24

Beyond Our Solar

System
FOCUS ON CONCEPTS
Each statement represents the primary learning objective for the
corresponding major heading within the chapter. After you complete
the chapter, you should be able to:

24.1 Explain the criteria used to classify stars and define main-
sequence star.
24.2 List and describe the stages in the evolution of a typical
Sun-like star.
24.3 Compare and contrast the final state of Sun-like stars to
the remnants of the most massive stars.
24.4 List the three major types of galaxies. Explain the
formation of large elliptical galaxies.
24.5 Describe Edwin Hubble’s discoveries about the nature of
the universe and summarize the Big Bang theory.

The night sky over Grand Teton National Park, Wyoming.

(Photo by Babak Tafreshi/Getty Images)

717

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 ASTRONOMERS AND COSMOLOGISTS STUDY THE NATURE
OF OUR VAST UNIVERSE, attempting to answer questions such as these: Is our Sun a
typical star? How do stars form, and how do they differ from one another? What happens when stars
exhaust their fuel? How large is the universe? Did it have a beginning? Will it have an end? This chapter
explores these questions and others.

24.1 Classifying Stars

Explain the criteria used to classify stars and define main-sequence star.

When you look up on a clear night, you might get the Stellar Luminosity
impression that all stars are basically alike. But if you
The oldest means of classifying stars is based on their
look more closely, you will notice some subtle differ-
brightness, also called luminosity or magnitude. Three
ences. Although most stars appear similar in brightness,
Figure 24.1 Bright, factors control the brightness of a star as seen from
a few look brighter. Careful examination of the bright-
colorful stars in the Earth: how large it is, how hot it is, and its distance from
constellation Orion the
est stars will reveal that some are reddish, while others
Earth. The stars in the night sky come in a grand assort-
Hunter The brightest stars glow bluish-white. For example, of the two brightest
ment of sizes, temperatures, and distances, and their
in this constellation are the stars in the constellation Orion, Rigel appears bluish-
brightnesses vary widely.
red supergiant Betelgeuse, white, whereas Betelgeuse has a red hue (Figure 24.1).
on the upper left, and the A pair of binoculars or a telescope reveals yet more
blue supergiant Rigel, on stars and makes their variations in brightness and colors
Apparent Magnitude Some stars appear dimmer than
the lower right. (Photo by others because they are farther away. A star’s bright-
easier to see.
John Chumack/Science Source) ness, as it appears when viewed from Earth, is called
its apparent magnitude. The early Greek observer
Hipparchus developed the first system to classify stars
according to their apparent brightness. Because he could
only reliably see six different brightness levels, he created
six categories. These categories, which are still employed,
are called magnitudes, with first magnitude being the
brightest and sixth magnitude the dimmest. With
the invention of the telescope, many stars fainter than
the sixth magnitude were discovered.
In the mid-1800s, a method was developed to stan-
dardize the magnitude scale by comparing the light com-
ing from stars of the first magnitude to those of the sixth
magnitude. It was determined that a first-magnitude
star is about 100 times brighter than a sixth-­magnitude
star. Based on this scale, any two stars that differ by five
magnitudes have a ratio in brightness of 100 to 1. Hence,
a third-magnitude star is 100 times brighter than an
eighth-magnitude star. It follows, then, that the bright-
ness ratio of two stars differing by one magnitude is
about 2.5,* such that a star of the first magnitude is about
2.5 times brighter than a star of the second magnitude.
Because some celestial bodies are brighter than
first-magnitude stars, zero and negative magnitudes were
introduced. On this scale, the Sun has an apparent mag-
nitude of -26.7. At its brightest, Venus has an apparent
magnitude of -4.3. At the other end of the scale, the
Hubble Space Telescope can view stars with an apparent
magnitude of 30, more than 1 billion times dimmer than
stars that are visible to the unaided eye.

*Calculations: 2.512 * 2.512 * 2.512 * 2.512 * 2.512, or 2.512

raised to the fifth power, equals 100.

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 Chapter 24 Beyond Our Solar System 719

Absolute Magnitude (Luminosity) Apparent mag- Table 24.1 Distance, Apparent Magnitude, and ­Absolute
nitudes seemed like good approximations of the true Magnitude of Some Stars
brightness of stars when we thought the universe was Distance from Apparent Absolute
very small—containing no more than a few thousand Star Earth (light-years) Magnitude Magnitude
stars that were all very close to Earth. However, we Sun 0 - 26.7 5.0
now know that the universe is unimaginably large and Alpha Centauri 4.27 0.0 4.4
contains innumerable stars at wildly varying distances. Sirius 8.70 - 1.4 1.5
Astronomers are interested in the “true” brightness Arcturus 36 - 0.1 - 0.3
of stars, so they devised a measure called absolute Betelgeuse 520 0.8 - 5.5
­magnitude, or luminosity.
Deneb 1600 1.3 - 6.9
To establish the absolute magnitude of a star,
astronomers must account for the distance separating the
observer and the star. This is done by determining the Notice that the stars plotted on the H-R diagram
luminosity (magnitude) that a star would have if it were in Figure 24.2 are not uniformly distributed. Rather,
located at a standard distance—about 32.6 light-years about 90 percent of all stars fall along a band that runs
from Earth. (The distance light travels in 1 year is called from the upper-left corner to the lower-right corner of
a light-year—slightly less than 10 trillion kilometers the d­ iagram. The stars found along this band are called
[6 trillion miles].) For example, if the Sun, which has an main-sequence stars. As you can see in Figure 24.2,
apparent magnitude of -26.7, were located 32.6 light- the hottest (blue) main-sequence stars are intrinsically
years from Earth, it would have an absolute magnitude the brightest, and, conversely, the coolest (red) are the
of about 5. Thus, stars with absolute magnitudes greater dimmest. Main-sequence stars are comparatively stable
than 5 (smaller numerical value) are intrinsically brighter stars that produce energy by fusing hydrogen to form
than the Sun but appear much dimmer only because helium in their cores.
of their vast distance from Earth. Table 24.1 lists the Astronomers also discovered that the absolute mag-
absolute and apparent magnitudes of some stars, as well nitude of main-sequence stars is directly related to their
as their distances from Earth. Most stars have an absolute mass. The hottest (blue) stars can be up to 200 times
magnitude between -10 (very bright) and 20 (very dim). more massive than the Sun, whereas the coolest (red)
The Sun is near the midpoint of this range. stars can be less than one-tenth as massive. Therefore,
on the H-R diagram, the main-sequence stars appear in
decreasing order, from hotter, more massive blue stars to
Stellar Color and Temperature cooler, less massive red stars.
Because color is primarily a manifestation of a star’s sur- Note the location of the Sun in Figure 24.2. The
face temperatures, astronomers use color to classify stars. Sun is a yellow main-sequence star with an absolute
Very hot stars with surface temperatures above 30,000K magnitude, or “true” brightness, of about 5. Because the
emit most of their energy in the form of short-wavelength vast majority of main-sequence stars have magnitudes
light and, therefore, appear bluish in color. (Stellar tem- between -10 (very bright) and 20 (very dim), the Sun’s
peratures are expressed in kelvins [K]; see Appendix A.) midpoint position in this range results in its classification
On the other hand, red stars are cooler, having surface as an “average size star.” Recall that stellar magnitudes
temperatures generally less than 3000K and emitting are measured so that the lower the number, the brighter
most of their energy as longer-wavelength red light. Stars the star and vice versa.
such as the Sun with surface temperatures between Nearly 90 percent of all stars have luminosities and
5000K and 6000K appear yellow-white. temperatures that place them on the band of main-
sequence stars, but a few stars have properties that do
Hertzsprung–Russell Diagrams not follow the main-sequence pattern. Above the right-
hand portion of the main sequence on the H-R diagram
(H-R Diagrams) is a group of very luminous stars called giants or, on the
Early in the twentieth century, Einar Hertzsprung basis of their color, red giants (see Figure 24.2). The
and Henry Russell independently studied the relation- size of a star can be estimated by comparing it with stars
ship between a star’s luminosity (absolute magnitude) of known size that have the same surface temperature.
and its surface temperature. Their work resulted in the Recall that stars having equal surface temperatures radi-
development of a graph called a Hertzsprung–Russell ate the same amount of energy per unit area. Any dif-
diagram (H-R diagram). To produce an H-R diagram, ference in the brightness of two stars having the same
astronomers survey a portion of the sky and plot each surface temperature can be attributed to their relative
star according to its absolute magnitude (luminosity) sizes. Therefore, if one red star is 100 times more lumi-
and temperature (Figure 24.2). This allows astronomers nous than another red star, it must have a surface area
to classify stars and, as discussed later, understand their that is 100 times larger. Therefore, stars with large radi-
evolution. ating surfaces are appropriately called giants.

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 720 Earth Science

SmartFigure 24.2
Hertzsprung–Russell Spectral class
diagram Astronomers
O B A F G K M
use these diagrams to 1,000,000 -10
100 100
study stellar evolution Bright sola 0 so
r dia lar d
by plotting stars stars mete iame
rs ters
according to their
temperatures and SUPERGIANTS
luminosities (absolute
10 s Rigel
magnitudes). Stellar olar Betelgeuse
diam -5
temperatures are given 10,000 eter
s
in kelvins (K); to convert
Spica
to degrees Celsius (°C),
subtract 273.

tutorial
1 so
[Link] lar d
iame Ma GIANTS
100 ter in 0
- s
e qu
en
Sirius ce
st
Luminosity (sun = 1)

ar

Absolute magnitude
1/10 s
sola
r dia
1 mete +5
r Sun

1/10
0 so
lar d
iame +10
0.01 ter Sirius B

Wh
1/10
00 s ite
olar Dw Proxima Centauri
diam arf
0.0001 eter s +15

Dim
stars
0.000001 +20
30,000 20,000 14,000 10,000 7000 5000 3500 2500
Surface temperature (K)

Some stars are so immense that they are called H-R diagrams are an important tool for interpret-
supergiants. Betelgeuse, the bright red supergiant in ing stellar evolution—the stages in which stars, similar
the constellation Orion, has a radius about 800 times that to living things, are born, age, and die. Because the vast
of the Sun. If this star were at the center of our solar sys- majority of stars lie on the main sequence, we can be rel-
tem, it would extend beyond the orbit of Mars, and Earth atively certain that most stars spend most of their active
would find itself buried inside! years as main-sequence stars. Only a few percent are
In the lower portion of the H-R diagram, the oppo- giants, and perhaps 10 percent are white dwarfs.
site condition is observed. These stars are much fainter
than main-sequence stars of the same temperature and, Concept Checks 24.1
by the same reasoning, are much smaller. Some approxi-
mate Earth in size (see Figure 24.2). These tiny stars 1. Define absolute magnitude.
are called white dwarfs. Despite their name, the hot- 2. How does the Sun compare in size and brightness
test white dwarfs are blue in color, but as they cool, they to other main-sequence stars?
gradually become white and then reddish in color, before 3. Describe how the H-R diagram is used to
eventually going dark. determine which stars are “giants.”

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 Chapter 24 Beyond Our Solar System 721

24.2 Stellar Evolution

List and describe the stages in the evolution of a typical Sun-like star.

The idea of describing how a star is born, ages, and dies The stages in the evolution of a typical Sun-like star
may seem a bit presumptuous, for most stars have life spans are illustrated in Figure 24.3.
in the billions of years. However, by studying stars of differ-
ent ages at different points in their life cycles, astronomers
have been able to assemble a model for stellar evolution. Stellar Birth
The method used to create this model is analogous The birthplaces of stars are interstellar clumps of mat-
to how an alien, upon reaching Earth, might determine ter, rich in dust and gases, called nebulae (meaning
the developmental stages of human life. By observing “clouds”; the singular of nebulae is nebula). Most of the
large numbers of humans, this stranger would witness the nebulae that generate stars are molecular clouds—that
onset of life, the progression of life in children and adults, is, clouds cold and dense enough for hydrogen atoms
and the death of the elderly. From this information, the to join together into hydrogen molecules. In the Milky
alien could put the stages of human development into Way, these clouds consist of about 92 percent hydrogen
their natural sequence. Based on the relative abundance and 7 percent helium. The remainder consists of heavier
of humans in each stage of development, it would even atoms, molecules such as carbon monoxide, and tiny
be possible to conclude that humans spend more of their grains of interstellar dust. Although most molecular clouds Figure 24.3 H-R
lives as adults than as toddlers. Similarly, astronomers are vast in size and their total mass is hundreds of times ­diagram illustrating
have pieced together the life story of stars. greater than the Sun, their particles are widely dispersed. the evolution of an
­average Sun-like star

4. RED GIANT When the core runs out of hydrogen,

hydrogen fusion ignites in a shell surrounding the
core, causing the star to brighten and expand into a
red giant. The zig-zag path is caused by ignition of
5. PLANETARY NEBULA Late in the helium fusion, first in the core and then in a shell.
red-giant phase, the star sheds its outer
envelope. Fusion ceases, but ultraviolet
light from the fiercely hot stellar core
causes the expanding envelope to glow,
creating a planetary nebula.
–5

3. MAIN-SEQUENCE STAR 2. PROTOSTAR 1. MOLECULAR

The protostar becomes a Gravitational CLOUD Stars are
Absolute magnitude

main-sequence star when its contraction of a cloud born in clouds of

+5 cold gas and dust
core became hot enough to fragment produces a
fuse hydrogen into helium. protostar. called molecular
It remains a stable clouds.
main-sequence star for
much of its lifetime—about
6. WHITE DWARF 10 billion years.
+10 The remnant core is initially
a hot white dwarf. It cools
over time, becoming dimmer
and redder, and eventually
fades from view.
7. BLACK DWARF
+15

30,000 20,000 14,000 10,000 7000 5000 3500 2500

Surface temperature (K)

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 722 Earth Science

Nevertheless, some clouds contain somewhat denser force of gravity. Upon reaching this balance, a star become
star-forming regions such as the “Pillars of Creation” in a ­stable main-sequence star (see F ­ igure 24.3). In other
the Eagle Nebula (Figure 24.4). In these regions, gases words, a main-sequence star is one in which the force of
and dust clump together to form even denser masses that gravity, in an effort to squeeze the star into the smallest
attract more matter until they are massive enough to con- possible ball, is precisely balanced by the gas pressure
tract gravitationally to form stars. ­created by nuclear fusion in the star’s interior.†
Every stage of a star’s life is ruled by gravity. The During the main-sequence stage, stars experience
mutual gravitational attraction of particles in a thin, gaseous minimal changes in size or energy output. Hydrogen is
cloud causes the cloud to collapse on itself. As the cloud’s continually being converted into helium, and the energy
center is squeezed by unimaginable pressures, its tem- released keeps the gas pressure sufficiently high to pre-
perature increases; eventually its nuclear furnace ignites, vent gravitational collapse.
and a star is born. A star is a ball of very hot gases, caught How long can stars maintain this balance? Hot, mas-
between the opposing forces of gravity trying to contract it sive blue stars radiate energy at such an enormous rate that
and thermal nuclear energy trying to expand it. Eventually, they substantially deplete their nuclear fuel in only a few
a star’s nuclear fuel is exhausted, gravity prevails, and the million years, approaching the end of their main-sequence
star collapses into a small, dense stellar remnant. stage relatively rapidly. By contrast, the smallest (red)
main-sequence stars may take hundreds of billions of years
to burn their hydrogen; they live practically forever. A yel-
Protostar Stage low star, such as the Sun, remains a main-sequence star for
As these massive clouds of dust and gases collapse, about 10 billion years. Because the solar system is about
­gravitational energy is converted into thermal energy, 5 billion years old, the Sun is expected to remain a stable
causing the contracting gases to gradually increase in main-sequence star for about another 5 billion years.
temperature. As they become warmer, these gaseous
bodies begin to radiate energy in the form of long-­
wavelength red light. Because these large red objects are
Red Giant Stage
not hot enough to engage in nuclear fusion, they are not A Sun-like star spends 90 percent of its life as a hydrogen-
yet stars. The name protostar is applied to these bodies. burning main-sequence star. Once the hydrogen fuel in
During the protostar stage, gravitational contraction the star’s core is depleted, it evolves over a period of about
continues, slowly at first and then much more rapidly. a billion years to become a red giant (see F ­ igure 24.3).
This collapse causes the core of the developing star to More massive stars evolve at a much faster rate. Evolution
Figure 24.4 Star-
forming regions in the heat much faster than its outer envelope. When the core to the red giant stage begins when the hydrogen in a star’s
Eagle Nebula These dark, reaches a temperature of 10 million K, the temperature core is consumed, leaving behind a central core enriched
eerie pillar-like structures and pressure are so extreme that groups of four hydrogen in helium. Without hydrogen fusion supplying thermal
are columns of cool nuclei (through a several-step process) fuse into a single energy, the star’s core no longer has the gas pressure nec-
interstellar dust, hydrogen, helium nucleus, in a process called hydrogen fusion. essary to support itself against the inward force of gravity.
and helium, which are As a result, the star’s core begins to contract.
Recall from Chapter 23 that this nuclear reaction, in
incubators for new stars. Collapse of the core causes the star’s internal tem-
(NASA)
which hydrogen nuclei are fused into helium nuclei, is
called the proton– perature to rise rapidly as gravitational energy is converted
proton chain reaction. into thermal energy. Eventually the hydrogen-rich shell
surrounding the star’s inert helium core becomes hot
enough to initiate even more vigorous hydrogen fusion
Main-Sequence than occurred in the core. This accelerated rate of hydro-
Stage gen fusion causes the star’s outer gaseous shell to heat and
The immense amount expand. Sun-like stars become bloated red giants, which
of heat released by are roughly 100 times larger than their main-sequence
hydrogen fusion size. More massive stars become supergiants, which can be
causes the gas par- thousands of times larger than their main-sequence size.
ticles inside stars to As a star expands, its surface cools, which explains
move with increased the star’s red color. The core, however, continues to slowly
vigor, raising the inter- contract, raising its internal temperature and the rate of
nal gas pressure—also hydrogen fusion in the overlying shell. Eventually, the
called thermal pres- star’s internal temperature reaches 100 million K. This
sure. At some point, astonishing temperature triggers another nuclear reaction
the increased motion in the core, in which three helium nuclei are converted
produces an outward into one carbon nucleus, plus energy. Beyond this point,
force (gas pressure) †In very massive stars, radiation pressure—the force produced by
that balances the photons as they escape a star’s interior—also plays a major role in
inward-directed ­supporting the star against gravitational collapse.

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 Chapter 24 Beyond Our Solar System 723

the red giant consumes both hydrogen and helium to pro- Once all the carbon in a massive star’s core is fused,
duce energy. In stars more than about eight times as mas- the core once again shrinks, and because of the star’s
sive as the Sun, other thermonuclear reactions occur that immense gravity, it is heated sufficiently to trigger other
generate elements even heavier than carbon. nuclear reactions. Through these various complex nuclear
The transition to core helium fusion causes the star to reactions, massive stars are able to fuse elements heavier
become somewhat smaller, bluer, and less luminous. But than carbon, including oxygen, magnesium, and silicon.
this is just a temporary retreat. When the helium in the core The final product of these thermal nuclear reactions is
has all been converted to carbon, core fusion again ceases, iron, which accumulates in the core. But iron is unique: It
and the core again contracts and heats up. This event trig- is the one element from which nuclear energy cannot be
gers helium fusion in the shell surrounding its spent car- generated. Once the iron in the core piles up sufficiently,
bon core. This helium fusion in the shell around the core, the star is without a source of energy to resist the crush
coupled with the continued hydrogen fusion in the shell of gravity—a topic we will consider next. SmartFigure 24.5
above, causes the star to expand to become a red giant for Evolutionary stages of
a second time. This furious rate of hydrogen and helium stars having various
fusion, called double-shell fusion, is thought to last for about Burnout and Death masses
30 million years in a star with a mass near that of the Sun. What happens to stars in the final phase of their lives? Tutorial
Stars more than about eight times the mass of the We know that stars, regardless of their size, must even- [Link]
Sun have interior temperatures many times greater than tually exhaust their usable nuclear fuel and collapse in
those of Sun-like stars. As a result, they are able to fuse response to their immense gravity (Figure 24.5). Because
carbon in their cores to produce even heavier elements. the mass of a star determines how hot it can get and thus

A. Low-mass star

Main sequence Never fuses helium or White dwarf

Star is dim and red; forms a red giant. After running out of
fuses hydrogen in hydrogen fuel, the
core. star slowly cools.

B. Intermediate-mass (Sun-like) star

Protostar Main sequence White dwarf

Collapse of a cloud Star is yellow-white; After running out
converts fuses hydrogen in Red giant of hydrogen fuel,
Molecular cloud core. Fusion in a shell around the core Planetary nebula the Earth-sized
Stars are born from gravitational to
thermal energy, causes the star to expand. In the Nuclear burning stellar core
clouds of cold gas first red giant phase, hydrogen slowly cools.
and dust. creating a dense, ceases; light from the
glowing protostar. fuses in a shell around a helium hot stellar core causes
core; in the second red giant the expelled envelope
phase, hydrogen and helium fuse in to glow.
shells around a carbon core.

C. High-mass stars Neutron star

The core collapses
to form a dense,
city-sized object
composed of
neutrons.
Main sequence
Star is blue-white and
very luminous; fuses
hydrogen in core. Supergiant
Fusion in a shell around the core Supernova
causes the star to expand. In the first The energy released
red giant phase, hydrogen fuses in a by the collapse of Black hole
shell around a helium core; in the the iron core causes In stars larger than about
second red giant phase, hydrogen, the star to explode. 25 solar masses, the iron
helium, and other elements fuse in core collapses to form an
shells, ultimately forming an iron core. infinitely dense black hole.

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 724 Earth Science

the fusion reactions it can sustain, low-mass stars and cloud, causing it to glow. One example of these picturesque
high-mass stars have different fates. To simplify the dis- clouds, called planetary nebulae, is shown in Figure 24.6.
cussion of the final stage in stellar lives, we divide stars
into three groups, based on mass: low-mass stars, inter- Death of Massive Stars In contrast to Sun-like stars,
mediate-mass (Sun-like) stars, and high-mass stars. which expire rather nonviolently, stars that are more than
about eight times the mass of the Sun have relatively
Death of Low-Mass Stars Stars less than about one- short life spans and terminate in brilliant explosions,
half the mass of the Sun (0.5 solar mass) have low surface called supernovas (Figure 24.5C). During supernova
temperatures (red color), and because of their small size events, these stars become millions of times brighter
are frequently called red dwarfs (see Figure 24.2). Red than they were in prenova stages. If a star located in
dwarfs are the most common stars in the universe and close proximity to Earth produced such an outburst, its
are thought to remain stable for at least 100 billion years, brilliance would surpass that of the Sun. Fortunately for
or possibly much longer. Because the interiors of low- us, supernovae are relatively rare events in the Milky
mass stars are convective, hydrogen and helium mix con- Way Galaxy; none have been observed in our galaxy
tinuously throughout much of the star’s lifetime. Thus, since the advent of the telescope, though Tycho Brahe
these stars fuse all the hydrogen they contain, rather and Johannes Kepler each recorded one, about 30 years
than just the hydrogen in their core region, as is the case apart, late in the sixteenth century. Recall from Chapter
for more massive stars. Because these stars never become 21 that Chinese astronomers recorded an even brighter
hot enough to ignite helium, they do not bloat into red supernova in 1054 c.e. Today, the remnant of that great
giants (Figure 24.5A). Instead, at the end of their long outburst is the Crab Nebula, shown in Figure 24.7.
main-sequence lifetime, they gradually shrink into hot, Supernova events are triggered when a massive
dense white dwarfs—a topic we will consider later. star has consumed its nuclear fuel (though they can be
produced by mechanisms other than the collapse of a
Death of Intermediate-Mass (Sun-Like) Stars Stars massive star). Without the heat-producing fusion needed
with masses ranging between one-half and eight times to balance its immense gravitational field, the star col-
that of the Sun all have a similar evolutionary history lapses, releasing a huge amount of thermal energy,
(Figure 24.5B). During their red giant phase, Sun-like which ejects the star’s outer shell into space as a fiery
stars fuse hydrogen and, eventually, helium fuel at accel- supernova event. The scattered debris from the super-
erated rates. Once this fuel is exhausted, these stars (like nova carries with it the elements produced by nuclear
low-mass stars) evolve into Earth-size bodies of great fusion in the star, as well as elements produced during
density—white dwarfs. the catastrophic supernova explosion. Millions or billions
Toward the end of their red giant phase, Sun-like stars of years later, this debris may be incorporated into new
cast off their bloated outer atmospheres, creating an expand- generations of stars and the Earth-like planets that may
ing cloud of gas and revealing their fiercely hot core—a surround them. To quote Carl Sagan, “We are made of
white dwarf. This white dwarf heats the expanding gas star stuff.”

Figure 24.6 Planetary nebula The Helix Nebula, a

planetary nebula, is the ejected outer envelope of a Sun-like Figure 24.7 Crab Nebula in the constellation Taurus
star that collapsed from a red giant to a white dwarf. (Photo by This spectacular nebula is thought to be the remains of the
ESA, and C.R. O’Dell (Vanderbilt University)/NASA) supernova of 1054 c.e. (NASA)

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 Chapter 24 Beyond Our Solar System 725

Researchers theorize that during this type of super-

Concept Checks 24.2
nova, the star’s interior collapses into an incredibly hot
object, possibly no larger than 20 kilometers (12 miles) in 1. Describe how main-sequence stars become giants.
diameter. These incomprehensibly dense bodies have been 2. Why are less massive stars thought to age more
named neutron stars. Some supernova events are thought slowly than more massive stars, despite the fact
to produce even smaller and more intriguing objects they have much less “fuel”?
called black holes. We consider the nature of white dwarfs, 3. List the steps thought to be involved in the
­neutron stars, and black holes in the following section. evolution of Sun-like stars.

24.3 Stellar Remnants

Compare and contrast the final state of Sun-like stars to the remnants of the most massive stars.

Eventually, all stars consume their nuclear fuel and col- Neutron Stars
lapse into one of three types of celestial object: white
A study of white dwarfs produced a surprising conclu-
dwarfs, neutron stars, or black holes. How a star’s life
sion: The smallest white dwarfs are the most massive, and
ends and what final form it takes depend largely on the
the largest are the least massive (Figure 24.8). This occurs
star’s mass during its main-sequence stage (Table 24.2).
because white dwarfs are compressed by their immense
gravity. The more massive a white dwarf, the more tightly it
White Dwarfs is able to squeeze its own matter, and hence the smaller it is.
All that is left of a Sun-like star after its outer layers are This conclusion led to the prediction that stellar rem-
ejected into space is its core, which has collapsed to nants even smaller and more massive than white dwarfs
become a white dwarf. These objects, typically the size of must exist. Named neutron stars, these objects are the
Earth, have masses roughly equal to the Sun and are com- remnants (cores) of massive stars (originally more than
posed of super-compressed gases. One teaspoon of matter eight times as massive as the Sun). Neutron stars are the
from a white dwarf would weigh about 5 tons on Earth. product of an explosive supernova event in which the
Matter of this type forms when electrons are displaced outer envelope of a star is violently ejected by the energy
closer and closer together until the gas particles can be released as the dense core of a massive star collapses into a
thought of as having no “elbow room” and, unlike ordinary very hot star less than 20 kilometers (12 miles) in diameter.
gases, they resist being compressed further. This phenom- The immense gravitational force of a massive star’s
enon, called degeneracy pressure, inhibits electrons from core is able to overcome degeneracy pressure, which in
getting too close together and is sufficient to support the less massive stars inhibits electrons from getting too close
core of a Sun-like star against further gravitational collapse. together. When the core of a massive star collapses, the
The surface of a young white dwarf is extremely hot, electrons are forced to combine with the protons located
sometimes exceeding 25,000K, which accounts for its white inside the nucleus to produce neutrons (hence the name
or bluish-white color. Without an internal source of energy, neutron star). A pea-size sample of this matter would
these stars slowly cool as they continually radiate thermal weigh 100 million tons. This approximates the density of
energy into space, and they eventually become cold, burned- an atomic nucleus; thus, a neutron star can be thought of
out embers called black dwarfs. However, current estimates as a large nucleus composed mainly of neutrons that are
of the cooling rates of white dwarfs indicates that our galaxy packed together almost seamlessly. Figure 24.8 Comparing
is not yet old enough for any black dwarfs to have formed. Although neutron stars have high surface tempera- the sizes of white dwarfs
tures, their small size greatly limits their luminosity, of different masses to
Earth Counterintuitively,
making them difficult to locate visually. However, newly
Table 24.2 Summary of Evolution for Stars the greater the mass of a
of Various Masses formed neutron stars have a very strong magnetic field white dwarf, the smaller it
and a high rate of rotation. As stars collapse, they rotate will be. (NASA)
Initial Mass*
of Main- Main- Evolution
Sequence Sequence Giant After Giant Terminal State
Star† Color Phase Phase (final mass)
0.001 None (planet) No Not applicable Planet (0.001)
0.1 Red No Not applicable White dwarf (0.1)
1–8 Yellow Yes Planetary White dwarf
nebula (6 1.4)
10 White Yes Supernova Neutron star
(1.4 - 3)
25 Blue Yes Supernova Black hole (7 3)
White dwarf
(Supergiant) having a
mass about 30%
*Masses in this table are solar masses, where 1 = the Sun’s mass, Earth White dwarf having a greater than the
0.1 = one@tenth the Sun’s mass, etc. mass equal to the Sun Sun
†These masses are estimates.

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 726 Earth Science

faster—similar to the way gravitational pull. Following a supernova explosion, if

ice skaters rotate faster the core of the remaining star exceeds about three solar
as they pull their arms in masses, gravity prevails, and the stellar remnant collapses
as they spin. Radio waves into an object even more dense than a neutron star. (The
generated by the rapidly mass of such a star prior to the supernova event was likely
rotating magnetic fields 25 times that of the Sun.) The incredible objects created
of neutron stars are con- by such a collapse are called black holes.
centrated into two nar- Einstein’s theory of general relativity predicts that
row zones that align with even though black holes are extremely hot, their surface
the star’s magnetic poles. gravity is so immense that even light cannot escape. Con-
Consequently, these stars sequently, they literally disappear from sight. Anything
resemble rapidly rotating that moves too close to a black hole will be swept in and
beacons emitting strong devoured by its immense gravitational field.
radio waves. If Earth hap- How do astronomers find objects whose gravitational
pened to be in the path field prevents the escape of all matter and energy? These
of these beacons, the star scientists theorize that as matter is pulled into a black
would appear to blink on hole, it should become extremely hot and emit a flood of
and off, or pulsate, as the x-rays before it is engulfed. Because isolated black holes
radio waves swept past. do not have a source of matter to engulf, astronomers
In the early 1970s, a decided to look at binary-star (two-star) systems for evi-
source that radiates short dence of matter emitting x-rays while being rapidly swept
pulses of radio energy, into a region of apparent nothingness.
named a pulsar (pulsat- X-rays cannot penetrate our atmosphere; therefore,
Figure 24.9 Crab
Pulsar: A young neutron
ing radio source), was discovered in the Crab Nebula the existence of black holes was not confirmed until the
star centered in the ­(Figure 24.9). Visual inspection of this radio source indi- advent of orbiting observatories. The first black hole to
Crab Nebula This is cated that it was coming from a small, hot star centered in be identified, Cygnus X-1, orbits a massive supergiant
the first pulsar to have the nebula. The Crab pulsar is the remains of the super- companion once every 5.6 days. The gases that are pulled
been associated with a nova of 1054 c.e. (see Figure 24.9). Although most pulsars from the companion form an accretion disk that spirals
known supernova. The discovered thus far emit radio waves, others emit ultravio- around a “void” while emitting a steady stream of x-rays
energy emitted from this
let light, x-rays, and even gamma rays. (Figure 24.10). Recent observations have determined that
star illuminates the Crab
Nebula. (Photo by NASA EOS
pairs of jets extend outward from these accretion disks
and are thought to return some of this material back to
Earth Observing System) Black Holes space (see Figure 24.10).
Although neutron stars are extremely dense, they are Cygnus X-1, which is about eight or nine times
not the densest objects in the universe. Stellar evolution- as massive as our Sun, probably formed from a star of
Figure 24.10 Artist’s ary theory predicts that neutron stars cannot exceed approximately 40 solar masses. Since the discovery of
view of a black hole three times the mass of the Sun. Above this mass, not
and a giant companion
Cygnus X-1, many other x-ray sources have been discov-
star (NASA)
even tightly packed neutrons can withstand the star’s ered and are thought to be black holes.
Astronomers have established that black holes are
common objects in the universe and vary considerably
in size. Small black holes have masses approximately
Giant 10 times that of our Sun but are only about 32 kilometers
companion
star (20 miles) across, less than the distance of a marathon
course. Intermediate black holes have masses 1000 times
Jet that of our Sun, and the largest black holes (supermas-
sive black holes), found in the centers of galaxies, are
estimated to be millions of solar masses. The earliest
stars are thought to have been massive, and their deaths
could have provided the seeds that eventually formed the
Black hole supermassive black holes at the centers of galaxies.

Concept Checks 24.3

1. Explain how it is possible for the smallest white
dwarfs to be the most massive.
Accretion disk 2. What is the final state of a medium-mass (Sun-like)
around a black hole star?
3. How do the “lives” of the most massive stars end?
What are the two possible products of this event?

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 Chapter 24 Beyond Our Solar System 727

EYE on THE UNIVERSE 24.1

The accompanying image shows the remnant of a supernova that Johannes Kepler
observed in 1604. The red, green, and blue show low-, intermediate-, and high-energy
x-rays observed by NASA’s Chandra X-ray Observatory.

QUESTION 1 If a supernova explosion were to occur within the immediate vicinity

of our solar system, what might be some possible consequences of the intense x-ray
and gamma radiation that would reach Earth?
QUESTION 2 When the collapse of the core of a massive star results in a
supernova, what type of stellar remnant remains?

NASA

24.4 Galaxies and Galaxy Clusters

List the three major types of galaxies. Explain the formation of large elliptical galaxies.

On a clear and moonless night away from city Galaxies (galaxias = milky), including the Milky
lights, you can see a truly marvelous sight—a band Way, are collections of interstellar matter (dust and gases),
of light stretching from horizon to horizon. With stars, and stellar remnants that are gravitationally bound
his t­ elescope, ­Galileo discovered that this band of together (Figure 24.11A). Recent observational data indi-
light was c­ omposed of countless individual stars. cate that supermassive black holes may exist at the cen-
Today, we know that the Sun is a­ ctually a part of ters of most galaxies. In addition, spherical halos of very
this vast s­ ystem of stars—the Milky Way Galaxy tenuous gas and numerous star clusters, called globular
(see ­GEOgraphics 24.1) clusters, surround most galaxies (Figure 24.11B,C).

A. Oblique view B. Edge-on view

SmartFigure 24.11 Galaxies are collections of stars and interstellar matter Tutorial
that are gravitationally bound A. Oblique view of a large spiral galaxy. Spiral [Link]
galaxies typically have a greater concentration of older stars near their center,
which gives the central bulge its yellowish color. By contrast, the arms of spiral
galaxies contain numerous hot, young stars that give these structures a bluish or C. Globular cluster
violet tint. B. Edge-on view showing the central bulge. C. Surrounding most large
galaxies is a spherical halo that includes groups of stars called globular clusters.
(Image A, NASA; images B and C, European Southern Observatory)

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 GEOGRAPHICS 24.1

The Milky Way

The Milky Way derives it name from its appearance as a dim, “milky” glowing band that arches across the
night sky. In this magnificent 360-degree panoramic image we see the plane of our galaxy, edge-on from
our perspective on Earth. From this vantage point, the components of the Milky Way come into view. We
can see the galaxy’s bright central bulge, its disk that contains both dark and glowing nebulae that harbor
bright, young stars. Also visible adjacent to the Milky Way are a few of its satellite galaxies.

ESO

f old stars and hot

lo o gas This profile view shows that, in addition to its dense central bulge and galactic disk
Ha containing spiral arms, the Milky Way is surrounded by a spherical halo that extends
far beyond the galactic disk. Although the halo lacks star formation, recent evidence
indicates that it contains a large amount of hot gas. The halo also contains old stars
and numerous large stellar groups called globular clusters.

Galactic disk Central bulge

Solar system

Globular clusters

The stars in globular cluster NGC 6397 are more

than 13 billion years old, which is somewhat close NGC 6397
ESO

to the age of the universe.

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 Scutum-Centaurus Arm

An artist’s conception of the Milky Way

Galaxy showing its dense central bulge and
flat disk consisting of curved spiral arms. Supermassive
Black Hole Central Bulge
Our galaxy is a barred-spiral type that
contains more than 200 billion stars. Its
diameter exceeds 100,000 light-years and it
rotates such that our solar system makes Outer Arm
one complete trip around the galactic Sagittarius Arm
center every 250 million years. The galactic
center of our galaxy houses a supermassive
black hole with a mass of at least 40,000
Suns. Like the black holes found in the Orion Spur
center of most large galaxies this behemoth Solar System
will consume anything that happens to
wander by.

Perseus Arm NASA

Our galaxy is just one of an assemblage of more than 50 galaxies that collectively make up the Local Group.
Members include Andromeda Galaxy, which is an even larger spiral galaxy than the Milky Way. For many years
astronomers thought that the Magellanic Clouds, which can be seen as fuzzy patches in the southern sky, were
our closest galactic neighbors. But, in fact, the closest galaxy so far discovered, named Canis Major Dwarf Galaxy,
lies within our galaxy. Astronomers have recently concluded that the Milky Way grew to its current size by “eating
up” dwarf galaxies like Canis Major.

Large Magellanic Cloud

Small Magellanic Cloud

ESO

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 730 Earth Science

The first galaxies were small and composed mainly

of young massive stars and abundant interstellar matter.
These galaxies grew quickly by accreting nearby dust
and gases and colliding and merging with other galaxies.
In fact, our Milky Way Galaxy is currently absorbing at
least two tiny satellite galaxies.

Types of Galaxies
Among the hundreds of billions of galaxies in the uni-
verse, astronomers classify galaxies into three major
categories: spiral, elliptical, and irregular. Within each
category are many variations.

Spiral Galaxies Our Milky Way Galaxy is an exam-

ple of a large spiral galaxy. Spiral galaxies have a
thin flat disk, consisting of stars, gas, and dust, and a
central concentration of stars called a bulge. As shown
in ­Figure 24.12, spiral galaxies get their name from
the spiral arms that extend from the central bulge
into the galactic disk. Surrounding these structures
is the nearly invisible halo, which is composed of hot
gases, old stars that tend to occur in clusters, and dark
matter—a topic we will consider later. The nearly
spheroid-shaped halo blends almost seamlessly with
the disk and bulge.
The disk component of a spiral galaxy consists of a
large population of young hot stars and dust-laden clouds
that follow orderly orbits around the galactic center.
Figure 24.12 Dramatic image of the spiral galaxy Groups of these young hot stars appear as bright patches
Messier 83 Messier 83 is thought to be very similar in
of blue and violet light in Figure 24.12. By contrast, the
structure to the Milky Way Galaxy, although smaller.
(Photo by European Southern Observatory) Figure 24.13 Barred central bulge contains a large population of older stars,
spiral galaxy (NASA) which gives the galaxy’s center a yellowish glow. In addi-
tion, the stars in the central bulge, as well as those found
in the halo, travel along orbits having many different
inclinations.
About two-thirds of spiral galaxies have a band of
stars extending outward from the central bulge that
merges with the spiral arms. These are called barred
spiral galaxies (Figure 24.13). Recent investigations
have found evidence that our galaxy has a bar structure.
What produces these bar-shaped structures is a ­matter
of ongoing research. Astronomers estimate that over
70 percent of the largest galaxies in the universe are
­spiral galaxies.

Elliptical Galaxies As the name implies, elliptical

galaxies have ellipsoid shapes, but they can be nearly
spherical (Figure 24.14). Elliptical galaxies, like spiral
galaxies, have a central bulge and halo but lack a well-
defined disk component.
Elliptical galaxies tend to be composed of older, low-
mass stars (red) and have minimal amounts of dust and
cool gases. Thus, unlike the arms of spiral galaxies, they
have low rates of star formation. As a result, elliptical

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 Chapter 24 Beyond Our Solar System 731

galaxies appear yellow to red in color, as compared to the

bluish tint emanating from the young, hot stars in the
arms of spiral galaxies.
The very largest and smallest galaxies are ellipti-
cal. All small galaxies, regardless of type, are known as
dwarf galaxies. The Milky Way’s two small companions,
the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds, are dwarf galax-
ies (see GEOgraphics 24.1). In fact, many of the galaxies
located nearby are dwarf elliptical galaxies. Their small
size and lack of brightness make dwarf galaxies almost
impossible to detect at distances greater than a few mil-
lion light-years. Nevertheless, based on the large number
of nearby dwarf galaxies, astronomers suspect that these
small galaxies may be the most common type of galaxy in
the universe.
The very largest known galaxies (1 million light-years
in diameter) are also elliptical, but these are rare. For
comparison, the Milky Way, a large spiral galaxy, is about
one-tenth the diameter of a massive elliptical galaxy.
Large elliptical galaxies are believed to result from the
merger of numerous smaller galaxies.

Irregular Galaxies Approximately 25 percent of

known galaxies show no symmetry and are classified as
irregular galaxies. Some were once spiral or elliptical
galaxies that were subsequently distorted by the gravity
of a neighboring galaxy. The Milky Way’s two small com- Figure 24.14 Large elliptical galaxy This large elliptical galaxy belongs to
panion galaxies, the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds, the Fornax Cluster. Dark clouds of interstellar matter are visible within the central
are irregular galaxies. They are named for explorer Ferdi- nucleus of this galaxy. Some of the star-like objects in this image are large
nand Magellan, who observed them when he circumnavi- groups of stars (globular clusters) that belong to the galaxy. (European Southern
gated the globe in 1520. Observatory)

Recent images of the Large Magellanic Cloud reveal

Figure 24.15 The Fornax Galaxy Cluster This is one of the nearest groupings of
a central bar-shaped structure. Thus, the Large Magel- galaxies to our Local Group. Although many of the galaxies shown are elliptical, an elegant
lanic Cloud was once a barred spiral galaxy that was barred spiral galaxy is visible in the lower right. (European Southern Observatory/J. Emerson/VISTA)
subsequently distorted, probably by the gravitation of the
Milky Way.

Galaxy Clusters
Once astronomers discovered that stars occur in groups
(galaxies), they set out to determine whether galaxies
themselves also occur in groups or whether they are ran-
domly distributed. They found that galaxies are grouped
into gravitationally bound clusters (Figure 24.15). Some
large galaxy clusters contain thousands of galaxies. Our
own galaxy cluster, called the Local Group, consists of
more than 40 galaxies and may contain many undiscov-
ered dwarf galaxies. Of the Local Group galaxies, three
are large spiral galaxies, including the Milky Way and the
Andromeda Galaxy.
Galaxy clusters also reside in huge groups called
superclusters. There are possibly 10 million superclusters;
our Local Group is located in the Virgo Supercluster.
From visual observations, it appears that superclusters
are the largest entities in the universe.

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 732 Earth Science

Galactic Collisions
Within galaxy clusters, galaxies frequently interact gravi-
tationally with one another. For example, a large galaxy
may engulf a dwarf satellite galaxy. In this case, the
larger galaxy will retain its form, while the smaller galaxy
will be torn apart and assimilated into the larger galaxy.
Galactic interactions may also involve two g­ alaxies
of similar size passing through one another with-
out merging. It is unlikely that the individual stars
within these galaxies will collide because they are so
widely dispersed. However, the interstellar matter
will likely interact, triggering an intense period of star
formation.
In an extreme case, two large galaxies may collide
and merge into a single large galaxy (Figure 24.16). Many
of the largest elliptical galaxies were likely produced by
the merger of two or more large spiral galaxies. Some
studies have predicted that in 2 to 4 billion years, there
is a 50 percent probability that the Milky Way and
Andromeda Galaxies will collide and merge.

Concept Checks 24.4

1. Compare the three main types of galaxies.
2. What type of galaxy is our Milky Way?
3. Describe a possible scenario for the formation of
a large elliptical galaxy.

Figure 24.16 The collision of the Antennae

Galaxies When two galaxies collide, their clouds of dust
and gas become compressed, triggering a wave of star
formation, as shown by the bright regions in this image.
Actual stars rarely collide. (NASA)

24.5 The Universe

Describe Edwin Hubble’s discoveries about the nature of the universe and summarize
the Big Bang theory.

For most of human existence, our universe was thought distant galaxies similar to the Milky Way. Kant described
to be Earth-centered, containing only the Sun, Moon, them as “island universes.” Each galaxy, he believed,
five planets, and the roughly 6000 stars visible to the contained billions of stars and was a universe in itself. In
naked eye. Even after the Copernican view of a Sun- Kant’s time, however, the weight of opinion favored the
centered universe became widely accepted, the entire hypothesis that the faint patches of light occurred within
universe was believed to consist of a single galaxy—the our galaxy. Admitting otherwise would have implied a
Milky Way, composed of innumerable stars, along with vastly larger universe, thereby diminishing the status of
many faint “fuzzy patches,” thought to be clouds of dust Earth and, likewise, humankind.
and gases.
Edwin Hubble’s Discovery In 1919 Edwin Hubble
arrived at the observatory at Mount Wilson, Califor-
How Large Is It? nia, to conduct research using a 2.5-meter (100-inch)
In the mid-1700s, German philosopher Immanuel Kant telescope, then the world’s largest and most advanced
proposed that many of the telescopically visible fuzzy astronomical instrument. Armed with this modern
patches of light scattered among the stars were actually tool, Hubble set out to solve the mystery of the “fuzzy

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 Chapter 24 Beyond Our Solar System 733

patches.” At that time, the debate was still raging as to billions of galaxies. For example, researchers estimate
whether the fuzzy patches were “island universes,” as that a million galaxies exist in the portion of the sky
Kant had proposed more than 150 years earlier, or clouds bounded by the cup of the Big Dipper. There are literally
of dust and gases (nebulae). more stars in the heavens than grains of sand in all the
To accomplish this task, Hubble studied a group of beaches on Earth.
pulsating stars known as Cepheid variables—extremely
bright variable stars that increase and decrease in bright- What Does Light Tell Us About the Size of the
ness in a repetitive cycle. These stars are significant ­Universe? As discussed in Chapter 23, telescopes actu-
because their absolute magnitude can be determined ally “look back in time,” which accounts for much of the
by knowing the rate at which they pulsate. When the knowledge astronomers have acquired about the history
absolute magnitude of a star is compared to its observed of the universe. Light from celestial objects that are great
brightness, astronomers can determine a reliable approxi- distances from Earth require millions or even billions of
mation of its distance from Earth. This is similar to how years to reach Earth. Therefore, the farther out telescopes
we judge the distance of an oncoming vehicle when can “see,” the farther back in time astronomers can study.
driving at night. Thus, Cepheid variables are important Even Andromeda, the closest large galaxy, is a staggering
because they can be used to measure large astronomical 2.5 million light-years away. Light that left the Androm-
distances. eda Galaxy 2.5 million years ago is just now reaching
Hubble found several Cepheid variables embedded Earth, allowing scientists to observe this galaxy as it was
in one of the fuzzy patches. Because these intrinsically 2.5 m
­ illion years ago. We have now observed the almost
bright stars appeared faint, Hubble concluded that they unimaginably faint light from primordial galaxies as they
must lie outside the Milky Way. Indeed, he concluded existed almost 13 billion years ago.
that this fuzzy patch lies more than 2 million light-years
away. This bright patch in the night sky is now known as
the Andromeda Galaxy (Figure 24.17). A Brief History of the Universe
Based on his observations, Hubble determined Cosmology is the study of the universe, including its
that the universe extended far beyond the limits of our properties, structure, and evolution. Over the years,
imagination. Today, we know that there are hundreds of ­cosmologists have developed a comprehensive theory

Figure 24.17
Andromeda: A nearby
galaxy that is larger than
the Milky Way A. Photo of
Andromeda Galaxy, taken
by a telescope aboard
the GALEX Orbiter. (NASA)
B. Andromeda Galaxy,
as it appears under low
magnification. When
viewed with the naked eye,
Andromeda appears as a
fuzzy patch surrounded
by stars. (European Southern
Observatory)

A.

B.

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 Chapter 24 Beyond Our Solar System 735

SmartFigure 24.19 Raisin Tutorial

bread analogy for an [Link]
expanding universe As the
4 cm dough rises, raisins that were
12 cm originally farthest apart travel
greater distances than those
2 cm 6 cm located closer together. Thus,
in an expanding universe (as
with the raisins), more space is
created between two objects that
are farther apart than between
A. Raisin bread dough before two objects that are closer
it rises. B. Raisin bread dough a few hours later.
together.

while the distance between raisins originally 6 cen- What Is the Fate of the Universe?
timeters apart will increase to 12 centimeters. The Cosmologists have developed different scenarios for
raisins that were originally farthest apart traveled the ultimate fate of the universe (Figure 24.20). In one
greater distances than those located closer together. scenario, the stars will slowly burn out, and galaxies
Therefore, in an expanding universe, as in our anal- will become ever more widely separated in an endless
ogy, more space is created between two objects located dark, cold universe. This scenario is sometimes called
farther apart than between two objects that are closer
together.
Another feature of the expanding universe can be
demonstrated using the bread analogy. Regardless of
Possible Fates of the Universe tugFigure 24.20 Cosmic
of war Illustration
showing two possible
which raisin you look at, it will move away from all the Big Bang fates of the universe.
other raisins. Likewise, at any point in the universe, The gravity of dark
all other galaxies (except those in the same cluster) are matter tries to pull the
receding from an observer at that location. Hubble’s law universe together, while
implies a centerless universe that is expanding uniformly. dark energy tries to
The Hubble Space Telescope is named in honor of Edwin push it apart. There is
Hubble’s invaluable contributions to the scientific under- growing consensus that
dark energy will prevail
standing of the universe.
and produce an ever-
expanding universe.
Predictions of the Big Bang Theory
Recall from “The Nature of Scientific Inquiry” in
Chapter 1 that in order for a hypothesis to become an
accepted component of scientific knowledge (a theory),
it must incorporate predictions that can be tested. One
prediction of the Big Bang model is that the universe
was initially unimaginably hot, and researchers should be
able to detect the remnant of that heat. The electromag-
netic radiation (light) emitted by a white-hot universe Current Universe
would have extremely high energy and short wavelengths.
­However, according to the Big Bang theory, the con-
tinued expansion of the universe would have stretched
the waves so that by now they should be detectable in
the microwave region of the spectrum (at the short-
wavelength end of the radio spectrum). Scientists began
to search for this “missing” radiation, which they named
cosmic microwave background radiation. As predicted,
in 1965, this microwave radiation was detected and
found to fill the entire visible universe.
Detailed observations of the cosmic microwave Big Crunch
Gravitational collapse Big Chill
­background radiation have confirmed many details of of the universe caused Indefinite expansion resulting from
the Big Bang theory, including the order and timing of by the dominance of dark the dominance of dark energy
important events in the early history of the universe. matter pulling it together pushing the universe apart

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 736 Earth Science

the “Big Chill” because the universe will slowly cool as of matter that does not interact with electromagnetic
it expands, to the point that it will be unable to sustain radiation, such as visible light. Because most of our
life. Another possibility is that the outward flight of the knowledge about the universe comes to us via light,
galaxies will slow and eventually stop. Gravitational con- if there is a form of matter that does not interact with
traction would follow, causing all matter to eventually light, we will not be able to “see” it—hence the term
collide and coalesce into the high-energy, high-density dark matter.
state from which the universe began. This fiery death of
the universe, the Big Bang operating in reverse, has been Dark Energy In the early 1990s most cosmologists
called the “Big Crunch.” held the view that gravity was certain to slow the expan-
Whether the universe will expand forever or even- sion of the universe over time, resulting eventually in
tually collapse upon itself is partially contingent on its the Big Crunch. However, in 1998 Hubble Space Tele-
density. If the average density of the universe is greater scope observations of very distant galaxies showed that
than an amount known as its critical density (equivalent the universe is actually expanding faster today than it
to five atoms for every cubic meter), gravitational attrac- was early in its history. Therefore, the expansion of the
tion should be sufficient to stop the outward expansion universe was not slowing due to gravity as scientists
and cause the universe to collapse. On the other hand, had thought but instead was speeding up. To explain
if the density of the universe is less than the critical this unexpected result, researchers concluded that
value, the universe will expand forever. Complicating some unusual material, generally referred to as dark
the possibilities for the fate of the universe are two energy, must exist. Unlike dark matter, which works to
other constituents that are thought to exist: dark matter slow the expansion of the universe, dark energy exerts a
and dark energy. force that pushes matter apart, causing the expansion to
accelerate.
Dark Matter The universe contains perhaps 100 bil- It has not been determined whether dark matter
lion galaxies, many with billions of stars, massive clouds and dark energy are related—or even exactly what
of gas and dust, and large numbers of planets, moons, they are. Most researchers think that dark matter
and other debris. Yet everything we see is like the tip of consists of a type of subatomic particle that has not
the cosmic iceberg; it accounts for a small percentage yet been detected. Dark energy may have its own par-
of the total mass of the universe. Astronomers came to ticle, but there is no evidence of the existence of this
this conclusion after studying the rotational periods of particle.
stars as they orbit the center of the Milky Way Galaxy. There is growing consensus among cosmologists
The law of gravity states that the stars closest to the that dark energy, which is propelling the universe
galactic center should travel faster than those near the outward, is the dominant force. If dark energy is, in
galaxy’s outer edge. (This is the reason Mercury trav- fact, the driving force behind the fate of the ­universe,
els around the Sun at a much faster speed than Nep- the universe will expand forever (see Figure 24.20).
tune.) Yet these researchers found that all stars orbit Consider the following as astronomers search for
the galactic center at roughly the same speed. This dark energy: “Absence of evidence is not evidence
implies that something within our galaxy is tugging on of absence.”
the stars. This yet-undetected material is called dark
matter. Concept Checks 24.5
Approximately one-quarter of the universe consists
of dark matter, which does not absorb or emit light but 1. Explain how Edwin Hubble used Cepheid
interacts with “visible” matter in the universe through variables to change our view of the structure
gravity. Thus, dark matter exerts a force that helps hold of the universe.
our galaxy together and at the same time works to slow 2. In your own words, explain how astronomers
the overall expansion of the universe. determined that the universe is expanding.
Although the concept of dark matter may sound 3. Which view of the fate of the universe is currently
foreboding, it simply allows for the possible existence favored: the Big Crunch or the Big Chill?

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 24
Chapter 24 Beyond Our Solar System 737

Concepts in Review
Beyond Our Solar System
24.1 Classifying Stars
Explain the criteria used to classify stars and define main-sequence star.
A

KEY TERMS: apparent magnitude, absolute magnitude (luminosity), light-year, Hertzsprung–

Russell diagram (H-R diagram), main-sequence star, giant, red giant, supergiant, white dwarf

Absolute magnitude
B
• Hertzsprung–Russell diagrams are constructed by plotting the absolute magnitudes

Luminosity
(luminosity) and temperatures of stars on graphs.
• Stars are positioned within H-R diagrams as follows: (1) Main-sequence stars,
90 percent of all stars, are in the band that runs from the upper-left corner C
(massive, hot blue stars) to the lower-right corner (low-mass, red stars); (2) red giants
and supergiants, very luminous stars with large diameters, are located in the upper-
right position; and (3) white dwarfs, which are small stars, are located in the lower
portion.
? Identify the type of stars located in the positions labeled A, B, and C on the Surface temperature
accompanying H-R diagram.

24.2 Stellar Evolution

List and describe the stages in the evolution of a typical Sun-like star.
KEY TERMS: nebula, molecular cloud, protostar, hydrogen fusion, planetary nebula, supernova

• Stars originate from the gravitational collapse of a molecular cloud. The energy released by collapse causes the cloud’s center to become
a hot, luminous protostar.
• The protostar becomes a star when its core reaches a temperature of about 10 million K, igniting hydrogen fusion by the proton–proton
chain. Hydrogen fusion involves the conversion of four hydrogen nuclei into a single helium nucleus with the release of thermal nuclear
energy.
• Two opposing forces act on a star: gravity, which tries to contract it into the smallest possible ball, and gas pressure (created by thermal
nuclear energy), which tries to expand it. When the forces come into balance, the star becomes a stable main-sequence star.
• A star’s main-sequence lifetime ends when the hydrogen fuel in the core is exhausted. In all but low-mass (red dwarf) stars, other
types of nuclear fusion then cause the outer envelope to expand enormously (hundreds to thousands of times), making the star
a red giant or supergiant. When a star exhausts all of its usable nuclear fuel, gravity takes over, and the stellar remnant collapses into
a small, dense body.

24.3 Stellar Remnants

Compare and contrast the final state of Sun-like stars to the remnants of the most massive stars.
KEY TERMS: neutron star, pulsar, black hole

• The final fate of a star is determined primarily by its mass.

• Low-mass and intermediate-mass stars end up as white dwarfs. In the case of intermediate-mass stars such as our Sun, the newborn
white dwarf is typically surrounded by an expanding clouds of glowing gas called a planetary nebula.
• Massive stars terminate in a brilliant explosion called a supernova. Supernova events can produce small, extremely dense neutron stars
composed largely of neutrons, or smaller, even denser black holes—objects that have such immense gravity that light cannot escape
from them.

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 738 Earth Science

24.4 Galaxies and Galaxy Clusters

List the three major types of galaxies. Explain the formation of large elliptical galaxies.
KEY TERMS: galaxy, spiral galaxy, barred spiral galaxy, elliptical galaxy, dwarf galaxy, irregular galaxy,
galaxy cluster, Local Group
• The various types of galaxies include (1) irregular galaxies, which lack symmetry and account
for about 25 percent of the known galaxies; (2) spiral galaxies, which are disk-shaped and have a
greater concentration of stars near their centers and arms extending from their central nucleus;
and (3) elliptical galaxies, which have an ellipsoidal shape and may be nearly spherical. Some
spiral galaxies, called barred spirals, have a central bar connecting the spiral arms.
• Galaxies can be grouped into galaxy clusters, some containing thousands of galaxies. Our own,
called the Local Group, contains at least 40 galaxies.
? What type of galaxy is shown in the accompanying image?

NASA
24.5 The Universe
Describe Edwin Hubble’s discoveries about the nature of the universe and summarize the Big Bang theory.
KEY TERMS: cosmology, Big Bang theory, cosmological redshift, Hubble’s law, dark matter, dark energy

• Cosmology is the study of the universe, including its properties, structure, and evolution.
• The universe consists of hundreds of billions of galaxies, most containing billions of stars.
• Evidence for an expanding universe came from the study of redshifts in the spectra of galaxies. Edwin Hubble concluded that the observed
redshifts result from the expansion of space.
• The model that most accurately describes the birth and current state of the universe is the Big Bang theory. According to this model, the universe
began about 13.8 billion years ago, in a cataclysmic explosion, and then it continued to expand, cool, and evolve to its current state.
• One question that remains is whether the universe will expand forever in a Big Chill or gravitationally contract in a Big Crunch. Dark matter
works to slow the expansion of the universe, while dark energy exerts a force that pushes matter outward and causes the expansion to speed up.
Most cosmologists favor an endless, ever-expanding universe.

GIVE IT SOME THOUGHT

1 Assume that NASA is sending space probes to each of the locations 3 Use the information provided below about three main-sequence stars
listed below. Arrange the order in which each probe will encounter its (A, B, and C) and Figure 24.2 to complete and explain your reasoning
destination, from nearest Earth to farthest. for the following:
a. Polaris (the North Star) • Star A has a main-sequence life span of 5 billion years.
b. A comet near the outer edge of our solar system • Star B has the same luminosity (absolute magnitude) as the Sun.
c. Jupiter • Star C has a surface temperature of 3000K.
d. The far edge of the Milky Way Galaxy a. Rank the mass of these stars from greatest to least.
e. The Andromeda Galaxy b. Rank the energy output of these stars from greatest to least.
f. The Sun c. Rank the main-sequence life span of these stars from longest to
2 How a star evolves is closely related to its mass as a main-sequence shortest.
star. Complete the accompanying diagram by labeling the evolutionary 4 The masses of three clouds of gas and dust (nebulae) are provided
stages for the three groups of main-sequence stars shown. below:
• Cloud A is 60 times the mass of the Sun.
• Cloud B is 7 times the mass of the Sun.
Main Sequence Star
• Cloud C is 2 times the mass of the Sun.
Low mass Intermediate High mass
mass
Imagine that all the material in each cloud will collapse to form a
single star. Use this information to answer the questions and explain
your reasoning.
a. Which cloud or clouds, if any, will evolve into a red main-sequence
star?
b. Which of the stars that will form from these clouds, if any, will
reach the giant stage?
or
c. Which of the stars that will form from these clouds, if any, will go
through the supernova stage?

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 Chapter 24 Beyond Our Solar System 739

5 Refer to the accompanying photos of an elliptical galaxy and a spiral a.

galaxy to answer the following:
a. Which image (A or B) is an elliptical galaxy?
b. Which of these galaxies appears to contain more young, hot,
­massive stars? How did you determine your answer?
c. When stars are born from a cloud of dust and gases, high- and
low-mass stars form at about the same time. Which group of
stars, high-mass or low-mass, will die out first? Over time, how
will this affect the color of the light we observe coming from this
group of stars?
ESO image NASA

A. B.

EXAMINING THE EARTH SYSTEM

1 Briefly describe how the atmosphere, hydrosphere, geosphere, and 2 Scientists are continuously searching the Milky Way Galaxy for other stars
biosphere are each related to the death of stars that occurred billions that may have planets. What types of stars would most likely have a planet
of years ago. or planets suitable for life as we know it? (Hint: Do an Internet search.)

DATA ANALYSIS
Searching for Planets Around Other Stars
Our Sun has four rocky planets, four giant gas planets, five dwarf planets, 3 Earth has a semi-major axis orbit of 1.0 AU. Which exoplanet has a
more than 150 moons, and thousands of asteroids. There are billions of semi-major axis orbit closest to Earth’s orbital size?
stars in the night sky, many of which have planetary systems of their own. 4 Earth has an orbital period around our Sun of 365.24 days. Which
A planet rotating around a distant star is called an exoplanet. exoplanet has an orbital period around its star most similar to Earth’s
Activities orbital period?
Go to the NASA Exoplanet Exploration page at [Link] The column labeled Msin(i) lists an estimate for the mass of each exoplanet
Hover over Explore and select 5 Ways to Find a Planet. in terms of its size compared to Jupiter (mjupiter.) Click on mjupiter and
change the mass unit to Earth Mass (mEarth). A mearth of 5.0 means that
1 Describe each of the five ways astronomers use to detect an exoplanet. the exoplanet is 5 times more massive than Earth.
Go to the Exoplanets Data Explorer page at [Link] Read 5 Which planet in the database has a mass most similar to that of Earth?
the information and then click on Table. Clicking on a column title will
reorganize the data. Clicking on the units label just below the column title 6 Find the orbital period and semi-major axis for this exoplanet. Is its
will change units for some columns, such as orbital period. orbital period longer or shorter than Earth’s orbital period? Is its
­semi-major axis orbital size larger or smaller than Earth’s orbital size?
2 How many total confirmed planets are there? How many unconfirmed
planets (Kepler candidates) are there? 7 This planet orbits a star with a temperature similar to Earth’s. Would
this planet be habitable for humans? Why or why not?

Looking for additional review and test prep materials? Visit the Study Area in MasteringGeology to enhance
your understanding of this chapter’s content by accessing a variety of resources, including Self-Study Quizzes,
Geoscience Animations, SmartFigure Tutorials, Mobile Field Trips, Project Condor Quadcopter videos, In the News articles, flashcards, web links, and
an optional Pearson eText.
[Link]

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 Appendix A
Metric and English Units Compared

Units Temperature
1 kilometer (km) = 1000 meters (m) When you want to convert degrees Fahrenheit (°F) to degrees
1 meter (m) = 100 centimeters (cm) ­Celsius (°C), subtract 32 degrees and divide by 1.8.
1 centimeter (cm) = 0.39 inch (in.) When you want to convert degrees Celsius (°C) to degrees
1 mile (mi) = 5280 feet (ft) ­Fahrenheit (°F), multiply by 1.8 and add 32 degrees.
1 foot (ft) = 12 inches (in.) When you want to convert degrees Celsius (°C) to kelvins (K),
1 inch (in.) = 2.54 centimeters (cm) delete the degree symbol and add 273. When you want to convert
1 square mile (mi2) = 640 acres (a)
1 kilogram (kg) = 1000 grams (g)
­kelvins (°C), add the degree symbol and subtract 273.
1 pound (lb) = 16 ounces (oz)
1 fathom = 6 feet (ft)
°F °C K
Conversions 210 100 373
Length
200
When you want
90 363
to convert: multiply by: to find: 190
inches 2.54 centimeters
centimeters 0.39 inches 180
feet 0.30 meters 80 353
meters 3.28 feet 170
yards 0.91 meters
160
meters 1.09 yards 70 343
miles 1.61 kilometers 150
kilometers 0.62 miles
140 60 333
Area
When you want 130

to convert: multiply by: to find: 120 50 323

square inches 6.45 square centimeters
square centimeters 0.15 square inches 110
square feet 0.09 square meters 40 313
square meters 10.76 square feet 100
square miles 2.59 square kilometers
square kilometers 0.39 square miles 90
30 303

Volume 80

When you want 70

20 293
to convert: multiply by: to find:
cubic inches 16.38 cubic centimeters 60
cubic centimeters 0.06 cubic inches
50 10 283
cubic feet 0.028 cubic meters
cubic meters 35.3 cubic feet 40
cubic miles 4.17 cubic kilometers
cubic kilometers 0.24 cubic miles 0 273
30
liters 1.06 quarts
liters 0.26 gallons 20
gallons 3.78 liters –10 263
10
Masses and Weights
0
When you want –20 253
to convert: multiply by: to find: –10 Figure A.1
ounces 28.35 grams Temperature scales
grams 0.035 ounces
pounds 0.45 kilograms
kilograms 2.205 pounds
740

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 Appendix B
Relative Humidity and Dew-Point Tables

TABLE B.1 Relative Humidity (Percent)*

Dry bulb (°C) Depression of Web-Bulb (Dry@bulb temperature - Wet@bulb temperature = Depression of the wet bulb)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
- 20 28
- 18 40
- 16 48 0
- 14 55 11
- 12 61 23
- 10 66 33 0
-8 71 41 13
-6 73 48 20 0
-4 77 54 32 11
-2 79 58 37 20 1
Dry-Bulb (Air) Temperature

0 81 63 45 28 11
2 83 67 51 36 20 6
4 85 70 56 42 27 14 Re
lati
6 86 72 59 46 35 22 10 0 ve
Hu
8 87 74 62 51 39 28 17 6 mid
ity
10 88 76 65 54 43 38 24 13 4 Val
ues
12 88 78 67 57 48 38 28 19 10 2
14 89 79 69 60 50 41 33 25 16 8 1
16 90 80 77 62 54 45 37 29 21 14 7 1
18 91 81 72 64 56 48 40 33 26 19 12 6 0
20 91 82 74 66 58 51 44 36 30 23 17 11 5
22 92 83 75 68 60 53 46 40 33 27 21 15 10 4 0
24 92 84 76 69 62 55 49 42 36 30 25 20 14 9 4 0
26 92 85 77 70 64 57 51 45 39 34 28 23 18 13 9 5
28 93 86 78 71 65 59 53 45 42 36 31 26 21 17 12 8 4
30 93 86 79 72 66 61 55 49 44 39 34 29 25 20 16 12 8 4
32 93 86 80 73 68 62 56 51 46 41 36 32 27 22 19 14 11 8 4
34 93 86 81 74 69 63 58 52 48 43 38 34 30 26 22 18 14 11 8 5
36 94 87 81 75 69 64 59 54 50 44 40 36 32 28 24 21 17 13 10 7 4
38 94 87 82 76 70 66 60 55 51 46 42 38 34 30 26 23 20 16 13 10 7 5
40 94 89 82 76 71 67 61 57 52 48 44 40 36 33 29 25 22 19 16 13 10 7
* To determine the relative humidity, find the air (dry-bulb) temperature on the vertical axis (far left) and the depression of the wet bulb on the horizontal axis (top). Where the two meet, the relative humidity is found.
For example, when the dry-bulb temperature is 20°C and a wet-bulb temperature is 14°C, then the depression of the wet bulb is 6°C (20°C- 14°C). From Table B.1, the relative humidity is 51 percent and from
Table B.2, the dew point is 10°C.

TABLE B.2 Dew-Point Temperature (°C)

Dry bulb (°C) Depression of Web-Bulb (Dry@bulb temperature - Wet@bulb temperature = Depression of the wet bulb)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
- 20 - 33
- 18 - 28
- 16 - 24
- 14 - 21 - 36
- 12 - 18 - 28
- 10 - 14 - 22
-8 - 12 - 18 - 29
-6 - 10 - 14 - 22
-4 -7 - 12 - 17 - 29
-2 -5 -8 - 13 - 20
Dry-Bulb (Air) Temperature

0 -3 -6 -9 - 15 - 24
2 -1 -3 -6 - 11 - 17
4 1 -1 -4 -7 - 11 - 19 Dew
6 4 1 -1 -4 -7 - 13 - 21 -Po
int
8 6 3 1 2 -5 -9 - 14 Valu
es
10 8 6 4 1 -2 -5 -9 - 14 - 18
12 10 8 6 4 1 -2 -5 -9 - 16
14 12 11 9 6 4 1 -2 -5 - 10 - 17
16 14 13 11 9 7 4 1 -1 -6 - 10 - 17
18 16 15 13 11 9 7 4 2 -2 5 10 - 19
20 19 17 15 14 12 10 7 4 2 -2 -5 - 10 - 19
22 21 19 17 16 14 12 10 8 5 3 -1 -5 - 10 - 19
24 23 21 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 2 -1 -5 - 10 - 18
26 25 23 22 20 18 17 15 13 11 9 6 3 0 -4 -9 - 18
28 27 25 24 22 27 19 17 16 14 11 9 7 4 1 -3 -9 16
30 29 27 26 24 23 21 19 18 16 14 12 10 8 5 1 -2 -8 - 15
32 31 29 28 27 25 24 22 21 19 17 15 13 11 8 5 2 -2 -7 - 14
34 33 31 30 29 27 26 24 23 21 20 18 16 14 12 9 6 3 -1 -5 - 12 - 29
36 35 33 32 31 29 28 27 25 24 22 20 19 17 15 13 10 7 4 0 -4 - 10
38 37 35 34 33 32 30 29 28 26 25 23 21 19 17 15 13 11 8 5 1 -3 9
40 39 37 36 35 34 32 31 30 28 27 25 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 9 6 2 -2

741

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