Considering Principles
→ decide how learning
can be encouraged
PRINCIPLES
Chapter 4
CONTENT AND SEQUENCING
1 Frequency: A language course should provide the best possible
coverage of language in use through the inclusion of items that occur
frequently in the language so that learners get the best return for their
learning effort.
Example:
A beginner’s English course prioritizes high-frequency words and
common grammatical structures before teaching less frequent
vocabulary and structures.
CONTENT AND SEQUENCING
2 Strategies and Autonomy: A language course should train learners in
how to learn a language and how to monitor and be aware of their learning,
so that they can become effective and independent language learners.
Example:
self-monitoring techniques (keeping a vocabulary journal, setting
personal learning goals, and using digital flashcards for independent study)
CONTENT AND SEQUENCING
3 Spaced Repeated Retrieval: Learners should have increasingly spaced,
repeated opportunities to retrieve and give attention to wanted items in
a variety of contexts
→ Repetition of the use of language items over time, in different
situations
Example:
Students encounter the same vocabulary in different contexts, such as
reading a word in a story, using it in writing, and hearing it in a listening
exercise over several weeks.
CONTENT AND SEQUENCING
3. SPACED REPEATED RETRIEVAL
Repetition based on change of content
Verbatim Varied
The same content is repeated with The same content occurs again in a
little or no change different form
Reading the same passage multiple Retelling a story from a different
times character's perspective
CONTENT AND SEQUENCING
3. SPACED REPEATED RETRIEVAL
Repetition based on time interval
Immediate Delayed
Occurs shortly after the initial Occurs after a time gap, which
exposure, often within the same could be hours, days, weeks, or
lesson or session. even months later.
Repeating a sentence aloud Reviewing vocabulary a week
right after hearing it after first learning it
CONTENT AND SEQUENCING
4 Language system: The language focus of a course needs to be on
the generalisable features of the language.
→ helps learners creatively use the language in new situations
Example:
Reading: questions focus on language features like cohesive
devices and guessing meaning from context
Teaching past tense forms through storytelling
CONTENT AND SEQUENCING
5 Keeping moving forward: A language course should progressively
cover useful language items, skills, and strategies.
→ Language teaching goals + ways to ensure goals to be reached
→ Tasks with goals that fit the course plan
Example:
After mastering simple present tense, students move on to past
tense, and later to present perfect, ensuring a gradual and logical
progression of language skills.
CONTENT AND SEQUENCING
6 Teachability: The teaching of language items should take account of the
most favourable sequencing of these items and should take account of
when the learners are most ready to learn them.
• Learners follow a fixed order of stages in their acquisition
• Items learned at 1 stage is necessary for later stages
Example: Table 4.3/page 56
Young learners are introduced to basic sentence structures before more
complex ones, such as teaching "I like apples" before "If I had an apple, I
would eat it."
CONTENT AND SEQUENCING
7. Learning Burden: The course should help the learners to make the
most effective use of previous knowledge
Example:
Cognates are used in an English course for Vietnamese speakers,
such as teaching "information" and "education" early because they
resemble Vietnamese words.
CONTENT AND SEQUENCING
8 Interference: The items in a language course should be sequenced
so that items which are learned together have a positive effect on
each other for learning, and so that interference effects are avoided
Example:
Instead of teaching "lend" and "borrow" together, they are taught
separately in different lessons to prevent confusion.
FORMAT AND PRESENTATION
1 Motivation: As much as possible, the learners should be interested
and excited about learning the language and they should come to
value this learning
Example: Lessons include engaging activities like role-playing
restaurant conversations instead of just drilling vocabulary about
food.
FORMAT AND PRESENTATION
2. Four Strands: A course should include a roughly even balance of the
four strands of meaning-focused input, language-focused learning,
meaning-focused output, and fluency activities.
Example:
Each week, the curriculum balances meaning-focused input (reading
graded readers), language-focused learning (grammar exercises),
meaning-focused output (writing personal emails), and fluency (timed
speaking activities).
FORMAT AND PRESENTATION
3 Comprehensible Input: There should be substantial quantities of
interesting comprehensible receptive activity in both listening and
reading.
Example:
The listening curriculum includes graded audiobooks and slow-speed
podcasts to ensure students find them interesting and effective.
FORMAT AND PRESENTATION
4 Fluency: A language course should provide activities aimed at
increasing the fluency with which the learners can use the language
they already know, both receptively and productively.
Example:
The curriculum includes "speed reading" activities where students
time themselves reading easy texts to increase reading fluency.
FORMAT AND PRESENTATION
5 Output: The learners should be pushed to produce the language in
both speaking and writing over a range of discourse types
Example:
Students engage in structured speaking tasks like debates and guided
storytelling to ensure they actively produce English.
FORMAT AND PRESENTATION
6 Deliberate learning: The course should include language-focused
learning on the sound system, vocabulary, grammar, and discourse
areas
Example:
The curriculum incorporates explicit vocabulary instruction, such as
teaching common prefixes and suffixes (e.g., "un-", "-tion") to help
learners recognize word meanings.
FORMAT AND PRESENTATION
7 Time on Task: As much time as possible should be spent using and
focusing on the second language
Example:
Homework assignments require students to spend at least 20
minutes daily on extensive reading in English.
FORMAT AND PRESENTATION
8 Depth of Processing: Learners should process the items to be
learned as deeply and as thoughtfully as possible
Example:
Instead of just memorizing word lists, students are asked to create
mind maps linking new words to synonyms, antonyms, and example
sentences.
FORMAT AND PRESENTATION
9 Integrative Motivation: A course should be presented so that the
learners have the most favourable attitudes to the language, to users of
the language, to the teacher’s skill in teaching the language, and to
their chance of success in learning the language
Example:
Students are exposed to real-life cultural content, such as British and
American traditions, to build a positive attitude toward English learning.
FORMAT AND PRESENTATION
10 Learning Preferences: There should be opportunity for learners to
work with the learning material in ways that most suit their individual
learning preference
Example:
The curriculum allows students to choose between watching a video,
reading an article, or listening to a podcast for a particular topic.
MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT
1 Ongoing Needs and Environment Analysis : The selection,
ordering, presentation, and assessment of the material in a language
course should be based on a continuing careful consideration of the
learners and their needs, the teaching conditions, and the time and
resources available.
Example:
Before designing the curriculum, a needs analysis survey is
conducted to determine students’ proficiency levels and learning
goals.
MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT
2 Feedback: Learners should receive helpful feedback which will
allow them to improve the quality of their language use
Example:
The curriculum includes peer review sessions and teacher feedback
on essays to help students improve their writing.