Chapter 8

Development
Learning Outcomes

01 Define terms, stages and processes in conception and development.

02 Describe hormonal controls of conception/pregnancy.

03 Compare implantation types in animals.

04 Identify and explain fetal development.

05 Explain mechanism of labor, parturition and lactation.

 Introduction
• Pregnancy and development consists of 4 main stages:
• Fertilization
• Embryonic
• Fetal development
• Parturition
• Ovaries release the eggs cyclically from the Graafian follicle.
• The fertilized egg is transported to the uterus where it develops into an embryo.
• At the end of gestation, the infant is born through the vagina or surgically through the
abdomen in a cesarean delivery.
 Conception

• Conception is when
sperm and egg meet,
and fertilization occurs.
• Sperm: One of the tiniest
cells in the human body.
• Conception occurs in the
outer third of the
fallopian tube.
• Zygote: Fertilized egg.
 Conception Requirement

• Production of healthy egg and

sperm.
• The fallopian tubes must be
unobstructed and functional to
receive the egg from the ovary
and allow it to meet with the
sperm.
• The sperm ability to penetrate
and fertilize the egg.
• Implantation of embryo into the
uterus.
• A healthy pregnancy.
 Paternal contributions
• Contribution of egg
• mRNA in cytoplasm carries
instructions for early embryo
development.
• Haploid female genome.
• Centriole
• Contribution of sperm
• Haploid male genome.
• Centriole.
• Egg activating substance.
 Conception Factors
Factors that affect the chances of conceiving:
• Age
• Woman aged under 30 years has higher chances of conception
• Time intercourse
• Higher chances if it occurs during the few days before and/or the day of ovulation.
• Sperm’s viability
• sperm live inside a woman’s body for up to 5 days.
• Egg’s viability
• Egg is capable of being fertilized for about the first 12 to 24 hours after ovulation.
 Embryo Development
• Developmental biology is the study of the progress of cells
into complex living organisms.
• Embryology, is a subfield focuses on early stages of cell
development.
• The zygote undergoes a series of mitotic cell divisions
called cleavage.
• Cleavage is a division of cell by mitosis with no significant
growth.
• After fertilization, embryonic development proceeds through:
• Cleavage
• Gastrulation
• Organogenesis
 Cleavage Stages
• A period of rapid cell division without growth.
• Cleavage partitions the cytoplasm of one large cell into many smaller cells called
blastomeres.

2-cell 4-cell 8-cell

Zygote Morula Blastula
stage stage stage
 Cleavage Stages

a) Zygote b) Four-cell stage. c) Morula. d) Blastula.

Fertilized shown here is After further cleavage A single layer of cells

the zygote shortly before divisions, the embryo is a surrounds a large
the first cleavage division. multicellular ball that is still blastocoel cavity.
surrounded by the
fertilization envelope.
 The Embryo
• Developmental stage from the start of cleavage
until the 9th week.
• The embryo first undergoes division without
growth. cleavage
• The embryo enters the uterus at the 16-cell
state.
• The embryo floats free in the uterus temporarily.
• Uterine secretions are used for nourishment.
 The Blastocyst

• Ball-like circle of cells.

• Begins at about the 100 cells
stage.
• Secretes human chorionic
gonadotropin (hCG) to
stimulate the corpus luteum to
continue producing hormones
(progesterone).
• The blastocyst implants in
the wall of the uterus (by day
14).
 Implantation
• hCG stimulates the corpus luteum to continue to secrete progesterone.

• The uterine lining continues to thicken and strengthen and the embryo can implant.

• After 3 months, the corpus luteum degrades and the placenta takes over nourishment of
the embryo.

• Uterine tissues begin to form in the placenta.

• The placenta itself secretes estrogen and progesterone.

 Implantation
• Blastocyst implants (7 days after fertilization).
• Trophoblast, outer epithelium of blastocyst provide
support (does not contribute to embryo).
• Initiate implantation – secrete enzyme
that breakdown endometrium lining.
• Expand region through cell division.
• Inner cell mass of blastocyst form flat disk:
epiblast (upper layer) and hypoblast (lower
layer).
 Sequence of implantation
1. Blastocyst reaches uterus:
 Sequence of implantation
2. Blastocyst implants (7 days after fertilization).
 Sequence of implantation
3. Extraembryonic membranes start to form (10 – 11 days)
4. Gastrulation begins (13 days).
5. Tropoblast continue expand its region by mitosis – form fingerlike
projections into surrounding maternal tissue.
 Sequence of implantation
6. Invasion lead to erosion of capillaries – blood spill out.
7. As implantation completed, gastrulation begins.
8. Cell move inward from epiblast  form endoderm and mesoderm.
9. Extraembryonic membranes begin to form.
 Hormonal Control of Early Pregnancy
• Initially the trophoblast cells secrete hCG.
• Functions of hCG
• Prevents the degeneration of the corpus luteum.
• Stimulates the growth of the corpus luteum
• Increase secretion of both estrogen and progesterone.
• Prevent menstruation.
• Early in pregnancy, the level of hCG increases in the blood and
is eliminated in the urine.
• Therefore, hCG blood or urine are usually used for the detection
Slow rising hCG levels
of early pregnancy.
 Maternal Recognition
• Maternal recognition of pregnancy reflects the various ways in which the mother responds to the
presence of a conceptus within her reproductive tract.
• Must occur before breakdown of corpus luteum (luteolysis)
• This is a process in which some type of signal prevents luteal regression, allowing the corpus
luteum to persist an continue to secrete progesterone.
• # Progesterone creates a healthy uterine lining to support embryo and fetus #
 Gastrulation
• The morphogenetic process called gastrulation.
• Rearranges the cells of a blastula into a three- layered embryo (ectoderm,
mesoderm and endoderm) called as gastrula, that has a primitive gut/digestive tube.
• Although differs in detail from one animal to another, the process is driven by the same
general mechanisms in all species.
 Gastrulation
The three layers produced by gastrulation.
• Are called embryonic germ layers.
• The ectoderm
• Forms the outer layer of the gastrula.
• The mesoderm
• Partly fills the space between the
endoderm and ectoderm.
• The endoderm
• Lines the embryonic digestive tract.
 Gastrulation
• Gastrulation produced three-layered embryo
with four extraembryonic membranes.
• Invading tropoblast, mesodermal cells derived
from epiblast and adjacent endometrial tissue
 Placenta.
• Four extraembryonic membranes:
• Amnion
• Chorion
• Yolk sac
• Allantois
 Development After Implantation

• Chorionic villi (projections of the

blastocyst) develop
• Cooperate with the cells of the
uterus to form the placenta.
• The embryo is surrounded by the
amnion (a fluid filled sac).
• An umbilical cord forms to attach
the embryo to the placenta.
 Defects In Gastrulation

Meningohydroencephalocoele - a developmental Sirenomelia - Mermaid Syndrome, is a

abnormality of the central nervous system. rare congenital deformity in which the
legs are fused together, giving them the
appearance of a mermaid's tail.
Ectopic Pregnancy
Ectopic Pregnancy
 Organogenesis
• Organogenesis refers the process of the organs formation.
• (Organo = organs, genesis = creation)
• Arises from the layering of cells that occurs during gastrula stage, developing embryo.
• Endoderm - the innermost layer.
• I n v o l v e s i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f the gut (digestive system).
• Mesoderm - in the middle.
• goes on to form the muscle, circulatory system, blood and many different organs.
• Ectoderm - the outermost.
• associated with the formation of the skin and nervous system.
 Organogenesis
ECTODERM MESODERM ENDODERM
• Epidermis of skin and its • Notochord • Epithelial lining of digestive
derivatives (including sweat • Skeletal system tract
glands, hair follicles) • Muscular system • Epithelial lining of
• Epithelial lining of mouth • Muscular layer of stomach, respiratory system
and rectum intestine, etc. • Lining of urethra, urinary
• Sense receptors in • Excretory system bladder and reproductive
epidermis • Circulatory and lymphatic system
• Cornea and lens of eye systems • Liver
• Nervous system • Reproductive system (except • Pancreas
• Adrenal medulla germ cells) • Thymus
• Tooth enamel • Dermis of skin • Thyroid and parathyroid
• Epithelium or pineal and • Lining of body cavity glands
pituitary glands • Adrenal cortex
 Development of The Placenta
• The placenta is the site of nutrient, gas
and waste exchange.
• Secretes hormones that maintain
pregnancy.
• Develops from the embryonic chorion
and maternal uterine tissue.
• Chorionic villi are formed from the
chorion and project into the endometrium
of the uterus.
• Umbilical cord, containing two umbilical
arteries and one umbilical vein connect
the embryo and the placenta.
 The Embryo and Its Support Systems
• Placenta
• An organ formed on the wall of the uterus via
which the fetus receives oxygen, nutrients and get
rid of waste products.
• Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
• A hormone secreted by the placenta.
• It is the substance detected in pregnancy tests.
• Umbilical cord
• The tube that connects the fetus to the placenta.
• Amniotic fluid
• The fluid surrounding a developing fetus in the
uterus.
 Function of the Placenta
• Forms a barrier betweenmother and embryo.
• Delivers nutrients and oxygen.
• Removes waste from embryonic blood.
• Becomes an endocrine organ (produces hormones) and takes over from corpus luteum
• Estrogen.
• Progesterone.
• Other hormones that maintain pregnancy.
 Development of The Conceptus
• Nine months of pregnancy are divided into 3 equal periods of three months known as
trimesters.
• First trimester: months 1 - 3
• Second trimester: months 4 - 6
• Third trimester: months 7 - 9
Harmful agents cause
minor birth defect to
each organ and
structure

Harmful agents cause

major birth defect to
each organ and
structure.
Embryonic Development Timeline
 First Trimester
• First trimester : main period of organogenesis.
• Embryo’s body structure begin to differentiate.
• 2-4th week – Embryo obtain nutrients directly from endometrium.
• Splitting embryo during 1st month result in identical twins (monozygotic).
• Development into a fetus with most of the major organ systems presents.
• 4-6th week – External body parts development.
• Heart begin beating at 4th week and heartbeat can be detected at 8-10 weeks.
• During organogenesis, embryo is most susceptible to damage (eg: radiation, drug) –
birth defects.
First Trimester
First Trimester
 First Trimester
• The Fetus (Beginning of the 9th week).
• All organ systems are formed by the end of the 8th week.
• Embryo → fetus
• 7 week - liver, lung, pancreas, kidneys and intestines have formed but with limited
functioning.
• End of 12th week - 10 cm long; weights 19 grams.
 Second Trimester

• Quickening occurs - women becomes aware of

fetal movements.

• Around the end of the 4th week.

• Fetal heart beat can be detected.

• Fetus open its eyes.

• Fetus grow to about 30cm length.
 Third Trimester

• Fetus’s skin is wrinkled & covered with

downlike hair.
• Fetus turns in uterus to assume a head-
down position.
• Fetus experiences rapid growth.
 Physical Changes
First Trimester (1-3)
• Large increase in level of hormones.

• Breasts swell: Development of

mammary glands.

• Need to urinate.

• Morning sickness.

• Vaginal discharges may increase.

• Feelings of fatigue and sleepiness.
 Physiological Changes
First Trimester (1-3)

• Gastrointestinal system.
• Morning sickness is common due to
elevated progesterone.
• Heartburn is common because of organ
crowding by the fetus.
• Constipation is caused by declining
motility of the digestive tract.
 Physiological Changes
First Trimester (1-3)
• Cardiovascular System
• Body water rises.
• Blood volume increases by 25-40%.
• Blood pressure and pulse increase.
• Varicose veins are common.
• Urinary system
• Kidney have additional burden and produce
more urine.
• The uterus compresses the bladder.
 Physiological Changes
Second Trimester (4-6)
• Morning sickness disappears.
• Constipation and nosebleeds
sometimes occur.
• Edema - water retention and swelling.
• Colostrum may come out of the nipple.
• Depression higher in some studies.
 Body Changes During Pregnancy

• Pregnancy: Period from conception until

birth.
• Anatomical changes
• Enlargements of uterus.
• Lumbar curvature.
• Relaxation of the pelvic ligaments
and pubic.
 Changes to the Mother's Body During
Pregnancy
• Physical Changes
• The presence of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) in the blood and urine.
• Missed menstrual period.
• Implantation bleeding (occurs at implantation of the embryo in the uterus during the
third or fourth week after last menstrual period).
• Increased basal body temperature sustained for over 2 weeks after ovulation.
• Metabolic Changes
• Protein and carbohydrate metabolisms.
 Labor (Parturition)
• The physiological process by
which the pregnant uterus
delivers the fetus and placenta
from the maternal organism.
• Consists of 3 main stages
• Cervical dilation.
• Delivery of the baby.
• Delivery of the placenta.
Labor (Parturition)
 Parturition
• Labor is the series of events that
expel the infant from the uterus.
• Initiation of labor:
• Estrogen levels rise.
• Uterine contractions begin
• The placenta release
prostaglandins
• Oxytocin is released by the
pituitary.
• Combination of these hormones
produces contraction.
 Labor (Parturition)
1st stage labor
• Regular contractions of uterus
muscle.
• Effacement- shortening and
thickening of cervix.
• Dilation.
• Divided into 3 stages
• Early 1st - stage labor (0-5 cm)
• Late 1st- stage labor (5- 8 cm).
• Transition phase (8- 10 cm).
 Labor (Parturition)
2nd stage labor: Delivery
• Begins when cervix is fully dilated.
• Urge to push or bear down.
• Crowning:
• Top of head is visible.
• Episiotomy may be performed.
• Surgical incision of the perineum to
enlarge the vagina and so facilitate
delivery during childbirth.
• Baby is born.
 Labor (Parturition)
Expulsion
• Infant passes via the cervix and vagina.
• Normal delivery is head first. The fetus is delivered by powerful contractions of the
uterine muscle.
• The umbilicus is squeezed and cut or tied off by the physician.

3rd stage: Expulsion of Placenta.

• Delivery of the placenta.
• The obstetrician may then inject the mother with oxytocin to cause powerful
contractions of the uterus to expel the placenta or merely pull the placental membranes
out.
Parturition
Complications
Placenta Previa
Umbilical
Cord
Prolapse
 Cesarean Section
• A method of delivering a
baby surgically, by an
incision in the abdomen.
• Reasons to have a C-section:
• Baby is too large, mother’s
pelvis is to small.
• Cervix not dilating.
• Umbilical cord prolapses.
• Excessive bleeding.
• Placenta previa
 Lactation
• Mammary glands provides milk to nurse
the infant (lactation) after birth.
• Enlargement of mammary gland consists
of glands, ducts, and lobes contain glandular
alveoli that produce milk.
• Prolactin stimulates milk production.
• Oxytocin stimulate breasts to eject milk.