Engineering Mathematics

1. Intervals and Notations

Interval Notation
Open interval a<x<b x  (a, b)
Closed interval axb x  [a, b]
Half-open interval a<xb x  (a, b]
ax<b x  [a, b)
Infinite intervals −<x< x (− , )
Other Notations a<x x (a, )
ax x [a, )
x<b x (a, )
xb x  (−, b]
2. Domain
The set of values of x for which y takes real values (so that the function is well defined) is
known as the Domain for that function.
3. Range
The set of values which y can take is known as the set of Range for that function.
4. Nature of a function
Even function f(-x) = f(x) Eg: f(x) = x2, cos x
Odd function F(−x) = −f(x) Eg: f(x) = x3, sinx
5. Properties of Even and Odd function:
(a) Sum: (i) even + even = even
(ii) even + odd = neither even nor odd
(iii) odd + even = neither even nor odd
(iv) odd + odd = odd
(b) Difference:
(i) even – even = even
(ii) even – odd = neither even nor odd
(iii) odd-even = neither even nor odd
(iv) odd − odd = odd

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(c) Product:
(i) even  even = even
(ii) even  odd = odd
(iii) odd  even = odd
(iv) odd  odd = even
(d) Division:
(i) even  even = even
(ii) even  odd = odd
(iii) odd  even odd
(iv) odd  odd even
(e) (i) if f(x) + f(−x) = 0  f is odd function
(ii) if f(x) − f(−x) = 0  f is even function
(f) The square of an even or an odd function is always an even function.
6. Periodic function
A function f (x) is said to be periodic function of x, if there exists a positive real number T
such that f (x + T) = f (x), for all values of x in the domain of f (x).
The smallest value of T is called the fundamental period or period of the function.
7. Standard Results on Periodic Functions
Function Period

1. sinnx, cosnx , If n is even

n n
sec x, cosec x 2, if n is odd or fraction

2. Tannx, cotnx , n is even or odd

3. |sinx|, |cos x|
|tan x|, |cot x| 
|sec x|, |cosec x|

4. x − [x] = {x} 1

5. √𝑥, x2, x3 + 5 etc. These functions are not periodic

8. Properties of Periodic Function

(i) If f(x) has period T, then
(a) cf(x) has period T also
(b) f(X + C) is periodic with period T
(c) f(x)  C is periodic with period T
(d) If constant is added, subtracted, multiplied or divided in periodic function, period
remains same.
(e) Every constant function is always periodic, with no fundamental period.

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(f) Inverse of a periodic function does not exist. But in case of trigonometric function since
domain and range is restricted and defined then inverse exists.
T
(iii) If f (x) is periodic with period T, then k f (cx + d) has , hence period is affected by
|C|
coefficient of x only.
(iv) If f(x) and g(x) are two functions with period T1 and T2 respectively and h(X)
= af(X) + bg(x) then h(x) has period = LCM of {T1, T2}
9.
Constant function It is a function of the form y = f(x) = b, where b is a constant.

Consider y = f(x) = x
As y = x, both x and y take identical values. That is why this
function is called an identify function.
Identify function
Both x and y are defined for all real values of x. So domain and
range of the identify function is all real values of xi.e., xR and
yR.

Two functions y = f(x) and y = g(x) are said to be equal if

(i) both functions f(x) and g(x) have same domain and same range,
Equal Functions (ii) As well as they should be equal for all values of x in domain
i.e., f(x) = g(x) ∀xe domain
Equal functions are also known as identical functions.
10. Classification of function:
(i) Algebraic functions
Function Definition

Any function of the form f(x) = kxn where k is constant and nN
is known as monomial function.
Monomial function
Domain Range Continuity Periodic

xR Depends upon k and n always continuous not periodic

Function Definition

A function f(x) = a0Xn + a1Xn−1 + . . . + an, (a0  0) where a0, a1,

a2, . . ., an are real constants and n is non-negative integer, then f
(x) is called polynomial function where n is the degree of
Polynomial function
polynomial function.

Domain Range Continuity Periodic

xR Depends always continuous not periodic

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p(x)
A function of the form f (x) = , where p(x) and q(x) are
q(x)
polynomial and q(x)  0, is called rational function.
Rational function
Domain Range Continuity Periodic

xR − {q(x) = 0} depends discontinuous at not

x{q(x) = 0} periodic

An algebraic function or rational function containing one or more

radicals (non-integral rational power of x) is called irrational
function
Irrational function Domain Range Continuity Periodic

x ∈ R−{q(x)=0} depends discontinuous not

x∈{q(x) = 0} periodic
(ii) Transcendental functions
Function Definition
Logarithmic function is represented as y = logax where x > 0,
a(0, 1)  (1, )
Logarithmic if a > 1, increases as x increases, if 0 < a < 1, y decreases as x
increases
function
Domain Range Continuity Periodic

x>0 yR always continuous not periodic

y = ax where a > 1 or 0 < a < 1
This function is the inverse of logarithmic function i.e. it can be
obtained by interchanging x and y in y = logax. If a > 1, then y
Exponential increases as x increases, if 0 < a < 1, then y decreases as x
function increases.
Domain Range Continuity Periodic

xR y>0 always continuous not periodic

Trigonometric
Domain Range Continuity Period
functions
y = sin x x R y[−1, 1] always continuous periodic with
period 2
y = cos x xR y[−1, 1] always continuous periodic with
period 2
 
y = tan x x  R − ( 2n + 1)  yR discontinuous at periodic with
 2

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
x = ( 2n + 1) period 2
2
y = cosec x xR − {n} yR−(−1, 1) discontinuous at periodic with
x = n period 2

y = sec x x  R − (2n + 1) y  R−(−1, 1) discontinuous at periodic with
2

x = (2n + 1) period 2
2
y = cot x xR−(n) yR discontinuous at periodic with
x = n period 
(iii) Piecewise defined function:
Function Definition
f(x) = |x| = magnitude of x or the positive value of x. The
expression |x| can be further split as follows:
 x ; x0
y =| x |= 
Modulus − x ; x  0
Domain Range Continuity Periodic

xR yR always continuous not periodic

y = [x] = the greatest integer less than or equal to x. It can also be
simplified as: y = [ x ] = n if n  x < n + 1 where n is an integer.

Greatest Integer Domain Range Continuity Periodic

xR yI discontinuous not periodic
xI

Function Definition

Fractional part function is represented as y = {x} = x − [x]

Fractional part Domain Range Continuity Periodic

xR y  [0, 1) discontinuous at periodic with
xI period 1

1 , x 0

y = sgn(x) =  0 , x = 0
−1 , x  0

Signum
Domain Range Continuity Periodic
xR {−1, 0, 1} discontinuous not periodic
f(x) = 0

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11. Transformations
[Link]. Transformation How to Transform
1. (a) y = f (x) ⎯⎯→ y = f (x + a) Shift the graph of y = f (x) through ‘a’ units towards left.
(b) y = f (x) ⎯⎯→ y = f (x − a) Shift the graph of y = f (x) through ‘a’ unit towards right.
2. (a) y = f (x) ⎯⎯→ y + a = f (x) Shift graph of y = f (x) by ‘a’ unit downward.
(b) y = f (x) ⎯⎯→ y − a = f (x) Shift the graph of y = f (x) by ‘a’ unit upward.
3. y = f (x) ⎯⎯→ y = f (−x) Draw y = f (x) first then take the mirror image of y = f
(x) in the y− axis.
4. y = f (x) ⎯⎯→ y = − f (x) Draw y = f (x) first and then take the mirror image of
y = f (x) in x axis.
5. y = f (x) ⎯⎯→ y = f (| x |) Draw the graph of y = f (x) first, then remove the left
portion of the graph after that take the mirror image of
the right portion of the curve in the Y-axis. Also include
the right portion of the graph of y = f (x).
6. y = f (x) ⎯⎯→ y = | f (x) | Draw the curve y = f (x), then take the mirror image of the
lower portion of the curve (the curve below x−axis) in
x−axis and reject the lower part (or flip lower part into
upper)
7. y = f (x) ⎯⎯→ | y | = f (x) Draw y = f (x) first then remove the lower portion of the
curve and then take the mirror image of upper portion of
the curve in x−axis. Also include the upper portion of the
curve y = f (x).
8. y = f (x) ⎯⎯→ y = [ f (x)]. (i) Draw y = f (x).
(ii) Draw y = k horizontal lines separated by unit
distance till they intersect the graph, Where k  I
(integer)
(iii) From the point of intersection of above horizontal
lines with the graph of y = f(x) draw vertical line.
(iv) From each intersection point draw horizontal lines
upto nearest right vertical line such that the
horizontal line is always below the graph.
(v) Horizontal step drawn in step-(iv) is graph of
y = [f (x)]
12. Composite functions
Let A, B and C be three non-empty sets. Let f: A → B and g: B → C be two Functions then
gof: A → C. This function is called Composite
Function.
Note:
(i) fog(x) = f (g (x)); (ii) fof (x) = f (f(x));
(iii) gog(x) = g(g(x)); (iv) gof (x) = g (f (x)).

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b
1. The relationship between the definite integral  f(x)dx and the indefinite integral F(x) is:
a

 f(x)dx = F(b) − F(a)

a

2. Properties in Definite Integral

Property-1: Property-2:
b c b b a

 f(x)dx =  f(x)dx +  f(x)dx

a a c
 f(x)dx = − f(x)dx
a b

Property-3:
b b

 f(x)dx =  f(t)dt
a a

Property-4: Property-5:
a a 2a a a

 f(x)dx =  f(a - x)dx

0 0
 f(x)dx =  f(x)dx +  f (2a − x)dx
0 0 0

Property-6:
2a 2a a

 f(x)dx = 0 if (2a −x) = −f(x)

0
;  f(x)dx = 2 f(x)dx
0 0
if f(2a − x) = f(x)

Property-7:
b b

 f(x)dx =  f (a + b − x)dx
a a

Property-8:
a a

 f(x)dx =  [f(x)+f( − x)]dx

−a 0

a
= 2 f(x)dx if f(x) is even i.e. f(−x) = f(x)
0

=0 if f(x) is odd i.e f(−x) = −f(x)

Property-9:
nT T

 f(x)dx = n  f(x)dx where f(x) is a periodic function with period T and n is an integer.
0 0

Property-10:
 n a a

 f(x)dx = lim  f(x)dx

0
n →
0
;  f(x)dx = lim  f(x)dx
−
n →−
n

 0  0 b

 f(x)dx =  f(x)dx +  f(x)dx = lim  f(x)dx + lim  f(x)dx

− − 0
a →−
a
b →
0

Property-11:
b b

 f(x)dx   f(x) dx.

a a

Property-12:

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If the function f (x) and g (x) are defined on [a, b] and differentiable at all points x.
d  
g(x)

[f(a), g(b)], then   h(t)dt  = h[g(x)]g '(x) − h[f (x)]f '(x)

dx  f(x) 
Property-13:
b b
If f(x)  g(x) for all x[a, b], then  f(x)dx   g(x)dx.
a a

Put g (x) = 0 for all x  [a, b] in above property to get another useful property, i.e
b
If f(x)  0 for all x[a, b], then  f(x)dx  0.
a

3. The definite integral of a function f(x) in the interval [a, b] can be defined as:
b

 f (x)dx = lim h[f (a + h) + f (a + 2h) + . . . + f(a + nh)]

x →
where nh = b − a.
a h →0

n
= lim h  f (a + rh) where nh = b − a.
n →
h →0 r =1

4. Estimation of a Definite Integral

If f (x) is a function defined in the interval [a, b] then:
b
m(b − a)   f (x)dx  M(b − a)
a

where m is the least and M is the greatest value of the function f (x) in the interval [a, b].
5. Mean value theorem of definite Integrals
If the function f (x) is continuous in the interval [a, b], then:
/ 2

 f (x)dx = f (c)(b − a),

a
where a < c < b.

6. Two useful Formulae

(i) if n be a positive integer, then:
/ 2 / 2

 sin xdx =  cos n xdx

n

0 0

n −1 n − 3 n − 5 3 1 
= . . ... . . , when n is even
n n−2 n−4 4 2 2
n −1 n − 3 n − 5 4 2
= . . . . . . .1, when n is odd
n n−2 n−4 5 3
/ 2 / 2
(ii) 
0
sin m xcos n xdx =  sin n xcos m dx
0

=
( m − 1) .( m − 3).........(1 or 2 )( n − 1)( n − 1).( n − 3)........(1 or 2 )
( m + n ) .( m + n − 2 ).....(1 or 2 )
When both m and n even integer.

=
( m − 1) .( m − 3).........(1 or 2 )( n − 1)( n − 1).( n − 3)........(1 or 2 )
( m + n ) .( m + n − 2 ).....(1 or 2 )
when both m and n  even integer.

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7. Curve tracing
In order to find the area bounded by several curves, sometimes it is necessary to have an idea
of the rough sketches of these curves. To find the approximate shape of a curve represented
by the cartesian equation, the following steps are very useful.
1. Symmetry
(a) If curve remains unaltered on replacing x by – x, then it is symmetrical about y-axis.
(b) If curve remains unaltered on replacing y by – y, then it is symmetrical about x-axis.
2. Intersection with axes
(a) To find points of intersection of the curve with x-axis, replace y = 0 in the equation of
the curve and get corresponding values of x.
(b) To find points of intersection of the curve with y-axis, replace x = 0 in the equation of
the curve and get corresponding values of y.
3. The regions where curves does not exist
(a) Find those values of x for which corresponding values of y do not exist.
(b) Find intervals where f (x) is positive.
4. Asymptotes
(a) Observe where y approaches as x approaches ± .
(b) If necessary, observe where x approaches as y approaches ± .
5. Find points of local maximum and local minimum
Put f (x) = 0 and find points of local maximum and minimum.
8. Important Results
I. If f (x)  0 for all x  [a, b], then Area bounded by the curve y = f (x), X-axis and the
lines x = a and x = b is given by
b
A =  f(x)dx
a

Note: The whole of the curve in the internal [a, b] lies above X-axis.

II. If f (x)  0 for all x [a, b], then Area bounded by a curve y = f (x). X-axis and the
lines x = a and x = b is given by:
b
Area =  f (x)dx
a

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Note: The whole of the curve in the internal [a, b] lies above X-axis.

III. If the curve crosses X-axis one or more times in [a, b], then the area bounded by the
curve y = f (x), X-axis and the lines x = a and x = b is calculated by considering the
portions of the graph lying above X-axis and below X-axis separately. To calculate the
area of the regions lying above X-axis, use result-1 and for the regions lying below
X-axis, use result-2. In the figure, the curve crosses X-axis at x = x1, x2, x3. Shaded area
is given as follows:
x1 x2 x3 b
A =  f (x)dx +  f (x)dx  f (x)dx +  f (x)dx
a x1 x2 x3

4. Area bounded by two curves, y = f (x) and y = g (x), from above and below is given by:
b
shaded area =  f (x) − g(x) dx
a

5. If f (y)  0 for all y  [a, b], then the Area bounded by a curve x = f (y), Y-axis and the lines
y = a and y = b is given by

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b
Area =  f (y)dy
a

Note: The whole of the curve in the interval [a, b] lies on right of Y-axis.
6. If f (y)  0 for all y  [a, b], then the Area bounded by a curve x = f (y), Y-axis and the lines
y = a and y = b is given by
b
Area =  f (y)dy
a

Note: The whole of the curve in the interval [a, b] lies on left of Y axis.

7. If the curve crosses Y-axis one or more times in [a, b], then the area bounded by the curve x
= f (y), Y-axis and the lines y = a and y = b is calculated by considering the portions of the
graph lying on the right side and the left side of the Y-axis separately. To calculate the area of
the regions lying on right-hand side of the Y-axis, use result-5 and for the regions lying on
left-hand side, use result - 6. In the figure, the curve crosses Y-axis at y = y1. Shaded area is
given as follows:
y1 b
A=  f (x)dy +  f (y)dy
a y1

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8. Area bounded by two curves, x = f (y) and x = g (y), from right and left respectively, is
given by:
b
Shaded area =  f (y) − g(y) dy
a

Note: The area is bounded from right by x = f(y) and from left by x = g(y).

The shaded area may be on right or left side of the Y-axis.

9. Rolle’s Theorem
Let f be a real valued function defined on the closed interval [a, b] such that
(i) it is continuous on the closed interval [a, b],
(ii) it is differentiable on the open interval (a, b), and f (a) = f(b).
Then there exists a real number c  (a, b) such that f(c) = 0.
10. Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem
Let f (x) be a function defined on [a, b] such that
(i) it is continuous on [a, b],
(ii) it is differentiable on (a, b).
f ( b ) − f (a)
Then there exists a real number c  (a, b) such that f ' ( c ) = .
b−a
11. Strictly increasing function
A function f(x) is said to be a strictly increasing function on (a, b) if x1 < x2
 f(x1) < f(x2) for all x1, x2 (a, b)
Thus, f(x) is strictly increasing on (a, b) if the values of f(x) increase with the increase in the
values of x.

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12. Strictly decreasing function

A function f(x) is said to be a strictly decreasing function on (a, b) if x1 < x2
 f (x1) > f (x2) for all x1, x2  (a, b)
Thus, f(x) is strictly decreasing on (a, b) if the values of f (x) decrease with the increase in the
values of x.
13. Monotonic Function
A function f(x) is said to be monotonic on an interval (a, b) if it is either increasing or
decreasing on (a, b).
Definition:
A function f(x) is said to be increasing (decreasing) at a point x0 if there is an interval (x0 – h,
x0 + h) containing x0 such that f(x) is increasing (decreasing) on (x0 – h, x0 + h).
Definition:
A function f(x) is said to be increasing on [a, b] if it is increasing (decreasing) on (a, b) and it
is also increasing (decreasing) at x = a and x = b.
14. Condition for function to be increasing and decreasing
Let f be a differentiable real function defined on an open interval (a, b).
(a) If f(x) > 0 for all x  (a, b), then f(x) is increasing on (a, b)
(b) If f(x) < 0 for all x  (a, b), then f(x) is decreasing on (a, b).
15. Properties of Monotonic functions
(i) If f(x) is strictly increasing function on an interval [a, b], then f –1 exists and it is also a
strictly increasing function.
(ii) If f(x) is strictly increasing function on an interval [a, b] such that it is continuous, then
f–1 is continuous on [f (a), f (b)].
(iii) If f(x) and g(x) both are monotonically (or strictly) increasing (or decreasing) functions
on [a, b], then go f(x) is a monotonically (or strictly) increasing (in either case) function
on [a, b].
(iv) If one of the two functions f(x) and g(x) is strictly (or monotonically) increasing and
other a strictly (monotonically) decreasing, then gof(x) is strictly (monotonically)
decreasing (in either case) on [a, b].
1
(v) If f(x) is increasing function then is decreasing function.
f (x)

(vi) If f(x) and g(x) are increasing functions then f(x) + g(x) is also increasing function.
(vii) If f(x) is a monotonic increasing function in the interval [a, b] then greatest value and
least value of f(x) in the interval [a, b] are f(b) and f(a) respectively.
16. Critical Point
We say that x = c is a critical point of the function f(x) if f(c) exists and if either of the
following are true.
f (c) = 0 or f (c) doesn’t exist

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17. Stationary point

We can say x = c is a stationary point of f(x) if f(c) exits and f(c) = 0.
18. Observe the following graphs and their shapes.

19. y = f(x) is said to be concave upwards (convex downwards) in x  [a, b], if f (x)  0  x 
(a, b).
20. y = f (x) is said to be convex upwards (concave downwards) in x  [a, b], if f  (x)  0  x 
(a, b).
21. Therefore, point of inflexion is a point where sign of f  (x) changes from either negative to
positive or positive to negative.
22. How to find points of inflexion
The following steps can be applied to determine points of inflexion of f(x).
(a) Find f(x) and equate numerator and denominator both to zero to find potential points
of inflexion.
Method-I:
(b) Let us assume that values obtained in (a) are x = x0, x1, x2 . . . . . Now consider these
values one by one and determine whether they are points of inflection or not.
Now consider these values to determine this, we have following methods.
Let us take x = x0 first and then repeat the following steps for x = x1, x2, x3 . . . . . .
If f (x0 – h) > 0 and f (x0 + h) < 0
OR f(x0 – h) < 0 and f(x0 + h) > 0,
then x = x0 is point of inflexion provided f(x0) exists (x0Domain of f (x)).
It means if sign of f(x) is changing about x = x0 from either positive to negative or negative
to positive, then x = x0 is point of inflexion provided f(x0) exists x0Domain of f(x).
If f (x0 – h) > 0 and f(x0 + h) > 0
OR f(x0 – h) < 0 and f(x0 + h) < 0
then x = x0 is NOT a point of inflexion.  reject this point.
It means if sign of f(x) is NOT changing about x = x0, then it is NOT a point of inflexion.

Method - II: (“nth derivative test”)

Differentiate f(x) again and again till you get first non-zero derivative at x = x0 i.e.
f3(x0) = f4(x0) = f5(x0) = . . . . . . . fn–1(x0) = 0 and f n (x0)  0
It means we are assuming that first (n – 1) derivatives are zero and first non-zero derivative is
fn(x0). Based on the value of fn(x0), we can conclude the following:
(a) If n is odd and fn(x0) > 0, then x = x0 is point of inflexion when shape of curve is changing
from convex upwards to concave upwards.
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(b) If n is odd and fn(x0) < 0, then x = x0 is a point of inflexion where shape of curve changes
from concave upwards to convex upwards at x = x0.
(c) If n is even, x = x0 is NOT a point of inflexion. Therefore, reject x = x0.
23. Local Maximum
A function attains a local maximum at a point if value of the function at this point is greater
than its value at all points other than this point in a certain interval (infinitely small) defined
around this point. In other words, A function f (x) attains a local maximum at x = x0 if f(x0) >
f(x) for all x0(x0, – , x0 + ),  → 0 and x  x0.
It means f(x) possesses a greatest value in the neighborhood of x0.
24. Local Minimum
A function attains a local minimum at a point if value of the function at this point is less than
its value at all points other than this point in a certain interval (infinitely small) defined around
this point. In other words,
A function f(x) attains a local minimum at x = x0 if f(x0) < f(x) for all x  (x0 – , x0 + ),
 → 0 and x  x0.
25. Local Extremum
The point at which a function attains either the local maximum value or the local minimum
values are known as extreme point or point of local extremum and both local maximum and
local minimum values are called the “extreme values” of f(x) or “Local Extremum values”.
26. Algorithm to find points local maximum and local minimum
(i) Find critical points of f(x). Let us assume critical points are x = x0, x1, x2, . . . .
(ii) Consider each critical point and check whether it is point of local maximum, point of
local minimum or neither of the two.

Note: The following examples help you in understanding that every critical point is not a
point of local maximum or local minimum. It can be neither of the two.

In above examples x0 is critical point but it is neither point of local maximum nor point of
local minimum.
Method - I: (First derivative test)
Let us check x0 first. Then same procedure can be applied on x1, x2, x3 . . . . . . following
methods can be used to check whether x0 is local maximum or local minimum or neither of
the two.
If f (x0 – h) > 0 and f(x0 + h) < 0, then x = x0 is point of local maximum.
else, if
f(x0 – h) < 0 and f(x0 + h) > 0, then x = x0 is point of local minimum.
else,

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x = x0 is neither point of local minimum and nor it is local maximum.

It means if derivative towards left of x0 is positive and toward right is negative, then x0
is point of local maximum. Similarly, if derivative towards left of x0 is negative and
towards right is positive, then x0 is point of local minimum. If sign of f(x) is not
changing around x = x0, then it is neither local maximum nor local minimum.
Method - II : (Second derivative test)
This method can only be used if all derivatives of f(x) exist, i.e. f(x), f(x), f (x), . . . . all
exist. Let us check x0
To know whether it is local maximum, local minimum or neither of the two. Follow the steps
given below
(i) Find f(x0).
(ii) If f(x0) < 0, then x = x0 is point of local maximum
else if f(x) > 0, then x = x0 is point of local minimum
else if f(x0) = 0, then test fails and apply extension of second derivative test.
i.e., nth derivative test.
Nth derivative test (Extension of second derivative test)
This test is applied on a differentiable function f(x) at x0 to decide whether x0 is local
maximum, local minimum or neither of the two.
27. How to find absolute Maxima
(a) Find all points of local maximum of f (x) in interval [a, b]. Let points of local maximum
x0, x1, x2 . . . .
(b) Find corresponding values of f(x) at x = x0, x1 . . . . . . i.e. find f (x0), f(x1), f(x2)
(c) Find f(a) and f(b)
(d) Compare f(a), f(b), f(x0), f(x1), f(x2) . . . and find maximum of all
i.e. Find maximum value of {f(a), f(b), f(x0), f(x1), f(x2). . .}
(e) Max value obtained in (d) is absolute maximum value (or Global maximum value)
of f(x) in [a, b].
28. How to find absolute Minima
(a) Find all points of local minimum of f(x) in interval [a, b]. Let points of local minimum
x0, x1, x2 ....
(b) Find corresponding values of f(x) at x = x0, x1 . . . . . . i.e. find f(x0), f (x1), f(x2)
(c) Find f(a) and f(b)
(d) Compare f(a), f(b), f(x0), f(x1), f(x2) . . . and find minimum of all
i.e. Find minimum value of {f(a), f(b), f(x0), f(x1), f(x2). . .}
(e) Min. value obtained in (d) is absolute minimum value (or Global minimum value) of
f(x) in [a, b].
DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS
1. If a variable x takes values which are more and more close to a finite number a, then we say
that x approaches a (written as x → a).
(i) If values of x come closer to a but are always greater than a, then we say that x
apporaches a from right (x → a+).
(ii) If value of x come closer ta but are alway less than a, then x approaches a from left
(x → a−)

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2. Meaning of a limiting value

Let f(x) be a function of x. If the expression f (x) comes close to l as x approaches a then we
say that l is the limit of f (x) as x approaches a.
In notation, it is written that lim f (x) = I .
x →a

3. Right hand limit

Right hand limit can be expressed as: lim+ f (x) = I1
x →a

Right hand limit can also be expressed as: lim f (a + h) [Put x = a + h in the above result]
h →0

4. Left hand limit

Left hand limit can be expressed as: lim− f (x) = I 2
x →a

Left hand limit can also be expressed as: lim f (a − h) [Put x = a – h in the above result]
h →0

5. Existence of limi
i.e. For existence of limit at x = a  L.H.L. = R.H.L
 I1 = I2  lim− f (x) = lim+ f (x) f(x)
x→ a x→a

6. Indeterminate forms
If numerator and denominator both approach zero, the tendency of the ratio cannot be
determined at once. Such situations are know as indeterminate forms. Following are the
various types of indeterminate forms.
→0 →
, , (→ ) − (→ )
→0 →
( → 1) (→ 0) (→ )
→ →0 →0
→  → 0 , , ,
Indeterminate form are simplified (worked out) with the help of formulas to know where they
approach to.
→0 0
Note: Following forms are NOT indeterminate forms, (1)
→
= 1, = not defined, = not
0 0
defined.
0 →0
= → 0, 0  →  = 0, ( → 0 ) =→ 0, 00 = not defined
→
= 0,
→0 →
7. Important results for calculating Limits
Following are some important standard results for calculating limits :
(i) lim  k1f (x)  k 2 g ( x )  = k1 lim f ( x )  k 2 lim g ( x )
x →a x→a x→a

[where k1 and k2 are independent of x]

(ii) lim  f (x)g(x)  = lim f(x) lim g ( x )
x →a x →a x →a

f(x) lim f ( x )
(iii) lim = x →a if lim g(x)  0
x →a g ( x ) lim g ( x ) x →a
x →a

sin x sin -1 x tan x tan -1 x

8. lim = 1; lim = 1; lim = 1; lim = 1; lim cos x = 1
x→0 x x→0 x x→0 x x→0 x x→0

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ax −1 ex − 1 log e (1 + x )
= log e a =1 lim (1 + x ) =e = 1.
1/ x
9. lim ; lim ; ; lim
x→ 0 x x→ 0 x x→ 0 x→ 0 x
10. We can also use the following Important Results. The following results are useful in x → 
or x → − type problem.
(i) If a = 1, then lim ax = 1 and lim ax = 1.
x → x → −

(ii) If a > 1, then lim a = + (limit does not exist and) lim ax = 0.
x
x → x → −

(iii) If 0 < a < 1, then lim ax = 0 and lim ax = + . [limit does not exist]
x → x → −

(iv) If a < 0, then lim xa = 0.

x →

(v) If a < 0, then lim xa = +. [limit does not exist]

x →

f '( x ) 0 
11. If lim assumes the indeterminate from or and f(x) and g(x) satisfy all the
x→a g '( x ) 0 
f' ( x )
conditions of L’Hospital’s rule, then you can again use L’Hospital’s rule on i.e.
g' ( x )
f (x) f' ( x ) f"( x )
lim = lim = lim
x→a g(x) x→a g' ( x ) x→a g"( x )
In some question we may have to apply the above process again till we get the non-
indeterminate form.
12. The following expansion formulas are very useful in evaluating various limits.
x 2 x3
(i) ex = 1 + x + + +...
2! 3!
x2 x3
(ii) a x = 1 + x ( log e a ) + ( e )
log a 2 + ( log e a ) 3 + . . .
2! 3!
x 2 x3 x 4 x 2 x3 x 4
(iii) log (1 + x ) = x − + − + . . . (iv) log (1 − x ) = − x − − − −. . .
2 3 4 2 3 4
x3 x5 x2 x4
(v) sin x = x − + −. . . . . . (vi) cos x = 1 − + −. . . . . .
3! 5! 2! 4!
x3 2 5
(vii) tan x = x + + x +......
3 15
12  x 3 12  32  x 5 12  32  52  x 7
(viii) sin −1 x = x + + + ....
3! 5! 7!
n ( n − 1) n ( n − 1)( n − 2 )
(1 + x ) = 1 + nx + x2 + x3 + . . . . .
n
(x)
2! 3!
13. Continuity at x = a
A function y = f(x) is continuous at x = a, if its limit at x = a exists and is equal to f(a) i.e.
Left hand limit = Right hand limit = f(a)
lim f ( x ) = lim+ f ( x ) = f ( a )
x → a− x→a

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14. Discontinuity at x = a
We say f(x) is discontinuous at x = a, if f(x) is not continous at x = a.
OR
in other words, if any one or more of the conditions for the function f(x) to be continuous fails
to be satisfied. f(x) is said to be discontinuous at x = a. Geometrically speaking, there must be
a break in the graph of f(x) at x = a.
15. Theorems on Continuity
(i) Let f(x) and g (x) be the continuous function at x = a. Then the following functions are
continuous at x = a.
(a) f(x)  g(x) (b) k f(x), k g(x) {where k is real]
f (x)
(c) f(x), g(x) (d) , provided g(a)  0.
g (x)
(ii) f(x) = a0 + a1 x + a2x2 + . . . . . . + anxn is the nth degree polynomial function. This function
is continuous at all value of x.
(iii) y = sin x, y = cos x are continuous for all x.
y = loga x is continuous for all x > 0.
y = ax is continuous for all x.
(iv) If y = f(x) is continuous for x  [a, b] and N is any number between f(a) and f(b), then
there is at least one number c between a and b such that f (c) = N.
(v) If y = f(x) is continuous for x  [a, b] and f(a) and f(b) are of opposite signs, then there
exists at least one solution of the equation f(x) = 0 in the open interval (a, b).
(vi) The Sandwich Theorems:
Suppose that f(x)  g(x)  h(x)
for all x  c in some interval about c, and that f(x) and h(x) approach the same limit L
as x approaches c i.e. lim f (x) = lim h(x) = L. Then lim g(x) = L.
x→c x→c x→c

(vii) If the function f is continuous at x = a and g is continuous at x = f(a) then composite

function g {f (x)} is continuous at x = a.

16. Continuity in an interval

(i) A function f(x) is said to be continuous in the interval (a, b) if f(x) is continuous at each
and every point (a, b).
For any c  (a, b), f(x) is continuous if
lim f (x) = lim+ f (x) = f (c)
x →c− x →c
(a, b)

(ii) A function f(x) is and to be continuous in the closed inteval [a, b] if it is continuous at
every point in the interval (a, b) (see above section) and the contiunity at the end points
is checked according to the following rule
Continuity at x = a
f(x) is continuous at x = a if
If f (a) = lim+ f(x) = lim f(a + h) = R.H.L.
x→a h →0

= a finite quantity.

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L.H.L. should not be evaluated to check continuity x = a

Continuity at x = b
f(x) is continuous at x = b
If f (a) = lim− f(x) = lim f(b - h) = L.H.L. = a finite quantity.
x→b h →0

R.H.L. should not be evaluated to check continuity x = b.

17. Discontinuous Functions
A function f is said to be discontinuous at point a of its domain D if it is not continuous there.
The point ‘a’ is then called a point of discontinuity of the function. The discontinuity may
arise due to any of the following situations:
(i) L.H.L. or R.H.L. or both do not exist, at x = a
i.e. they either approach to '' or − or oscillate between finite or infinite limits.
(ii) L.H.L. as well as R.H.L. exist, but are unequal i.e. L.H.L.  R.H.L. at x = a.
(iii) L.H.L. as well as R.H.L. both exist and are equal but there value is not equal to f(a) i.e.
L.H.L. = R.H.L.  f(a) at x = a
18. Removable discontinuity:
A function f(x) is said to have removal discontinuity at a point x = a.
if the limit f(x) at x = a exists but is not equal to f(a)
i.e., lim f(x) = lim+ f(x)  f(a)
x →a − x →a

lim f(x) = lim+ f(x)  f(a)

x →a − x →a
( m) (m) (i)
19. Discontinuity of the first kind:
The function f(x) is said to have a discontinuity of first kind (or a simple discontinuity) at a
point x = a if both L.H.L. and R.H.L. exist but are not equal. The discontinuity of the first kind
is also known as jump discontinuity where jump = R.H.L. - L.H.L. at x = a.
i.e. lim f ( x )  lim+ f ( x )
x →a− x →a

20. Discontinuity of the second - kind:

A function y = f (x) is said to have a discontinuity of second kind at a point x = a if either or
both of the limits
lim f ( x ) and lim+ f ( x ) does not exist i.e.,
x →a− x →a

if either or both of the limits

lim f ( x ) and lim+ f ( x ) is infinite or as oscillatory
x →a− x →a

The discontinuity of second kind is also known as essential discontinuity.

dy f(x + h) − f(x)
21. Derivative = = f '(x) = lim .
dx h → 0 h
f(a + h) − f(a)
22. Right Hand Derivative = Rf(a) = lim
h →0 h
f(a − h) − f(a)
23. Left Hand Derivative = Lf(a) = lim
h →0 −h

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24. We say that derivative at x = a exists or the function is differentiable at x = a if both the left
hand derivative and the right hand derivative are finite and equal.
 Rf(a) = Lf(a) is the condition for differentiability at x = a.
f(a + h) − f(a) f(a − h) − f(a)
 lim = lim
h →0 h h →0 −h
25. Hence if f (x) is differentiable or derivative at x = a exists, then at x = a we can drawn only
one tangent towards left and right.
i.e curve would be smooth in the neighbourhood of a.
26. If f(x) is differentiable at every point on the open interval (a, b), then f(x) is said to be
differentiable on (a, b).
27. If f(x) is differentiable on (a, b) and f(a+) and f(a−) exist finitely, then f(x) is said to be
differentiable on closed interval [a, b]
28. Results
(a) If (x) is differentiable x = a, then it must be continuous at x = a or if f (x) is differentiable
on the interval (a, b), then it must be continues for all x in this interval.
(b) The converse of above result is not true i.e. if function is continuous at x = a, then it
may not be differentiable at x = a, OR if function is continuous on the interval (a, b)
then it may not be different table for all x in that interval.
(c) If Rf(a) and Lf(a)both exist finitely (both may or may not be equal) then f(x) is
continuous at x = a.
(d) If a function is differentiable, its graph must be smooth i.e. there should be no break or
corner.
29. Theorem
(a) Chain Rule:
If y is a function of u is a function of x, then derivative of y with respect to x is
dy dy du dy du
=  y = f (u)  = f '( u )
dx du dx dx dx
(b) Chain Rule:
If y and x both are expressed in terms of t, then
dy dy / dt
=
dx dx / dt
(c) Take y in place of t in (b), we get:
dy dy / dt dy 1
=  =
dx dx / dt dx dx / dy
Hence derivative of y wrt x and derivative of x wrt y are reciprocal of each other.
(d) Product Rule:
If y = uv, where u and v are functions of x, then
dy dv du
=u +v
dx dx dx
(e) Quotient Rule:
If y = u/y where u and v are functions of x, then

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du dv
v −u
dy
= dx 2 dx
dx v
30. Differentiation of Algebraic Function
The following formulas can be applied directly while differentiating an algebraic function:
Differentiation of functions of x w.r.t. x Differentiation of functions of u w.r.t. x

d n du n du
➢ x = nx n −1 ➢ = nu n −1
dx dx dx
d 1 d 1 du
➢ x = ➢ u=
dx 2 x dx 2 u dx
d  1  −1 d  1  −1 du
➢  =
dx  x  x 2
➢  =
dx  u  u 2 dx
d  1  −1 d  1  −1 du
➢   = ➢   =
dx  x  2x x dx  u  2u u dx

31. Differentiation of Trigonometric Functions

The following formulas can be applied directly while differentiating Trigonometric functions:
Differentiation of functions of x w.r.t. x Differentiation of functions of u w.r.t. x

d d du
➢ sin x = cos x ➢ sin u = cos u
dx dx dx
d d du
➢ cos x = − sin x ➢ cos u = −sin u
dx dx dx
d d du
➢ tan x = sec2 x ➢ tan u = sec 2 u
dx dx dx
d d du
➢ sec x = sec x tan x ➢ sec u = sec u tan u
dx dx dx
d d du
➢ cosec x = − cosec x cot x ➢ cosec u = −cosec u cot u
dx dx dx
d d du
➢ cot x = − cosec 2 x ➢ cot u = −cosec2 u
dx dx dx
32. Differentiation of Logarithmic and Exponential Functions
The following formulas can be applied directly while differentiating Logarithmic and
Exponential functions:
Differentiation of functions of x w.r.t. x Differentiation of functions of u w.r.t. x

d 1 d 1 du
➢ log x = ➢ log u =
dx x dx u dx
d x d u du
➢ e = ex ➢ e = eu
dx dx dx

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d x d u du
➢ a = a x log a ➢ a = a u log a
dx dx dx
d 1 log a e d 1 du
➢ = log a x = = ➢ log a u =
dx x log a x dx ulog a dx

33. Differentiation of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

The following formulas can be applied directly while differentiating trigonometric functions:
Differentiation of functions of x w.r.t. x Differentiation of functions of u w.r.t. x

d 1 d 1 du
➢ sin −1x = for −1 < x < 1 ➢ sin −1u = for −1 < u< 1
dx 1 − x2 dx 1 − u 2 dx
d −1 d −1 du
➢ cos −1x = for −1 < x < 1 ➢ cos −1u = for − 1  u  1
dx 1 − x2 dx 1 − u 2 dx
d 1 d 1 du
➢ sec−1x = for |x| > 1 ➢ sec−1u = for|u/>1
dx | x | x2 −1 dx | u | u − 1 dx
2

d −1 d −1 du
➢ cosec−1x = for |x| > 1 ➢ cosec−1u = for|u/>1
dx | x | x2 −1 dx | u | u − 1 dx
2

d 1 d 1 du
➢ tan −1x = for x  R ➢ tan −1u = for u  R
dx 1 − x2 dx 1 + u 2 dx
d −1 d −1 du
➢ cot −1x = for x  R ➢ cot −1u = for u  R
dx 1 + x2 dx 1 + u 2 dx
34. If a function is the product or the quotient of a number of complicated functions or if it is in
the form of [f(x)]g(x) , where f and g both are differentiable functions, then the derivative can
be found by first taking log and then differentiating each logarithmic term separately.
Indefinite Integration
1. Properties of Integration:
(i)  kf (x)dx = k  f (x)dx
(ii)  f ( x )  f ( x )  f ( x )  ......  f ( x ) dx
1 2 3 n

=  f1 ( x ) dx   f 2 ( x ) dx   f 3 ( x ) dx  . . . .   f n ( x ) dx
n +1
f '( x ) f ( x ) 
(iii)  f ( x ) dx = ln | f(x)| + C (iv)  [f ( x )]n
f ' ( x ) dx = +C
n +1
1
(v)  f ( x ) dx = g ( x ) , then  f ( ax + b ) dx = a g ( ax + b ) + C
2. Integrals of Basic Trigonometric Functions
(i)  sin x dx = − cos x + C (ii)  cos x dx = sin x + C
 sec x dx = tan x + C  cosec x dx = − cot x + C
2 2
(iii) (iv)

(v)  sec x tan x dx = + sec x + C (vi)  cosec x cot x dx = −cosec x + C

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3. Integrals of Basic Inverse and Exponential Functions

dx dx
(i)  1− x 2
= sin −1 x + C; | x | < 1 (ii) 1+ x 2
= tan −1 x + C

dx ax
x = sec −1 |x| + C; x  1  a dx = + C; a  1, a > 0
x
(iii) (iv)
x2 −1 log a

 e dx = e +C
x x
(v)
4. Further Generalisation of Some Results using property 1.2 (v)
1 ( ax + b )
n +1
dx 1  −1 
 ( ax + b ) dx = a n + 1  ( ax + b )
n
(i) +C (ii) =  +C
2
a  ax + b 
dx 1 dx 1 −1
(iii)  = 2 ax + b + C (iv)
ax + b a
 ( ax + b ) P
=
a ( p − 1)( ax + b )P −1
1 1 1
(v)  ax + b dx = a log ax + b + C (vi)  sin ( ax + b ) dx = − a cos ( ax + b ) + C
1 1
 cos ( ax + b ) dx = + a sin ( ax + b ) + C (viii)  sec ( ax + b ) dx = a tan ( ax + b ) + C
2
(vii)

1
 cosec ( ax + b ) dx = − a cot ( ax + b ) + C
2
(ix)

1
(x)  sec ( ax + b ) tan(ax + b)dx = a sec ( ax + b ) + C
1
(xi)  cosec ( ax + b ) cot(ax + b)dx = − a cosec ( ax + b ) + C
1
e
ax + b
(xii) dx = eax + b + C
a
5. Integrals of tan x, cot x, sec x, cosec x
f '( x )
 f(x)
dx = log |f(x) | + C

derivative of denominator
i.e.  denominator
dx =log | denominator| + C

6. If g (x) is a continuous and differentiable function, then to evaluate the integral of the form

 f g(x) g '(x)dx, we substitute g(x) = t and g’(x)dx = dt.

The substitution reduces the integral  f  g(x)  g '(x) dx to the form  f (t)dt i.e.
7. When the integrand is of the form tannxsecnx, the following cases arise:
(a) When m is even positive integer, substitute tanx = z.
(b) When n is odd positive integer, substitute secx = z.
8. When the integrand is of the form cotnx cosecmx, the following cases arise:
(a) When m is even positive integer, substitute cosx = z.
(b) When n is odd positive integer, substitute cosec = z
9. When the integrand is of the form sinmx cosnx, the following cases arise:
(a) When m is odd positive integer, substitute cosx = z.
(b) When n is odd positive integer, substitute sinx = z.
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 Engineering Mathematics

10. Important Substitutions

Expression Substitution

➢ a 2 + x2 ➢ x = a tan or x = a cot
➢ a –x 2 2
➢ x = a sin or x = a cos
➢ x –a 2 2
➢ x = a sec or x = a cosec
a−x a+x ➢ x = a cos2
➢ or
a+x a−x

x − ➢ x =  cos2 +  sin2
➢ or ( x −  )( − x )
−x

11. Some standard results derived using substitution method

dx 1 x
a 2
+x 2
= tan −1 + C
a a
[use x = tan or x = cot to derive the result]

dx 1 x+a
x 2
−a 2
= log
2a x −a
+C [use x = a sec or x = cosec to derive the result]

dx 1 a+x
a 2
−x 2
= log
2a a−x
+C [use x = a cos or x = a sin to derive the result]

dx
 x +a
2 2
= log x + x 2 + a 2 + C [use x = a tan or x = cot to derive the result]

dx
 x −a
2 2
= log x + x 2 − a 2 + C [use x = a sec or x = a cosec to derive the result]

dx x
 a −x
2
= sin −1   + C
2
a
[use = x a sin  or x = a cos  to derive the result]

dx1 x
x x −a2
= sec−1 + C
a a2
[use x = a sec or x = a cosec  to derive the result]

x 2 a2
 a 2 + x 2 dx =
2
a + x 2 + log x + a 2 + x 2 + C
2
[Use x = tan  or x = cot  to drive the result]
x 2 a2
 x 2 − a 2 dx =
2
x − a 2 + log x + x 2 − a 2 + C
2
[Use x = sec  or x = cosec  to derive the result]
x 2 a2 x
 a 2 − x 2 dx =
2
a − x 2 + sin −1 + C
2 a
[Use x = sin  or x = cos  to derive the result]

❑❑❑

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