw from a detonated ERW.-[Link] children. Responsible for approximately 80% of
[Link]/us-bombs-laos civilian casualties in Ukraine, this ordnance has proven
14 Background Guide: Special Political and Decolonization Committee

of unexploded ordnance persistently limit the mobility

of civilians in eastern Ukraine as well. Consequently,
their access to education, health, and more, including
visiting cemeteries to honor deceased relatives has
been severely impacted. Agriculture, fishing, and
subsistence measures like collecting firewood also
now carry significant risk; this is of particular concern
given the prominence of agriculture in the economic
and cultural life of those who inhabit the heavily
impacted Donetsk and Luhansk regions. In all, it is
estimated by the Ukrainian Ministry of Defense that
more than 7,000 square kilometers of government-
A sign along a major road outside the city of Marakiv, controlled land and 8,000 square kilometers of other
Ukraine warning of mines-[Link] territory are contaminated by unexploded ordnance
com/world/2022/04/15/ukraine-clearing-unexploded- including mines and abandoned artillery.
russian-bombs-missiles/
Millions of Ukrainian civilians of generations
past, present, and future, face the multifaceted threat
itself to be more dangerous for noncombatants than
of this unexploded ordnance.
even open warfare.53
The demining and clearance efforts in Ukraine
have been a feature of the last two decades. According
Areas of Reform
to a Landmine and Cluster Munition report, by In Ukraine, recent active conflict aggravates the
2019 Ukraine has destroyed more than 70,000 threat of unexploded ordnance. The already difficult
landmines and other unexploded ordnance through initiative of demining and clearing thousands of
the work of the work of military, police forces, as square kilometers of land is compounded by the
well as nongovernmental organizations.54 The state’s regular threat posed by the disperal of new munitions.
demining equipment has been supplied at least in The issue requires both long and short term solutions.
part by donations. For example, Canada has provided In the longer term, it is vital to support efforts of
Ukraine with specialized tools for landmine detection clearing land for the sake of safety as well as economic
and monitoring, like a ground penetrating radar.55 prosperity and access to civilians. In the shorter term,
In the past decade in particular, however, Ukraine Ukrainian civilians require improved access to health
has faced the difficult task of clearance in the midst of services and economic opportunities.
active conflict. While Ukraine remains a party to the Another significant concern in Ukraine, as in
1997 mine ban treaty, the state has asked for multiple many UXO-contaminated areas, is a lack of specific
extensions to its deadline to destroy all anti-personnel data on the locations of munitions. Without being
mines within its borders. In 2020, when Ukraine most able to map the threats, it is difficult to give explicit
recently asked for an extension, the Organization for direction as to where to avoid to civilians, as well as
Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) Special where to clear for demining teams. In more recent
Monitoring Mission to Ukraine, reported that UXOs years this issue has begun to be remedied, but given
were responsible for more civilian casualties than the addition of more unexploded ordnance from the
gunfire or artillery shelling. The conflict beginning in present conflict, it remains a pressing initiative.
early 2022 has only exacerbated the issue. In just the Awareness education programs have shown
first seven weeks of the war, the work of hundreds of promise in mitigating this risk. In particular, they
deminers to clear tens of thousands of unexploded should incorporate information on not only what
ordnance has been tempered by the ever-growing these munitions are, but the different ways in which
number of munitions.56 one could come into contact with them. For those in
The impact of unexploded ordnance in Ukraine, families where someone has died or been injured as a
as in many places, extends beyond catastrophic consequence of unexploded ordnance, a consideration
bodily harm. They also threaten critical infrastructure is a more robust welfare and/or support system to
like water, gas, and electricity facilities. For example, prevent caretaking from overshadowing the family
multiple demining teams have had to be called to the economic needs or vice versa.58
Donetsk Filter Station, responsible for the water supply
for almost 350,000 people.57 The quantity and dispersal
 Harvard Model United Nations 2023 15

and debates, delegates must not digress from the

overall goal of clearing explosive remnants of war
and overcoming their impacts on development.

Countries with land

contaminated by unexploded
ordnance from international
conflict
From states neutral in the relevant conflict to
active participants, these countries will likely seek not
only formal acknowledgements of the trauma and
harm that has come to their civilians, but financial
Demining operations hasten before the onset of winter- compensation as well. This may be in the form of
[Link] aid in the clearance process as well as additional
race-to-clear-danger-before-winter-01664689209 reparations for the developmental and economic
setbacks resultant from land contamination. Given
Key Questions any reparations are called to be proportional to the
conducted harm, it will be a contentious point as
In the midst of a conflict actively contributing to how much victims and/or states on their behalf
to the issue of unexploded ordnance, how can receive. Another likely point of conflict is whether
Ukraine effectively and efficiently demine and clear its any such measures will have retroactive applications,
contaminated land? a nuance these countries would likely be in favor of.
How can an educational program warning people A final point these countries will likely advocate for is
to stay away from various forms of unexploded an enforceable element to any further resolutions that
ordnance best be implemented? Should it be taught to incentivizes full participation and accountability.
children? Or should it be shared by trusted community
members with their locality’s adult combination? Countries that left behind or
Should it be implemented in the immediate future, or dropped ordnance in another
be integrated into curricula at the conclusion of the country
present conflict?
How can perpetrators of violence and violators Countries that have played a role in UXO
of existing conventions be better held accountable contamination, like the United States in Laos, are
and sufficiently disincentivized from repeating the likely to advocate for a maintenance of the status quo.
catastrophic bombing and mining? More specifically, for there to be no further obligation
How can states be better incentivized and/or of aid to affected states than that which is freely given.
supported in destroying their existing stockpiles? They are likely to advocate against any systematic
measures to enforce reparations, whether in the form
of a public apology or financial compensation. Among
POINTS OF CONTENTION these countries are also those that have been resistant
Regarding the discussions concerning to the notion of destroying their stockpiles of anti-
unexploded ordnance, delegates will discover several personnel mines; they are likely to prefer maintaining
areas of contention based on a country’s role in the these stockpiles in the name of national security.
contamination of their territory or another’s, as well as
economic strength and internal stability. These areas Countries minimally impacted
of contention will inevitably lead to diverging interests by exploded ordnance or
and possibly conflict between member states that are contaminated due to internal
seriously and not seriously affected by unexploded conflict
ordnance. Countries previously responsible for Countries that were not involved in the
bombing or mining campaigns will attempt to avoid contamination of other states or are themselves
actionable culpability. Countries significantly impacted impacted by unexploded ordnance are likely to focus
by unexploded ordnance, particularly resultant from on the future, rather than retroactive measures. In
outside interventions, will seek aid, if not reparations particular, those that are party to conventions like
in the efforts to clear and rebuild. During caucuses
16 Background Guide: Special Political and Decolonization Committee

Inhuman Weapons Convention will be inclined to clearance, review your state’s government program
discuss deadlines or extensions to said deadlines and capacity for handling unexploded ordnance.
for eliminating their stockpiles of antipersonnel Academic sources and pieces by bodies like the Red
mines and other banned munitions. As for those Cross provide significant and useful statistics and
contaminated in consequence of internal conflict, overall patterns of impact. Journalistic articles are
they will have a vested interest in elaborating on the more conducive to providing specific examples and
supportive measures for clearance to pair with the humanizing the issue. It would be fruitful to explore
existing restrictions of anti-personnel weapon use in a myriad of sources to form a holistic picture of the
internal conflicts for aforementioned parties. impact of explosive remnants of war on various levels.
Regardless of the conflicting positions of certain
states within this committee, it is critical for delegates CLOSING REMARKS
to find shared ground in the development of
sustainable, actionable, and consequential resolutions Thank you all for taking the time and effort to read
to the issue of explosive remnants of war and the use through this entire background guide on a topic that
of anti-personnel mines and other such destructive is fundamentally important in contemporary society.
weaponry. To the best of my ability, I have attempted to outline
the history and discussions regarding the use of
QUESTIONS A RESOLUTION MUST weapons like anti-personnel mines and cluster bombs,
the effects of explosive remnants of war, and the
ANSWER role responsible parties can have on impacted parties’
What are suitable funding sources and strategies recovery. I want to point out that this guide is not a
for demining and clearance efforts? Should the bulk comprehensive one as it does not cover all countries
of the cost be taken on by the states responsible for impacted by and responsible for UXO contamination,
the munitions? Is that a discernable and quantifiable as well as all circumstances in which such transpired.
fact? The topic of explosive remnants of war may not seem
Reparations are required to be proportional to the pressing in states not actively experiencing conflict.
harm caused; should there be an explicit methodology However, in the words of Red Cross landmine expert
to quantify that harm? If so, what should that be? Zeljko Lezaja, “Mines don’t recognize ceasefires,”
What timeline is fair for compliance with and thousands if not millions are not able to live at
conventions requiring the clearance and or destruction peace even in peacetime.62 While the topic may seem
of unexploded ordnance and stockpiled munitions? unwieldy at first, I guarantee that all of you will be
Should accountability measures be elaborated on involved in substantive and respectful discussions in
or further established? What would they entail? Would order to create meaningful resolutions. I want to let
they function retroactively? How do they function for you all know how excited I am for our conference this
internal conflicts? year, and I am ready to meet and discuss with each
How can states raise awareness of the dangers and every single one of you during our time together.
of unexploded ordnance? What role can the United
Nations play in that educational process? Sincerely,

Selam Ambaw
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER
RESEARCH
Delegates interested in further understanding the
issue of explosive remnants of war should review
academic and journalistic articles exploring not only
the bodily and psychological harm caused, but the
educational and socioeconomic impacts of UXO
contamination as well. For effects on children, the
UN Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) is a well-
informed source on impacted communities in a range
of regions. For those looking to better understand
existing funding, programs, and strategies for effective
 Harvard Model United Nations 2023 17

ENDNOTES
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[Link]/world/2015/jan/29/afghans-lives-in-peril-unexploded-bombs.
30 Fiederlein, Suzanne, and SaraJane Rzegocki. “The Human and Financial Costs of the Explosive Remnants of War in Afghanistan.” Watson Institute for International
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Settlement.” UNHCR, [Link]
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33 “South Sudan’s Legacy of Land Mines Hurts Recovery from War.” AP NEWS, 4 Feb. 2022, [Link]
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39 Rotondi, Jessica Pearce. “Why Laos Has Been Bombed More Than Any Other Country.” HISTORY, [Link]
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40 “The Legacy of Unexploded US Bombs in Laos.” Schuster, [Link] Accessed 10 Sept. 2022.
18 Background Guide: Special Political and Decolonization Committee

41 “America’s Secret War in Laos.” The Economist. The Economist, [Link] Accessed 10
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42 “How the U.S. Secret War in Laos Is Still Happening Today.” Pulitzer Center, [Link] Accessed
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