CHAPTER 3 - PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN HIGHER PLANTS

Dhotosvnthesis is a physico-chemical process by which green plants use the solar energy and
convert it in to chemical energy stored in organic compounds. Photosynthesis is very important
for two reasons; it is the primary source of food on earth and it is responsible for the release of
oxygen in the atmosphere.

Photosynthesis is defined as a process by which grecen plants synthesize their own food by using
water and carbon dioxide in presence of chlorophyll and sunlight, oxygen is given out as a
byproduct.

Historical background
.VanHelmont showed that soil did not add mass to a growing plant.
Priestly and Ingenhousz gave the basic chemical reaction of photosynthesis and showed
that plants take CO; from atmosphere and release O2.
[Link] Niel, in 1930's, explained the role of light in the light and dark reactions
(equation of PS).
Engelmann used green algae Cladophora and showed that maximum absorption takes
place in red and blue light.
Blackman showed that capturing photosynthetic energy requires sunlight, while building
organic molecules does not.
Van Niel worked on purple and green bacteria and demonstrated that photosynthesis is a
light dependent reaction inwhich H2 from a suitable oxidisable compound reduces
carbon dioxideto carbohydrates..
Robert Hill showed that plants could use light energy to generate reducing power.
(Electron transport chain)
Theodore de Saussute (Swiss scholar) found that water is an essential requirement for PS
to occur.
Ingenhousz shówed that sunlight is essential for a plant process that purifies the air.

Photosynthesis- A summary
Occurs in many kinds of bacteria, algae, in leaves and young stems ofplants.

Only chloroplasts are able to carry out photosynthesis. for photosynthesis

Water and carbon dioxide are the two raw materials required
Photosynthesis takes place in 3 stages: i.e. grana and stroma lamellae trap the
1. Capturing solar energy (membrane system
light energy as they have the pigments)NADPH"
to make ATP and (NADPH" is used as a reducing
2 solar
Using energy
power) molecule from CO2 (in Stromaas
3. Using ATP and NADPH" to synthesize organic
of CO2 to carbohydrate)
it has the enzymes required for reduction
 and are called Lioht
in the presence of light
The first 2 stages take place
take place in the absence of light
also so it is called ark r
'Dark eaction.
on. The
reaction'
3 stage can
(aso
called Calvin cycle).

Pigments
Molecules that are good absorbers of light in the visible range
range are called
called
Pigments involved in photosynthesis are
pigments
1. Chlorophylls Green pigments, they are of 7 types i.e phyll
chlorophyll
bacteriochlorophyll and bacterioviridin.
a, b,c,
b, c. dd, e,
2 Carotenoid pigment - These are lipids and are classified into 2 groups.
a) Carotenes - Orange red in colour, general formula C40Hs6, were isolated from
carrots.
b) Xanthophylls - Yellow in colour (gives yellow colour to autumn
formula is CapHs6O2, lutein is a leaves), general
widely distributed xanthophyll. Fucoxanthin is
another xanthophyll found in brown
3. algae.
Phycobilins Mainly found in blue green algae and red
-

and Phytol chain. They are of two algae. They do not bear Mg
a) Phycocyanin - Purple blue
types.
b) Phycoerythrin Red pigment
-
pigment
Chlorophyll is the major pigment responsible for
accessory pigments. Accessory trapping light; other pigments are called
spectrum and it
pigments also absorb
different wave lengths in visibIE
pass on to
chlorophyll.
Chlorophyll Chlorophyll consists of a
-

Phytol. Porphyrin head and a long

The term chlorophyll was hydrocarbon tail called
given by Pelletier and Caventou
There are 2 main types of chlorophyll molecules. in 1817

Ch-a: At the position R it has a

methyl
It is blue
green and appears red (-CH,) group.
Chlorophyll a> Css H72 inOs reriected
Na Mg light and green in transmitted light.
Ch-b: At the position R it has an
aldehyde
Jt is green black and appears brownish(-CHO) Or
red in up.
in transmitted light. reflected light
and
Chlorophyll b Css H7o Os N, Mg yellow green
green
 STRUCTUREOFCHLOROPHYLL
Chlonophy a
.cH R=-CH
Amoe Chlonophyl| s.
R=-CHO
CH CH
Pophyun
head (Hydnop hyc)
i t has 4 ive mem benud
un and a tenral
Con mayne8ium
CH2 The 5
Cyclo
membenicd ing
enfanonl zoI Pymoleain
Cclopentanbne
Phytol chain mg
hydnocan bun
chan YRocarbon)
Hydrophobic tail
CH3
Photosynthetically Active Radiations (PAR).
Visible spectrum of solar radiation is called PAR.

enwing Eneg
Lntntasig 2aelLng _
O1 Cm
00f nm Inm

4a mme *ays Tnpranud Radio waves

Nays

Visible liyAt
Y

43 SPo Sho. s 7 n
4onm AM

Absorption Spectrum: Absorption spectrum represents the range of wavelengths absorbed by the
pigments most efficiently. Absorption spectrum is studied with the help of Spectrophotometer.

'a' and 'b' absorb predominantly violet, blue and red light and reflect the
Chlorophyll
green.

Carotenoids absorb mostly blue and green light and reflect orange and yellow light.
 Caroleneids.
chlonopAy
Chloaophyll b

wankg M
of different pigments
Absorption spectrum
Action Spectrum in blue and red rei
shows that maximum photosynthesis takes place
Action spectrum
of the spectrum.
the quantity of oxygen released
measured the rate of photosynthesis as by
Englemann wavelengths.
algae when they were exposed different
to
green
released maximum oxygen in blue and red
The experiment showed that the green algae
1.e. more by product means more
region. Oxygen is the byproduct of photosynthesis
photosynthesis (action) taking place
Action spectrum parallels the absorption spectrum. It indicates that photosynthate
formation is related with light absorption

Photosystem
of LHC (Light harvesting complex), a reaction eentr
A photosystem comprises
chlorophyll 'aand a primary electron acceptor.
Electron Transfer Primary
electron
Photon
acceptor
Reaction
Reaction Centre
centre

chlorophyll.
First chemical
reaction

Transfer Antenna
of energy
pigment LHC|
molecules
PHOTOSYSTEM
 A PILO a ngnt harvesting
ng "antenn complex"
AnAntenna complex consists of a few
The number and variety of hundred Ch-a, Ch-b and carotenoid
pigment molecules.
energy over a molecules
larger portion of spectrum. enable a
photosystem harvest light
to
When any antenna molecule absorbs a
pigment to another till it reaches photon, the energy is transmitted from one
the Reaction Center
chlorophyll is always Chlorophyll a' Chlorophyl1. Reaction center
At the reaction center, the first
light driven chemical reaction of
.The electron from the reaction center photosynthesis occurs.
acceptor chlorophyll
is accepted by the primary elcciron
Two Photosystems
The thylakoid membranes have two types of
and Photosystem- (PS I), in order of their photosystems
called Photosystem-l (PS 1)
Each has characteristic Reaction Center
discovery.
chlorophyll 'a' moleule, )a primary electron
acceptor and accessory pigments to harvest sunlight.
The reaction center chlorophyll of Photosystem-I is known as Pro0, because this pigment
absorbs light having wavelength of 700 nm (far red part of
the spectrum)
The Chlorophyll 'a' at reaction center of Photosystem-Il is called Ps80 because it absorbs
at 680 nm.
These two pigments P700 & Po80 are identical Chlorophyll a' molecules, their different
behaviors is due to different proteins associated with them.
PS I is present on the non- appressed part of thylakoid membrane (the part of membrane
which is in contact with stroma)
PS II is present on the appressed pàrt of thylakoid membrane (the part of membrane
which is in contact with the othermepmbrane)
The thylakoid membrane of Grana have PS I and PS II whereas the membranes of Stroma
lamellae have only PS I (PS Iland NADP Reductase are absent on the membrane of
stroma lamellae)

Excitation of Isolated Chlorophyll Molecule

Electnons
2
in the
cited stat

Heat
PHoTON
Photon
FLUORESCENcE

electaon
at gnound
Chlonophyll
tat
 to light, electrons get excited a
as there
When isolated chlorophyll
is exposed
come back to their ground stato4 there iS no
ate. In this
this process
acceptor, the
electrons
of light. This phene
n
Primary electron extra energy
in the form menon is called
that
the electron emit
Fluorescence.

merson's effect and Red Drop of O moleon.1.

molecules released
and Lewis (1943)
measured quantum yield (number O,
. Emerson
different wave lengths
of light.
per quantum light absorbed) at at 680 nm (red
observed a sudden drop
in the rate of photosynthesis region)
They of isspectrum called Red
.This sudden fall in photosynthesis
beyond red region
can be restored if simultaneousiysh
rop
that photosynthetic
rate short (680)
They further noticed provided.
long (700) wave length
are
and
to short and long wavelengths resulted
This simultaneous exposure
when compared to the rate
with individual wavelengths higher
photosynthetic rate
enhancement is called
Emerson enhancement effect or EEmerson
ifect or
This photosynthetic
effect.
existence of 2 photosystems
Emerson effect also proved the

Light Reaction or Photophosphorylation

I t is called Lightreaction as it is a light dependent process
for electron flow:
During light reaction, there are two possible routes
1) Non-Cyclic Photophosphorylation
2) Cyclic Photophosphorylation

1. Non-cyclic photophosphorylation
I t is also known as "Z scheme due to its characteristic shape and is the predominant
route.
Both PS I and PS II are involyedin this pathway.
the reaction center
Light energy is trapped by the LHC of PS II and is passed on to
chlorophyll a (P s8o) of PSI.
Due to this energy a pair of electrons gets excited and leaves the chlorophyll molec
(Excitation of éhorophyll molecule is due to photo-oxidation). wnhill

The electron paitis accepted by the primary electron acceptor and then itmoves
through an electron transport chain comprising of Plastoquinone (Pg, y
complex (Cý) and Plastocyanin (Pc).
.The legtron pair loses the extra energy at cytochrome complex. of
the lumen
Atcytochrome complex this energy is used to pump protons from stromd
stroma to

thylakoid.
As a result of this proton concentration in lumen increases. B ywhichis
When the protons return to stroma through F0-F1 particles, they release
used to generate ATP. This is known as
Chemiosmosis. reaction center

The electron pair (after releasing energy in ETC) is now acceptea oy

chlorophyll a (P700) of PS I. Kciteda

Light is also trapped by the pigments of PS I and a pair of electron getS

finally accepted by NADP through an electron acceptor Ferredoxin
r
 .As the elecuroS 0St om never come
Cyclic Photophosphorylation. l back to PS II, this
pathway is known as Non
To replenish the lost electrons from PS
II, photolysis of water takes
.Photolysis of water takes place in presence place.
of sunlight in the lumen of
water splitting complex is located on thylakoid because
the inner side of the
splitting complex is associated with PS I. Mn" thylakoid membrane. Water
is essential for
. Photolysis of water releases 2e, 2H and photolysis.
0,
2H,0 Mn*
4H+ 4e + OO 1S
2e are given to PS I, 2H are taken by NADP+ to generate the
(NADPH2) and oxygen is released reducing power
ATP and NADPH2 obtained
as byproduct.
dark reaction.
during non- cyclic photophosphorylation are used up during

NONCYCLZC ELECTRON FLOW (NoNcy¢LIc PHOTOPHOSPHo RyLA

-TION
Paim
acLepta
aceeptoa NADPH
NADP
Redetase NaDPt

iomples
Hao
light

2. Cyclic Photophosphorylation
I n additionto non -cyclic photophosphorylation, there is another pathway for generating
ATP
In this pathway the excited electrons come back to the photosystem so it is known as
cyclic photophosphorylation.
I t involves only PS I.
leaves the reaction center chlorophyll 'a' (P200) of
The pair of electrons when gets excited chain comprising of Ferredoxin (Fd),
PS I and passes through an electron transport
The electrons finally come back to
Cytochrome complex (Cy) and Plastocyanin (Pc).
PS L
I n this pathway only ATP is generated.
there is no need to replenish the electrons
Photolysis does not take place as
 Cyclic Photophosphorylatio
(Cyclic Electron Flow)

e"accep
Pimanoa

yto cham
Compk
e
Te
www ipkt torials 1 a

e 700
LATP7 PSI

Chemiosmotic Hypothesis
I n Photosynthesis also ATP synthesis is linked to development of a proton gradient
across the membrane of thylakoid.

57RoMA
Sol
enena NADP

NADPH +H
NADP
Hedur cha
PSL PSI
ylakoid
mem hamk
0aren e
pbi ting
Compnx H0 /umen
ylakoid
Fo
ADP E CATP 3ynhalan

Chemiosmosis
During ETC of non-cyclic
photophosphorylation energy is released
complex (which acts as a proton carrier).
at
oy
 This energy 1s used
by cytochrome complex
lumen of thylakoid. to pump a
proton from stroma in to the
Since the splitting
of water also takes
protons released by splitting of water alsoplace
on the inner side
of the membrane, the
accumulate in the lumen.
.A proton gradient is created across the
the lumen. thylakoid membrane as well as a decrease in pH in
. The protons move back in to stroma
which act as ATPase. through transmembrane channels of Fo -Fi particles
Fo is embedded in the thylakoid membrane and
carries out facilitated diffusion of
across the membrane. Fi protrudes on the
outer surface of the membrane and
protons
in the synthesis of ATP. they helps
NADP reductase is located on the stroma side of the
is reduced to NADPH2 thylakoid membrane, where NADP

Dark reaction Biosynthetic phase (Calvin Cycle)

-

.Melvin Calvin and his coworkers used "CO and green

of carbohydrate synthesis during alga Chlorella to study the path
photosynthesis.
Dark reaction also called C3 cycle (as the first
stable compound formed is a 3 carbon
compound) and Calvin cycle (after its discoverér Melvin Calvin who received Nobel
Prize).
It is called Dark reaction as it is light
independent process.
It takes place in stroma of Chloroplast.
ATP and NADH2 synthesized during light reaction
are utilized during this phase.
Dark reaction can be summed up in 3 steps.
1. Carboxylation
2. Reduction (Reversal of Glycolysis)
3. Regeneration of RuBP.

1. Carboxylation
CO is accepted by a 5 carbon molecule, Ribulose-1,5 biphosphate (RußP) in
presence of an enzyme RuBisCo [Ribulose biphosphate carboxylase oxygenase
It results in formation of an unstable 6 carbon compound which breaks to form 2
molecules of the first stable 3 carbon compounds, 3-Phosphoglycerate (3-PGA) in
presence of an enzyme carboxy dis mutase.
2.
Reduction (Reversal of Glycolysis)
The 3-PGA molecules get reduced in presence of ATP and NADPH2 (from light

reaction) to form 3-PGAL (3-Phosphoglyceraldehyde) also known as Triose

Phosphate. and used
Few molecules of 3-PGAL are driven out from Calvin Cycle are as

precursor of Glucose synthesis.

3,
Regeneration of RuBP takes place in presence of ATP molecules
RuBP regeneration from 3PGAL molecule
(from light reaction) molecule
Calvin cycles are needed to synthesize glucose
6
1
is : - 18 ATP and 12 NADPH2
ATP and NADPH, requirement in C3 cycle
 three molecuie

CO 1c

six molecules
three molecules U13 co
ribulose 1, 5C 3-phosphoglycerate 3C
5-bisphosphate

3 ADP CarboXylatim -6 ATP

3ATP three molecules 6 ADP
ribulose 5C six molecules
5-phosphete
1.3-diphosphoglycerate 3C

6 NADPH
6 NADP
five molecules six molecules 6
glyceraldehyde 3C glyceraldehyde
3-phosphate 3-phosphate
3C

one molecule

glyceraldehyde 3C
3-phosphate

Sugar
CALVIN CYCLE
This Cycle shows 3 molecules
of CO2
purpose. In nature 1 CO, is accepted accepted by molecules RuBP Oniy
3 only for understanding

cvcle and so 6 Calvinofcycles

thesize
glucose molecule" every
are
ncc
Photorespiration

pho high
(Photosynthetic carbon oxidation
eycle)
AD temperatureto and
higher concentration of O2.
Carboxylase starts acts like Oxygenase. Rubisco, which generally acts
Daring photorespiration as Rubisco as
is acting
Oxidized and very less undergoes as
oxygenase, most of the RuBP is
During carboxylation to form
carbohydrate.
Du
photorespiration, oxygen
ATP or NADPH*
is used up and
CO2 is released without
production of
Photorespiration is also knovwn as C2

orial
cycle or Glycolate eycle.
O 1al
RuBP
Phosphoglycolate PGA
oria
PGA ADP Pi
ATP Glycolate
Glycerate
Glycerate Glycolate
NAD
NADH
Hydroxy pyruvate Glyoxylate+HO,
NH, Glycine
Serine

Serine Glycine
NH
cO
NADH NAD

are considered
to be the site of
chloroplast (peroxisomes)
icrobodies found
near

and Rubisco (which

photorespiration. chloroplasts,
peroxisomes,
mitochondria

involves
Fhotorespiration
acts as oxygenase). photorespiration.
are synthesized during
Dome carbohydrates photosynthesis,
works to undo the
act of
rice, beans,
wheat, barley etc.
hotorespiration plants. Eg:
in temperate
Pho
otorespiration
occurs
C4 Pathway also known as Hatch an
Hatch and Slack and so Is
and Slack
C4 pathway was given by
cycle. to avoid
show adaptations loss of
Plants growing in warmer areas
CO, by
photorespiration.
These adaptations are seen in plants like Maize, Sugarcane, Amaranthus, Millet C
asses,
Euphorbia, Sorghum, Portulaca and Chenopodium.
These plants are called C4 plants.
The adaptations are in the leaf anatomy-
1. They show Kranz anatomy where the bundle sheath cells are arranged in a reath
e
wreath
manner(Kranz means
ring).
or
2. C4 plants have dimorphic Chloroplast (two types of chloroplast).
a) Granal chloroplast (where thylakoids are found as grana) found in mesophyll
Cells (where light reaction takes place)
b) Agranalchloroplast (where grana are absent and thylakoids are present as
stromalamellae) found in bundle sheath cells (where dark reaction takes place)

. I n C4 plants, light reaction (release of oxygen) occurs in mesophyll cells and dark
reaction occurs in bundle sheath cells (CO assimilation).
This arrangement does not allow O, released in mesophyll cells to come in contact with
Rubisco in bundle sheath. As a result, oxygenation of RuBP is completely avoided.
By shifting the site of Dark reaction to deeperbundle sheath cells the temperature is also
kept little lower.
So Rubisco does not come in contact with Oxygen and is made to work at lower
temperature so it acts as carboxylase and not as oxygenase and so photorespiration is
avoided.
To further minimize the chances of photorespiration, C4 plants have devised a CO
concentration mechanism called C4 pathway.
.The primary CO2 acceptor is a3 carbon compound Phosphoenol Pyruvate(PEP) and is
present in mesophyll cells. This reaction takes place in presence of an enzyme called
PEPCO (PEP carboxylase).
In C4 plants mesophyll cells lack Rubisco.
The first stable compound formed is OAA a 4 carbon compound and so the cycle s

called C4cycle
OAA then forms Aspartic acid or Malic acid in mesophyll.
Aspartic or Malic acids are then transported to bundle sheath cells where they underg
decarboxylation and release Pyruvic acid (PA) and 1 molecule of CO2 which is acecp
by RuBP in presence of Rubisco.
P A is transported back to mesophyll eells where it is converted to PEP.
For hich is
of 1 molecule
conversion to PEP, 1 ATP is hydrolysed to 1 AMP
of PA (wn
equal to 2 ATP getting hydrolysed to 2 ADP). IS
So to synthesize 1 glucose molecule through C4 cycle ATP and NADPH'requiremc
18 ATP in C3
12 ATP in C4
cycle
cycle
12 NADPH2 in C3
cycle
So total ATP Icose molecule.

requirement in C4 plants is 30 ATP for synthesis of I

gucO
C4 pathway 1s expensive but by spending more energy,
avoid the loss of CO2 by photorespiration. plants have adapted themselves to

COP

H2O
Hco canbon Co2L
na
LPEP anhydas Mescphyll
PEPCO (3C) JPEP! Cell

OAACG) egenonon ATTP

COL
ixion
AP.
2ATP)
Pyuva

2 Rranspo

Malafeecanboxylatio Bundle
CO2 Shcah
NADP NADPH Cll
tH CO2
3aton by C34ycle.
Ru8P 3PGA

5uga

Lom jpound it Cy cycle

Cyele
Ch
OAA Oxaloaue he audl
PA P y n u v i c Aud

enol pyhuvalt
PEP Phospho
pyhuvalL canbexylase
-

PEPCO- Phospho en
 f l 8 w e

metabolisi) includes
acid family ( of Euphorbiar
CAM (Crassulacean

in the
members of
Crassulaceae

Bryopiyilum,
Some
members
orbiaceae.
Found Pineapple, photorespiration
Succulent plants,
to avoid
Examples: adaptation during the night.
day and open
different
show a
These plants
remain closed during CO2 and
store it as Malate
stomata take
In these plants the plants Malate and is
when the
s t o m a t a are open
is released from used in
stored CO;
During night s t o m a t a are
closed,
when
During day glucose.
C3 cycle to synthesize

stpmata elosed
Stomala epen-

Pynuvale rese
PEO_HO P E P Ei g s e

NADR
OAA
StbdA R m u o p h y } / * | C 2

mesophy
NADH cell. clvin

NAD malali
chlono-
Staro plast.
Malate klonops

ymalalc
malath
acualc
VeLuole

During Nig Dwing Ja

Translocation of photosynthates
are called photosynthates
Product of photosynthesis Translocation.
through phloem and is known as
takes place
Transport of photosynthates translocated as sucrose and
stored as starch.
Photosynthate is synthesized
as glucose;
theories to explain Translocation are
The commonly accepted
to sinkhypothesis.
(storage organs)
i) Source (leaf, site synthesis)
of

ii) Mass flow hypothesis

Advantages of Translocating
Carbohydrates as Sucrose,
1. Sucrose is a non-reducing sugar.
2. It is stable. Phloem.
3. It does not react with
other substances during translocation through
1.0
Cardinal points called cardinal po
Every factor influencing a physiological process has 3 principal values
1. Minimum - the value below which the process cannot take place.
2. Optimum the value at which the process is at its highest velocity.
-
 Maximum the value beyond which the
-

process stops.
Theory of 3 cardinal points was given by Sachs (18601

Black law of limiting factor

- When a is conditioned to its
actors, the rate of process is limited by the process
pace of the
rapidity by a number of
decided by the factor which is in least concentration. slowest factor ie the rate of a process is

Factors afecting the rate of photosynthesis

A. External factors
. Light
a) Light intensity
-Rate of photosynthesis increases with
intensity the cell exhibit photo-oxidationlight intensity (if this
but at very high light
by solarization continues for
few hours the
photosynthetic is
apparatus destroyed.)(
Sciophytes (shade tolerant plants) - these plants cannot grow in intense
Light, they grow in low intensity.
Heliophytes (shade intolerant plants) these plants grow in intense light
Light intensity also affects opening and closing of stomata which affects
gaseous exchange
Light saturation point - the value of líght saturation at which further
increase is not accompanied by an increase in CO2 uptake.
b) Light quality
Blue and red spectrum of the light are said to be the best for photosynthesis.
Green light has inhibitory effect (except for plants growing in deep water
which absorb green light).
c) Light duration
Plants getting average light for 10-12 hours a day show higher rate of
photosynthesis.
increase in in in
2. Carbon dioxide Slight increase in CO2 concentration results
-

however very high concentration of CO2

photosynthesis (called CO; fertilization effect),
becomes toxic tó the plant.
decreases the rate of photosynthesis
3. Oxygen Increase in oxygen concentration
and oxygen competes with C0, for
as it results in photorespiration
(Warburg effect)
hydrogen and may get reduced
in place of CO2
as it is one of the raw
the rate of photosynthesis
4Water- Water deficiency decreases
materials. of CO2 and will reduce the
of stomata and will affect entry
Less water may cause closing
rate of photosynthesis.
is 20 to 35 c
Optimum temperature for photosynthesis
emperature -

of enzyme.
the rate is reduced due to denaturation
At high or low temperature occurs at 35 "C.
n conifers, photosynthesis
at 75 C (in hot springs)
Some algae undergo photosynthesis
B. Internal factors
f a c t o r s are believed to
to a
affect
f . rate
unknown protoplasmic
Some
1. Protoplasmic factors
of photosynthesis. affects the process.
Quantity of chlorophyll I hour is called photacs
2. Chlorophyll
content

by 1 gram chlorophyll in
tosynthetic
Amount of CO2 fixed
assimilation number. translocated, it
number or is not
consumed or
results in
reclu

3. Accumulation of product - If the product

stoppage of the process. distribution of stomata, intercall..
gradual Characters like position and ar
Structure of leaves
4. affect the rate of process
vascular tissue etc. also
spaces,

IMPORTANT INFORMATION
found on the earth.
the most abundant protein
Rubisco is fractions of Chlorophyll*a" and
(1864) was first to separate pure
C.G. stokes
Chlorophyll "b*".
known pentose pathway.
as reductive
Calvin cycle is also
semi-alata has both C3
and C4 ecotypes.
Grass Allotropies absorbed and also least effective.
are least
(586-647 nm) light and
Orange wavelengths in red wavelengths (647-660 nm) of
at faster rate
Photosynthesis takes place
most effective.
by
coined Keilin (1925)
Cytochrome term was reduction of CO2.
involves oxidation of water and
Photosynthesis utilized by photosynthetic organisms.
falling on the earth is
Only 0.2% of the light energy organisms except in pigment
"a" is most abundant in all photosynthetic
. Chlorophyll
containing bacteria.
Plastid complex ofa cell is called plastidome.
. Phycobilins are water soluble pigments.
membranes.
.Membranes ofthylakoids are also called fret (also called
At very high light intensity, photosynthesizing cells exhibit photo-oxidation
solarisation)
Dutrochet.
Importance of chlorophyll was recognized by complex know-
water is water oxidizing enzyme
The enzyme réqúired for photolysis of
a s Xn - state.

Amon described the process of photphosphorylation. chlorophyll, carotenes

an
a

Willstalter and Stoll gave the chemical composition of

Xanthophyl. oms les
of chlorophyll (Protochlorophyll has 2 hydrogen ato
Protochlorophyll is precursor
in one of its pyrrol ring).
Two pigment system theory was given by Emerson.
320 chlorophyll molecules (Db
A quantosome (photosynthetic unit) is made up of
1964)
. Mass flow hypothesis is given by Munch.