Bricks, Beads and Bones
What is a civilization?
Civilization is a group of people whose way of life, ways of living, ideologies and beliefs
are special.
Major civilizations of the world
Before 1920, it was believed that the Egyptian, Mesopotamian, and Chinese civilizations
were among the oldest. The discovery of the Harappan civilization later revealed it to be
one of the oldest as well.
Discovery of Harappan Civilization
During railway construction in 1856 in Punjab (present-day Pakistan), old bricks and
remains were found, but their importance was not recognized.
In 1861, the Archaeological Department of India was established in Kolkata, headed by
Alexander Cunningham (later considered the father of Indian archaeology).
John Marshall became director from 1902–1928, under whose leadership Dayaram
Sahni discovered the Harappan civilization in 1921.
The Harappan civilization is referred to by various names:
• Harappan Civilization, named after Harappa where remains were first found.
• Indus Valley Civilization, because it was located along the Indus River.
• Bronze Age Civilization, due to their use of bronze (an alloy of copper and tin).
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Geographical features of Harappan civilization
The civilization spanned nearly 1,299,600 sq km across modern-day Jammu & Kashmir,
parts of Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh in India, and regions in Afghanistan and Pakistan.
It is often depicted as a triangular-shaped civilization.
It was contemporaneous with Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations, dating
approximately from 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE.
Strategies of subsistence in Harappan civilization
Agriculture Technology
Main crops included wheat, barley, pulses, millet, white gram.
Irrigation was facilitated by canals and wells.
Evidence suggests use of bullocks for ploughing and the presence of ploughs at multiple
Harappan sites.
In Kalibangan (Rajasthan), there’s evidence of double cropping.
Harvesting was done using tools made of wood and stone.
Animal husbandry
Bones of cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo, and pigs indicate domestication and animal rearing
for personal use.
Prey
Bones of fish, birds, and wild animals suggest consumption of wild animals as part of
their diet.
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Mohenjodaro – A Planned Urban Center
Mohenjodaro, located in Larkana district (modern-day Pakistan), was one of the main
Harappan cities (alongside Harappa), covering approximately 125 hectares.
The city was divided into Citadel and Lower Town.
Citadel
A smaller, elevated, fortified area separated by walls.
Included structures such as:
• A granary (warehouse) for storing grain.
• The Great Bath: rectangular, ~7 m long, ~2.4 m deep, surrounded by corridors.
Likely used for rituals or special bathing. It was connected by staircases and linked
to the city’s drainage.
Lower Town
Larger, inhabited by common people.
Featured well-planned roads (4–10 m wide) intersecting at right angles.
Drainage systems made with gypsum mortar, covered by bricks, with provisions for
rainwater drainage.
Houses:
• Built around courtyards.
• Included wells and bathing rooms.
• Had internal drains connected to street drains.
• Some homes had two stories, with stairs and approximately 700 wells identified
in Mohenjodaro.
• Courtyards were used for cooking and daily work; cooking furnaces were situated
outside to minimize pollution.
• Streets were designed to allow sunlight into every corner.
• Inns for travelers were present.
• Night guards protected the city; waste was compacted and disposed of outside
the city.
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Social Diversity
Burial
People were buried—tombs varied (some had brick masonry, others simple graves).
Funerary items included pottery, jewelry, copper mirrors, beads, likely indicating beliefs
in reincarnation.
Luxury Items
Distinguished from everyday tools (chakis, pottery, needles).
Luxury items were rarer and more precious — for example, gold jewelry.
Major Sites of the Harappan Civilization
• Lothal (Gujarat)
• Kalibangan (Rajasthan)
• Nageshwar (Gujarat)
• Dholavira (Gujarat)
The Art of Craft
Included creation of jewelry, seals, weights, tool-making, and metalwork.
Major production centers included Harappa, Lothal, Chanhuddo, and Dholavira.
Mohar and Mundrakan
Used to secure and identify goods. Items were sealed using ropes and clay stamps that
would indicate tampering.
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Weights
Made from chert, used for weighing jewelry and beads.
Beads
Crafted from carnelian (red stone), jasper, chalcedony, rhinestone.
Varied shapes (circular, cylindrical, segmented), often painted; production involved
grinding, polishing, piercing. Salkhari, a softer stone, was molded easily.
How were production centers identified?
Sites where raw materials, tools, and production debris (like straw or waste) were found
in abundance were identified as production centers.
Raw material procurement
Locally sourced: clay, stone, wood, metal.
Imported raw materials:
• Conch from Nageshwar and Balakot
• Carnelian stone in Lothal
• Salkhari from Rajasthan and North Gujarat
• Copper from Kheti (Rajasthan)
Harappan Script
A pictorial script with around 375–400 signs, written right to left.
Still undeciphered, hence called a "mystical script."
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Governance in Harappan Culture
Three main theories:
1. There may have been social inequality (all were not equal).
2. Multiple rulers rather than a single authority.
3. It may have been a unified state, due to strong similarities across regions:
• Planned settlements, uniform brick size, societal structures, lifestyle, religious
practices.
• Religious evidence includes ritual scenes, tree-plant depictions, statues of a well-
jewelled female (possibly a Devi), large public baths (e.g., Kalibangan, Lothal),
figures in yogic poses, and possibly Shivalinga representations—hinting at worship
of Shiva.
Fall of Harappan Civilization
Hypothesized causes include:
• Earthquakes
• Changes in the course of the Indus River
• Climate change
• Deforestation
• Aryan invasion
Cunningham’s Illusion
Alexander Cunningham (first Director General of the Archaeological Department)
underestimated the Harappan civilization.
He mistakenly linked Harappan relics to the Vedic period, relying solely on textual
evidence, neglecting their true antiquity.
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