Mobile Radio

Propagation and
Modeling 10
10.1 Introduction
The design of spectrally efficient wireless communication system requires a detailed understanding
of the radio propagation environment. The characteristics of the radio channel vary greatly with
the operating frequency, and the mode of propagation, for example, line-of-sight (LoS) radio
links, diffraction/scatter, and satellite links. The emphasis is on land mobile radio channels that
are typical of terrestrial cellular mobile radio systems. A typical cellular radio system consists of
a collection of fixed base stations (BSs) that define the radio coverage areas or cells. The height
and placement of the BS antennas affects the proximity of local scatterers at the BS. A non-
line-of-sight (NLoS) radio propagation path exists between a BS and mobile station (MS) due to
natural and man-made objects between the BS and MS. As a consequence the radio waves must
propagate via reflections, diffraction, and scattering. Plane waves arrive in different directions
and delays at MS as shown in Figure 10.1. This property is called multipath propagation. The
mobile radio channel is characterized by two types of fading, large-scale fading and small-scale
fading. Large-scale fading is the slow variation of the mean signal power over time. This depends
on the presence of obstacles in the signal path and in the position of mobile unit. The small-scale
fading is a flat fading, that is, there is no inter-symbol interference.

10.2 Basics of mobile radio propagation

The carrier wavelength used in Ultra High Frequency (UHF) mobile radio applications typically
range from 15 to 60 cm. Therefore, small changes in the differential propagation delays due
to MS mobility will cause large changes in the phases of the individually arriving plane waves.
Hence, the plane waves arriving at the MS and BS antennas will experience constructive and
destructive addition depending on the location of the MS. If there is mobility in the MS or if there
are changes in the scattering environment, the spatial variations in the amplitude and phase of
the composite received signal will manifest themselves as time variations, a phenomenon called
envelope fading. This depends on the velocity of MS.
Radio channels are reciprocal in the sense that, if a propagation path exists, it carries energy
equally well in both directions. However, the spatial distribution of arriving plane waves may be
significantly different in each direction. An MS in a typical macrocellular environment is usually
surrounded by local scatterers and the plane waves will arrive from many directions without
a direct LoS component. Two-dimensional isotropic scattering where the arriving plane waves
236 Mobile Cellular Communication

Local scatterers

Waves
Mobile subscriber

Base station Reflectors

Figure 10.1 Typical macrocellular radio propagation environment

arrive in from all directions with equal probability is a very commonly used scattering model for
the forward channel in a macrocellular system.
The BSs in macrocells are relatively free from local scatterers so that the plane waves tend to
arrive from one direction with a fairly small angle of arrival. In a microcellular environment, the
BS antennas are often placed below the skyline of buildings and are surrounded by local scatterers,
such that the plane waves will arrive at the BS with a larger angle of arrival. Not all times do LoS
paths exist between MS and BS. In such cases, often there exists a dominant reflected or diffracted
path between the MS and the BS.
At frequencies below 1 GHz, antennas normally consist of a wire or wires of a suitable
length coupled to the transmitter via a transmission line. At these frequencies it is relatively
easy to design an assembly of wire radiators which form an array so as to beam the radiation in a
particular direction. For distances large in comparison with the wavelength and the dimensions
of the array, the field strength in free space decreases with an increase in distance. A plot of the
field strength as a function of spatial angle is known as the radiation pattern of the antenna.
Antennas can be designed to have radiation patterns which are not omni directional, and it
is convenient to have a figure of merit to quantify the ability of the antenna to concentrate the
radiated energy in a particular direction. The directivity D of an antenna is defined as

Power density at a distance in the direction of maximum radiation

D= (10.1)
Mean power density at a distance d

This is a measure of the extent to which the power density in the direction of maximum
radiation exceeds the average power density at the same distance. The directivity involves
knowing the power actually transmitted by the antenna and this differs from the power supplied
at the terminals by the losses in the antenna itself. From the system designer’s viewpoint, it is
more convenient to work in terms of terminal power. Power gain G is defined as

Power density at a distance d in the direction of maximum radiation (10.2)

G=
PT / 4p d 2

where PT is the power supplied to the antenna.

 Mobile Radio Propagation and Modeling 237

So, given PT and G, it is possible to calculate the power density at any point in the far field
that lies in the direction of maximum radiation. The power gain is unity for an isotropic antenna,
that is, one which radiates uniformly in all directions, and an alternative definition of power
gain is therefore the ratio of power density, from the specified antenna, at a given distance in
the direction of maximum radiation, to the power density at the same point, from an isotropic
antenna which radiates the same power.

10.3 Free-space propagation model

The power received by an antenna that is separated from a transmitter antenna by a distance d in
free space is given by the Friis free-space equation

2
Pt Gt Gr l 2 ⎛ l ⎞
Pr ( d ) = = P0 ⎜ ⎟ (10.3)
( 4p ) d 2
2
⎝ 4p d ⎠

where
Pr(d) = received power, which is a function of d
Pt = transmitted power
P0 = PtGtGr
Gt = transmitter antenna gain
Gr = receiver antenna gain
d = transmitter to receiver separation in metres
λ = wavelength in metres
EIRP = PtGt
Free-space gain is defined as

2
⎛ l ⎞ 1
GFS = ⎜ ⎟ = (10.4)
⎝ 4p d ⎠ PLFS

where PLFS is the free-space path loss and usually expressed in decibels:

⎛ 4p d ⎞
PLFS ( dB ) = 20 log ⎜ ⎟ ( dB )
⎝ l ⎠
⎛d ⎞
= PL ( d0 ) + 20 log ⎜ ⎟ (10.5)
⎝ d0 ⎠

where, d0 is a reference distance for PL(d0).

10.3.1 Path-loss model in obstructed environments

In obstructed environments, the path loss is often modelled as

⎛d ⎞
PL ( d ) = PL ( d0 ) + 10n log ⎜ ⎟ (10.6)
⎝ d0 ⎠
238 Mobile Cellular Communication

Table 10.1 Path-loss exponents for various environments

Environment Path-loss exponent, n

Free space 2
Urban area cellular radio 2.7–3.5
Shadowed urban cellular radio 3–5
In building LoS 1.6–1.8
Obstructed in building 4–6
Obstructed in factories 2–3

Where the first term is the free-space path loss at a reference distance d0 and the path loss
exponent n is empirically obtained by using a fitting curve from the measured data. Table 10.1
shows the typical path-loss exponents obtained in various mobile radio environments.

10.3.2 Log-normal shadowing

When measured path losses are plotted on a graph, the data points at a given distance show
deviation due to the vastly different surrounding environment for each measurement. The
measured path loss PL(d) at a particular location is log-normally distributed (normal in decibels)
about the mean distance path loss and is expressed as

PL (d ) = P L (d ) + Xs (10.7)

where Xs is a zero mean Gaussian distributed random variable (in decibels) with a standard
deviation s2(in decibels).

Example problem 10.1

If 100 W is applied to a unit gain antenna with a 600 MHz carrier frequency, find the received
power in dBm at a free-space distance of 200 m from the antenna. What is Pr(10 km)? Assume
unity gain for the receiver antenna.

Solution

Given:
Transmitter power Pt = 100 W
Carrier frequency fc = 600 MHz
Transmitter antenna gain Gt = 1
Receiver antenna gain Gr = 1
Transmitter to receiver separation in metres (d) = 200 m
The received power can be determined
 Mobile Radio Propagation and Modeling 239

Pt Gt Gr l2
Pr ( d ) =
(4p )2 d 2

c 3 × 108 m/s
l= = = 0.5 m
f 600 MHz

100(1)(1)(0.5)2
Pr ( d ) = = 3.95 × 10 −3 mW
(4p )2 (200)2

Pr (dBm) = 10logPr (mW) = 10log(3.95 × 10 −3 mW) = −24.03 dBm

The received power at 10 km can be expressed in terms of dBm using equation

d
Pr ( d ) = Pr ( d0 ) + 10n log( )
d0

where d0 = 200 m and d = 10 km

⎛ 200 ⎞
Pr (10 km) = Pr (200) + 20 log ⎜ = −24.03 dBm − 33.979 dBm = −58 dBm
⎝ 10,000 ⎟⎠

Example problem 10.2

Assume a receiver is located 20 km from a 100 W transmitter. The carrier frequency is 1,000 MHz,
free-space propagation is assumed, Gt = 1, and Gr = 3, Find the power at the receiver.

Solution

Given:
Transmitter power Pt = 100W
Carrier frequency fc = 600MHz
Transmitter antenna gain Gt = 1
Receiver antenna gain Gr = 3
Transmitter to receiver separation in metres (d) = 20 km
The received power can be determined

c 3 × 108 m/s
l= = = 0.3 m
f 1,000 MHz

Pt Gt Gr l2 100 × 1 × 3 × (0.3)2
Pr (dBm) = 10log = 10log( ) = −93.69 dBm
2 2
(4p ) d (4p )2 × (20,000)2

10.3.3 Direct propagation

When there exists a visible straight path between the BS antenna and the mobile terminal
antenna and no other multipath component exists as shown in Figure 10.2, the received signal
power attenuation conforms to free-space propagation. This direct signal component is called
240 Mobile Cellular Communication

LoS component

Figure 10.2 Direct propagation

as a LoS component. If the received signal has only the LoS component, it does not experience
multipath fading. However, there always exist multipath components other than the LoS
component between the transmitter and the receiver in real terrestrial communication systems.
Under real propagation conditions, various terrestrial objects such as mountains, buildings, and
hills frequently block the LoS component.

10.3.4 Refraction
A radio wave transmitted into ionized layers is always bent. This bending of radio waves is
called refraction. Consider the radio wave, shown in Figure 10.3, travelling through the earth’s
atmosphere at a constant speed. As the wave enters the denser layer of charged ions, its upper
portion moves faster than its lower portion. The abrupt speed increase in the upper part of the
wave causes it to bend back towards the earth. This bending is always towards the propagation
medium where the radio wave’s velocity is the least.
The amount of refraction a radio wave undergoes depends on three main factors:

1. The ionization density of the layer

2. The frequency of the radio wave
3. The angle at which the radio wave enters the layer

Layer density
Figure 10.4 shows the relationship between radio waves and ionization density. Each ionized
layer has a middle region of relatively dense ionization with less intensity above and below. As
a radio wave enters a region of increasing ionization, a velocity increase causes it to bend back
towards the earth. In the highly dense middle region, refraction occurs more slowly because the

Ionosphere

F1
F2 E

A
B Earth B

Figure 10.3 Radio wave reflection

 Mobile Radio Propagation and Modeling 241

Decreasing
Ionization
Maximum
Ionization
Increasing
Ionization

Transmitter site Receiver site

Figure 10.4 Effects of ionospheric density on radio waves

ionization density is uniform. As the wave enters the upper less dense region, the velocity of the
upper part of the wave decreases and the wave is bent away from the earth.

Frequency
The lower the frequency of a radio wave, the more rapidly the wave is refracted by a given
degree of ionization. Figure 10.5 shows three separate waves of differing frequencies entering
the ionosphere at the same angle. You can see that the 5-MHz wave is refracted quite sharply
while the 20-MHz wave is refracted less sharply and returns to earth at a greater distance than
the 5-MHz wave.
Notice that the 100-MHz wave is lost into space. For any given ionized layer, there is a
frequency, called the escape point, at which energy transmitted directly upward will escape into
space. The maximum frequency just below the escape point is called the critical frequency. In
this example, the 100-MHz wave’s frequency is greater than the critical frequency for that ionized
layer.

100 MHz
Ionosphere

20 MHz
5 MHz

Figure 10.5 Frequency versus refraction and distance

242 Mobile Cellular Communication

The critical frequency of a layer depends upon the layer’s density. If a wave passes through a
particular layer, it may still be refracted by a higher layer if its frequency is lower than the higher
layer’s critical frequency.

Angle of incidence and critical angle

When a radio wave encounters a layer of the ionosphere, that wave is returned to earth at the
same angle (nearly) as its angle of incidence. The angle of incidence beyond which the wave escapes
into space is called critical angle. The critical angle for radio waves depends on the layer density
and the wavelength of the signal. Figure 10.6 shows three radio waves of the same frequency
entering a layer at different incidence angles. In Figure 10.6, the angle of incidence of wave B
is shown as critical angle. We can observe that wave A, whose angle of incidence is more than
critical angle is lost into space and wave C, whose angle of incidence is less than critical angle is
refracted to earth.
As the frequency of a radio wave is increased, the critical angle must be reduced for refraction
to occur. Notice in Figure 10.7 that the 2-MHz wave strikes the ionosphere at the critical angle for
that frequency and is refracted. Although the 5-MHz line (broken line) strikes the ionosphere at
a less critical angle, it still penetrates the layer and is lost as the angle is lowered, a critical angle
is finally reached for the 5-MHz wave and it is refracted back to earth.

Ionosphere
B C
A

Critical
angle
Earth

Figure 10.6 Incidence angles of radio waves

5 MHz wave
not refracted

Ionosphere

Critical angle 2 MHz wave Critical angle 5 MHz

wave
Ground wave

Earth

Figure 10.7 Effect of frequency on the critical angle

 Mobile Radio Propagation and Modeling 243

Ionosphere

Sky wave

Ground wave

Skip zone

Skip distance

Figure 10.8 Relationship among skip zone, skip distance, and ground wave

10.3.5 Skip distance and zone

Recall from the previous study that a transmitted radio wave separates into two parts, the sky
wave and the ground wave. With those two components in mind, we will now briefly discuss skip
distance and skip zone.

Skip distance
Look at the relationship among the sky wave skip distance, skip zone, and ground wave coverage
as shown in Figure 10.8. The skip distance is the distance from the transmitter to the point where
the sky wave first returns to the earth. The skip distance depends on the wave’s frequency and
angle of incidence, and the degree of ionization.

Skip zone
The skip zone is a zone of silence between the point where the ground wave is too weak for
reception and the point where the sky wave is first returned to earth. The outer limit of the skip
zone varies considerably, depending on the operating frequency, the time of day, the season
of the year, sunspot activity, and the direction of transmission. At very-low, low, and medium
frequencies, a skip zone is never present.
However, in the high frequency spectrum, a skip zone is often present. As the operating
frequency is increased, the skip zone widens to a point where the outer limit of the skip zone
might be several thousand miles away. At frequencies above a certain maximum, the outer limit
of the skip zone disappears completely, and no F-layer propagation is possible. Occasionally, the
first sky wave will return to earth within the range of the ground wave. In this case, severe fading
can result from the phase difference between the two waves (the sky wave has a longer path to
follow).

10.3.6 Reflection
Reflection occurs when radio waves are “bounced” from a flat surface. There are basically two
types of reflection that occur in the atmosphere: earth reflection and ionospheric reflection.
Figure 10.9 shows two waves reflected from the earth’s surface.
244 Mobile Cellular Communication

Reflected A
radio waves

Earth surface

Figure 10.9 Phase shift of reflected radio waves

Waves A and B bounce off the earth’s surface like light off of a mirror. Notice that the positive
and negative alternations of radio waves A and B are in phase before they strike the earth’s surface.
However, after reflection the radio waves are approximately 180° out of phase. The amount of
phase shift that occurs is not constant. It varies, depending on the wave polarization and the
angle at which the wave strikes the surface.
Normally, radio waves reflected in phase produce stronger signals, while those reflected
out of phase produce a weak or fading signal. Ionospheric reflection occurs when certain radio
waves strike a thin, highly ionized layer in the ionosphere. Although the radio waves are actually
refracted, some may be bent back so rapidly that they appear to be reflected. For ionospheric
reflection to occur, the highly ionized layer can be approximately no thicker than one wavelength
of the wave. Since the ionized layers are often several miles thick, ionospheric reflection mostly
occurs at long wavelengths (low frequencies).
The reflected path between BS antenna and the mobile terminal antenna is shown in
Figure 10.10.

10.3.7 Diffraction
Diffraction is the ability of radio waves to turn sharp corners and bend around obstacles. Figure
10.11 shows the diffraction results in a change of direction of part of the radio-wave energy
around the edges of an obstacle. Radio waves with long wavelengths compared to the diameter
of an obstruction are easily propagated around the obstruction.
 Mobile Radio Propagation and Modeling 245

BS

Mobile terminal
LoS Component antenna

Ground plane

Figure 10.10 Reflection

However, as the wavelength decreases, the obstruction causes more and more attenuation,
until at very-high frequencies a definite shadow zone develops. The shadow zone is basically a
blank area on the opposite side of an obstruction in LoS from the transmitter to the receiver as
shown in Figure 10.11(b). Diffraction can extend the radio range beyond the horizon. By using
high power and low-frequencies, radio waves can be made to encircle the earth by diffraction.
Direct propagation is shown in Figure 10.12.

10.3.8 Scattering
Scattering occurs when the wave travels through or reflected from an object with dimensions
smaller than the wavelength. If the surface of the scattering object is random, the signal energy

Transmitter
Shadow zone

(a) Top view

Shadow
zone

Transmitter Receiver
(b) Side view

Figure 10.11 Diffraction around an object

246 Mobile Cellular Communication

Building

Diffraction

Figure 10.12 Direct propagation

Random surface

Figure 10.13 Scattering

is scattered in many directions as shown in Figure 10.13. Rough surfaces, small objects, or other
irregularities in the channel cause scattering.

10.4 Link budget design

A calculation of signal powers, noise powers, and/or signal-to-noise ratios for a complete
communication link is a link budget, and it is a useful approach to the basic design of a complete
communication system. Such calculations are usually fairly simple, but they can give very
revealing information as to the system performance, provided appropriately accurate assumptions
are made in calculating the individual elements of the link budget.
The maximum acceptable path loss is usually split into two components:

1. Distance-dependent path-loss model

2. Fade margin, which is included to allow the system some resilience against the practical
effects of signal fading beyond the value predicted by the model.

Thus,
Maximum acceptable propagation loss (dB) = Predicted loss + Fade margin
The greater the fade margin, the greater the reliability and quality of the system, but this will
constrain the maximum system range. The path loss relates the transmit and received powers
assuming no transmitter/receiver loss or gain (between isotropic antennas), that is,

L(dB) = 10log(Pt/pr) (10.8)

 Mobile Radio Propagation and Modeling 247

The path loss can be split into the sum of the free-space loss and the so-called excess loss,

L(dB) = Lfs + Lexcess (10.9)

where the excess loss is given by,

Lexcess(dB) = 20log(e0/e) (10.10)

where e0 is the field strength at the received antenna under free-space conditions and e is the
actual field strength both in linear units (V/m).
So far we have assumed that the link does not contain gains or losses other than the path
loss. If the gains and losses at both ends of the link are taken into account, the received power is
given by

pt g t g r
pr =
ltllr
(10.11)

given in linear units or, in logarithmic units,

Pr (dBW or dBm) = Pt + Gt + Gr − Lt − L − Lr (10.12)

where lt, or alternatively, Lt when using dB, is the loss at the transmit side, for example, cables,
etc., and gt (Gt) is the transmit antenna gain.
A frequently used parameter for describing the radiated power is the EIRP (equivalent
isotropic radiated power) defined as

EIRP = Ptgt/lt (10.13)

in linear units or, in dB,

EIRP = Pt + Gt − Lt (10.14)

Link budgets are usually computed in terms of the received power.

10.5 Propagation models

A propagation model, is an empirical mathematical formulation for the characterization of radio
wave propagation as a function of frequency, distance, and other conditions. A single model
is usually developed to predict the behavior of propagation for all similar links under similar
constraints. The following are two types of propagation models:

1. Outdoor propagation models

2. Indoor propagation models

10.5.1 Outdoor propagation models

There are many empirical outdoor propagation models such as Longley–Rice model, Durkin’s
model, Okumura model, Hata model, and so on. Longley–Rice model is the most commonly
used model within a frequency band of 40 MHz to 100 GHz over different terrains. Certain
248 Mobile Cellular Communication

modifications over the rudimentary model like an extra urban factor (UF) due to urban clutter
near the receiver are also included in this model. Below, we discuss some of the outdoor models,
followed by a few indoor models too.

[Link] Okumura model

The Okumura model is a radio propagation model used in urban areas for signal prediction. The
frequency coverage of this model is in the range 200–1,900 MHz and at distances of 1–100 km.
It can be applicable for BS effective antenna heights (ht) ranging from 30 to 1,000 m. Okumura
used extensive measurements of base station-to-mobile signal attenuation throughout Tokyo to
develop a set of curves giving median attenuation relative to free space (Amu) of signal propagation
in irregular terrain. The empirical pathloss formula of Okumura at distance d parameterized by
the carrier frequency fc is given by

PL (d ) dB = L ( f c , d ) + Amu ( f c , d ) − G (ht ) − G (hr ) − GAREA (10.15)

where L(fc, d) is free-space path loss at distance d and carrier frequency fc, Amu(fc, d) is the median
attenuation in addition to free-space path loss across all environments, G(ht) is the BS antenna
height gain factor, G(hr) is the mobile antenna height gain factor, GAREA is the gain due to type
of environment. The values of Amu (fc, d) and GAREA are obtained from Okumura’s empirical plots.
Okumura-derived empirical formulas for G(ht) and G(hr) are as follows:

G ( ht ) = 20 log10 ( ht / 200 ) , 30 < ht < 1,000 (10.16)

G ( hr ) = 10 log10 ( hr / 3) , hr ≤ 3 m (10.17)

G ( hr ) = 20 log10 ( hr / 3) , 3 < hr < 10 m (10.18)

Correlation factors related to terrain are also developed in order to improve the models
accuracy. Okumura’s model has a 10–14 dB empirical standard deviation between the path loss
predicted by the model and the path loss associated with one of the measurements used to
develop the model.

[Link] Hata model

The Hata model is an empirical formulation of the graphical path-loss data provided by Okumura,
and is valid from 150 to 1,500 MHz. The standard Hata formula for median path loss in urban
area is given by

PL50 (urban )(dB) = 69.55 + 29.16 log f c − 13.82 log hte − a (hre ) + (44.9 − 6.55log hte ) log d (10.19)

where
fc = Frequency in (MHz) from 150 to 1,500 MHz
hte = Effective transmitter (base station) antenna height (in metres) ranging from 30 to 200 m
hre = Effective receiver (mobile) antenna height (in metres) ranging from 1 to 10 m
d = Tx–Rx separation distance (in kilometres)
a(hre) = Correction factor for effective mobile antenna height
 Mobile Radio Propagation and Modeling 249

For a small-to-medium sized city, the mobile antenna correction factor is given by

a (hre ) = (1.1log f c − 0.7) hre − (1.56 log f c − 0.8) dB (10.20)

and for a large city, it is given by

a (hre ) = 8.29 (log1.54hre ) − 1.1 dB

2
if 150 ≤ f c ≤ 200 MHz (10.21)

a (hre ) = 3.2 (log11.75hre ) − 4.97 dB

2
if 200 ≤ f c ≤ 1500 MHz (10.22)

For the path loss in a suburban area, the standard Hata formula is modified as

PL50 ( dB ) = PL50 ( Urban ) − 2 ⎡⎣log ( f c / 28 ) ⎤⎦ − 5.4

2

(10.23)

and for path loss in open rural areas, the formula is modified as

PL50 ( dB ) = PL50 ( Urban ) − 4.78 ( log f c ) − 18.33 log f c − 40.98

2
(10.24)

[Link] PCS extension to Hata model

The European Co-operative for Scientific and Technical research (EURO-COST) organized the
COST-231 working committee to develop an extension version of Hata model to cover the
PCS bands, forming a Hata model version that is valid to 2,000 MHz [Eur91]:

PL50 (Urban )(dB) = 46.3 + 33.9 log f c − 13.82 log hre − a (hre )
(10.25)

where, fc = 1,500–2,000 MHz

hte = 30–200 m
hre = 1–10 m
d = 1–20 km
CM = 0 dB for medium-sized city and suburban areas
3 dB for metropolitan centers

Example problem 10.3

If the heights of transmitting and receiving antennas are 40m and 3m respectively over a distance
of 15 km in a dense urban mobile environment determine the propagation path loss for a radio
signal at 900 MHz using Hata propagation path-loss model. If the free-space propagation path
loss is 110.5 dB for the given system parameters, how is Hata propagation path loss comparable
with that of free-space propagation path loss?
250 Mobile Cellular Communication

Solution

Frequency of transmission, fc = 900 MHz (given)

Transmitting antenna height, hte = 40 m (given)
Receiving antenna height, hre = 3 m (given)
Distance between Tx and Rx, d = 15 km (given)
To find propagation path loss, PL (dB) using Hata model
The propagation path loss using Hata propagation path-loss model is given by
PL (dB) = 69.55 + 29.16 log fc − 13.82 log hte + (44.9 − 6.55 log hte) log d
PL (dB) = 69.55 + 29.16 log 900 − 13.82 log 40 + (44.9 − 6.55 log 40) log 15 = 174.020 dB
To comparison PL (dB) with free-space propagation path loss
Free-space propagation path loss, Lf (dB) = 110.5 dB (given)
Difference between two path loss values = 174.05 − 110.5 = 63.520 dB

10.5.2 Indoor propagation models

The indoor radio channel differs from the traditional mobile radio channel in different ways –
the distances covered are much smaller, and the variability of the environment is much greater
for smaller range of Tx–Rx separation distances. Features such as lay-out of the building, the
construction materials, and the building type strongly influence the propagation within the
building. Indoor radio propagation is dominated by the same mechanisms as outdoor: reflection,
diffraction, and scattering with variable conditions. In general, indoor channels may be classified
as either LoS or obstructed.

Partition losses inside a floor (Intra-floor)

The internal and external structure of a building formed by partitions and obstacles vary widely.
Partitions that are formed as a part of building structure are called hard partitions , and partitions
that can be moved and which do not span to the ceiling are called soft partitions. Partitions vary
widely in their physical and electrical characteristics, making it difficult to apply general models
to specific indoor installations.

Partition losses between floors (Inter-floor)

The losses between floors of a building are determined by the external dimensions and materials
of the building, as well as the type of construction used to create the floors and the external
surroundings. Even the number of windows in a building and the presence of tinting can impact
the loss between floors.

Log-distance path-loss model

It has been observed that indoor path loss obeys the distance power law given by

PL ( dB ) = PL ( d0 ) + 10n log10 ( d / d0 ) + Xs
(10.26)
where n is path loss exponent depends on the building and surrounding type, and Xs represents
a normal random variable in dB having standard deviation of s dB.

10.5.3 Multipath propagation

In wireless telecommunications, multipath is the propagation phenomenon that results in
radio signals reaching the receiving antenna by two or more paths. Causes of multipath include
 Mobile Radio Propagation and Modeling 251

atmospheric ducting, ionospheric reflection and refraction, and reflection from water bodies and
terrestrial objects such as mountains and buildings. The effects of multipath include constructive
and destructive interference, and phase shifting of the signal. In digital radio communications
(such as GSM) multipath can cause errors and affect the quality of communications.

10.5.4 Small-scale fading and multipath

Multipath signals are received in a terrestrial environment, that is, where different forms of
propagation are present and the signals arrive at the receiver from transmitter via a variety of
paths. Therefore, there would be multipath interference, causing multipath fading. Adding the
effect of movement of either Tx or Rx or the surrounding clutter to it, the received overall signal
amplitude or phase changes over a small amount of time. Mainly this causes the fading.

Fading
The term fading, or, small-scale fading, means rapid fluctuations of the amplitudes, phases, or
multipath delays of a radio signal over a short period or short travel distance. This might be so
severe that large scale radio propagation loss effects might be ignored.

Multipath fading effects

In principle, the following are the main multipath effects:

1. Rapid changes in signal strength over a small travel distance or time interval.
2. Random frequency modulation due to varying Doppler shifts on different multipath signals.
3. Time dispersion or echoes caused by multipath propagation delays.

Factors influencing fading

The following physical factors influence small-scale fading in the radio propagation channel:

• Multipath propagation: Multipath is the propagation phenomenon that results in radio

signals reaching the receiving antenna by two or more paths. The effects of multipath include
constructive and destructive interference, and phase shifting of the signal.
• Speed of the mobile: The relative motion between the BS and the mobile results in random
frequency modulation due to different Doppler shifts on each of the multipath components.
• Speed of surrounding objects: If objects in the radio channel are in motion, they induce
a time varying Doppler shift on multipath components. If the surrounding objects move at
a greater rate than the mobile, then this effect dominates fading.
• Transmission bandwidth of the signal: If the transmitted radio signal bandwidth is
greater than the bandwidth of the multipath channel (quantified by coherence bandwidth),
the received signal will be distorted.

10.5.5 Small-scale multipath measurements

A wideband pulsed bistatic radar usually transmits a repetitive pulse of width Tbb s, and uses
a receiver with a wide bandpass filter (BW = 2/Tbb Hz). The signal is then amplified, envelope
detected, and displayed and stored on a high-speed oscilloscope. Immediate measurements of
the square of the channel impulse response convolved with the probing pulse can be taken. If
the oscilloscope is set on averaging mode, then this system provides a local average power delay
profile. The system set-up is shown in Figure 10.14.
This system is subject to interference noise. If the first arriving signal is blocked or fades,
severe fading occurs, and it is possible that the system may not trigger properly.
252 Mobile Cellular Communication

TREP

Tbb

Switch Tx

fc Pulse generator

where Tbb = pulse width

TREP = Pulse repetition duration

Rx BW = 2/Tbb Resolution = pulse width

Band pass Digital storage

A detector
filter oscilloscope

Amplifier

Figure 10.14 Direct RF pulsed channel IR measurement

Frequency domain channel sounding

In this case we measure the channel in the frequency domain and then convert it into time
domain impulse response by taking its inverse discrete Fourier transform (IDFT). A vector network
analyser controls a swept frequency synthesizer. An S-parameter test set is used to monitor the
frequency response of the channel. The sweeper scans a particular frequency band, centred on
the carrier, by stepping through discrete frequencies. The number and spacing of the frequency
step impacts the time resolution of the impulse response measurement. For each frequency
step, the S-parameter test set transmits a known signal level at port 1 and monitors the received
signal at port 2. These signals allow the analyser to measure the complex response, S21 (w), of the
channel over the measured frequency range. The S21(w) measure is the measure of the signal flow
from transmitter antenna to receiver antenna (i.e., the channel). This system is suitable only for
indoor-channel measurements. This system is also non-real-time. Hence, it is not suitable for
time-varying channels unless the sweep times are fast enough. Frequency domain channel IR
measurement is shown in Figure 10.15.

10.5.6 Multipath channel parameters

To compare the different multipath channels and to quantify them, some parameters are defined.
They all can be determined from the power delay profile. These parameters can be broadly divided
into two types.

Time-dispersion parameters
These parameters include the mean excess delay, rms delay spread, and excess delay spread. The
mean excess delay is the first moment of the power delay profile and is defined as
 Mobile Radio Propagation and Modeling 253

Tx
Rx
Vector network
analyser with swept
frequency oscillator
X (w) Y (w)

S-parameter test set

Port 1 Port 2
H (w) = Y (w)/X (w)
= S21(w)

Inverse DFT
processor

h (t) = Inverse FT (H(w))

Figure 10.15 Frequency domain channel IR measurement

∑a t 2
k k
∑ P (t )t
t = k
= k k (10.27)
∑a k
2
k ∑ P (t ) k

where ak is the amplitude, tk is the excess delay, and P(tk) is the power of the individual multipath
signals.
The mean square excess delay spread is defined as

∑ P (t )t k
2
k
t 2
= k
(10.28)
∑ P (t )
k
k

Since the rms delay spread is the square root of the second central moment of the power delay
profile, it can be written as

s t = t 2 − (t )
2

(10.29)

As a rule of thumb, for a channel to be at fading, the following condition must be satisfied:

st
≤ 0.1 (10. 30)
TS

where TS is the symbol duration. For this case, no equalizer is required at the receiver.
254 Mobile Cellular Communication

Frequency dispersion parameters

To characterize the channel in the frequency domain, the following two parameters are necessary
1. Coherence bandwidth: This is a statistical measure of the range of frequencies over which
the channel can be considered to pass all the frequency components with almost equal gain and
linear phase. Such a channel is said to be flat.
Practically, coherence bandwidth is the minimum separation over which the two frequency
components are affected differently. If the coherence bandwidth is considered to be the bandwidth
over which the frequency correlation function is above 0.9, then it is approximated as.

1
BC ≈ (10.31)
50 st

where s t is the rms delay spread

However, if the coherence bandwidth is considered to be the bandwidth over which the frequency
correlation function is above 0.5, then it is defined as

1
BC ≈ (10.32)
5s t

The coherence bandwidth describes the time dispersive nature of the channel in the local area.
A more convenient parameter to study the time variation of the channel is the coherence time.
This variation may be due to the relative motion between the mobile and the BS or the motion
of the objects in the channel.
2. Coherence time: This is a statistical measure of the time duration over which the channel
impulse response is almost invariant. When channel behaves like this, it is said to be slow
faded. Essentially it is the minimum time duration over which two received signals are affected
differently. For an example, if the coherence time is considered to be the bandwidth over which
the time correlation is above 0.5, then it can be approximated as

9
TC ≈
16p f m
(10.33)

v
where fm is the maximum Doppler spread given by f m = .
l

Example problem 10.4

Assuming the speed of a vehicle to be equal to 60 mph (88 ft/s), carrier frequency, fc = 860 MHz,
and rms delay spread td = 2 μs, calculate coherence time and coherence bandwidth. At a coded
symbol rate of 19.2 Kbps what kind of symbol distortion will be experienced? What type of
fading will be experienced by the channel?

Solution

v = 60 mph (=88 ft/s)

 Mobile Radio Propagation and Modeling 255

c 9.84 × 108
l= = = 1.1442 ft
f 860 × 106

v 88
Maximum Doppler shift = = = 77 Hz
l 1.1442

1 1
Tc = = = 0.0021 s
2p f m 2p × 77

106
Ts = = 52 µs
19,200

The symbol interval is much smaller compared to the channel coherence time. Symbol distortion
is, therefore, minimal. In this case fading is slow.

1 1
Coherence bandwidth = Bc ≈ = = 79.56 kHz
2ptd 2p × 2 × 10 −6

This shows that the channel is a wide band system in this multipath situation and experiences
selective fading only over 6.5 per cent (79.56/1228.8 = 0.0648 ~ 6.5 per cent) of its bandwidth
(Bw = 1228.8 kHz).

10.6 Types of small-scale fading

The type of fading experienced by the signal through a mobile channel depends on the relation
between the signal parameters (bandwidth, symbol period) and the channel parameters (rms
delay spread and Doppler spread). Hence, we have four different types of fading. There are two
types of fading due to the time dispersive nature of the channel.

10.6.1 Fading effects due to multipath time delay spread

Flat fading
Such type of fading occurs when the bandwidth of the transmitted signal is less than the coherence
bandwidth of the channel. Equivalently, if the symbol period of the signal is more than the rms
delay spread of the channel, then the fading is at fading.
So we can say that at fading occurs when

BS << BC

where BS is the signal bandwidth and BC is the coherence bandwidth.

Also,

TS > > sτ

where TS is the symbol period and sτ is the rms delay spread. In such a case, mobile channel has
a constant gain and linear phase response over its bandwidth.
256 Mobile Cellular Communication

Frequency selective fading

Frequency selective fading occurs when the signal bandwidth is more than the coherence
bandwidth of the mobile radio channel or equivalently, the symbols duration of the signal is less
than the rms delay spread.

BS >> BC

and

TS >> sτ

At the receiver, we obtain multiple copies of the transmitted signal, all attenuated and delayed in
time. The channel introduces inter-symbol interference. A rule of thumb for a channel to have
at fading is if

st
≤ 0.1
TS

Frequency-selective fading affects unequally the different spectral components of a radio signal.
Selective fading is usually significant only relative to the bandwidth of the overall wireless
communication channel. If the signal attenuates over a portion of the bandwidth of the signal,
the fading is considered to be selective in frequency domain. Frequency selective fading on the
received signal occurs when a radio channel has a constant gain and linear phase response, but
the channel bandwidth is less than that of the transmitted signal. Under such conditions, the
channel impulse response has a multipath delay spread which is greater than the reciprocal
bandwidth of the transmitted signal.
The received signal includes multiple versions of the transmitted signal which are faded
and delayed in time, and hence the received signal is distorted. Frequency selective fading is
due to time dispersion of the transmitted symbols within the channel, and the channel induces
inter-symbol interference. Because this effect varies by frequency, fading is different at different
frequencies and it is extremely difficult to counter its impact or compensate for the signal loss.
Frequency-selective fading channels are also known as wideband channels since the bandwidth
of the transmitted signal is wider than the bandwidth of the channel impulse response.
Let us consider a mobile receiver moves directly away from the transmitting antenna but
towards a reflecting surface. If the two signals are in phase at a given point, they will add. As
the mobile moves forward a distance of λc/4, the direct path is increased and the reflected path
is reduced by the same amount, resulting in a total phase shift of 180°, resulting into partial
cancellation of the signal (which means the signal may fade up to 50 dB in worst cases). When the
mobile moves another distance of λc/4, the signals are once again in phase. Thus, the fades occur
each time the mobile moves a distance of λc/2. Given the frequency of the signal and the speed
of the mobile, it is easy to estimate the time between fades. The time between fades is given by

Tf = (λc/2)/Vm = λc/(2Vm) = c/(2 fc Vm)

where Vm is the speed of the mobile, Tf is time between fades, and fc is cell phone operating
frequency.
 Mobile Radio Propagation and Modeling 257

Example problem 10.5

A mobile subscriber travels at a uniform speed of 100 km/h. Compute the time between fades if
the mobile uses

(a) a cellphone operating at 900 MHz

(b) a PCS phone operating at 1,800 MHz
(c) and comment on the results obtained.

Solution

Speed of the mobile, Vm = 100 km/h (given) = 100 × 103 m/3,600 s = 27.7 m/s
Time between fades is given by the expression, Tf = c/(2 fc Vm)
where c is the speed of radio waves = 3 × 108 m/s

(a) To compute time between fades for a mobile operating at 900 MHz
Frequency of operation, fc = 900 MHz or 900 × 106 Hz (given)
Time between fades, Tf = (3 × 108 m/s / (2 × 900 × 106 Hz × 27.7m/s)
Hence, time between fades at 900 MHz = 6 ms

(b) To compute time between fades for a mobile operating at 1,800 MHz
Frequency of operation, fc = 1,800 MHz or 1,800 × 106 Hz (given)
Time between fades, Tf = (3 × 108 m/s / (2 × 1,800 × 106 Hz × 27.7 m/s)
Hence, time between fades at 1,800 MHz = 3 ms
It is observed that the rapidity of the fading increases with the frequency of the transmission at
the same speed of the mobile vehicle.

10.6.2 Fading effects due to Doppler spread

The fading effects due to Doppler spread can also be classified as fast fading and slow fading.
Depending on how rapidly the transmitted baseband signal changes as compared to the rate of
change of the channel, a wireless channel is classified as a fast-fading or slow-fading channel. In
fast-fading conditions, as the mobile unit moves down a street in an urban environment, rapid
fluctuations in received signal strength occur over distances of about one-half a wavelength. The
channel impulse response changes rapidly within the symbol duration. That is, the coherence
time of the channel is smaller than the symbol period of the transmitted signal. This causes
frequency dispersion, also called time-selective fading, due to Doppler spreading. This results into
signal distortion which increases with increasing Doppler spread relative to the bandwidth of the
transmitted signal. Therefore, a signal undergoes fast fading if the symbol period Ts > Tc, the time
between fades. Fast fading occurs when the rate of change of the channel characteristics is faster
than the rate of change of the information data signal, and results in distortion.

Fast fading
In a fast-fading channel, the channel impulse response changes rapidly within the symbol
duration of the signal. Due to Doppler spreading, signal undergoes frequency dispersion leading
to distortion.
Therefore, a signal undergoes fast fading if

TS >> TC
258 Mobile Cellular Communication

where TC is the coherence time and

BS >> BD

where BD is the Doppler spread. Transmission involving very low data rates suffers from fast
fading.

Slow fading
In such a channel, the rate of the change of the channel impulse response is much less than the
transmitted signal. We can consider a slow-faded channel as in which is almost constant over
atleast one symbol duration. Hence,

TS << TC

BS >> BD

We observe that the velocity of the user plays an important role in deciding whether the signal
experiences fast or slow fading.

10.6.3 Impulse response model of a multipath channel

Mobile radio channel may be modelled as a linear filter with time-varying impulse response in
continuous time. To show this, consider time variation due to receiver motion and time-varying
impulse response h (d, t) and x (t), the transmitted signal. The received signal y (d, t) at any
position d would be

∞
y ( d , t ) = x (t ) ∗ h ( d , t ) = ∫ x (t ) h ( d , t − t )dt
−∞ (10.34)

∞
For a casual system: h ( d , t ) = 0, for t < 0 and for a stable system ∫ h ( d , t ) dt <∞
−∞

Applying causality condition in the above equation, h(d, t −t ) = 0 for t −t < 0 ⇒ t > t, that is,
h ( d , t − t ) is defined for t < t. Hence, the integral limits are changed to

t
y (d,t ) = ∫ x (t ) h ( d , t − t )dt
−∞ (10.35)
Since the receiver moves along the ground at a constant velocity v, the position of the receiver
is d = vt, that is,

t
y ( vt , t ) = ∫ x (t ) h ( vt , t − t )dt
−∞ (10.36)

Since v is a constant, y (vt, t) is just a function of t. Therefore, the above equation can be expressed
as
 Mobile Radio Propagation and Modeling 259

t
y (t ) = ∫ x (t ) h ( vt , t − t )dt = x (t ) ∗ h ( vt , t ) = x (t ) ∗ h ( d , t )
−∞ (10.37)

It is useful to discretize the multipath delay axis of the impulse response into equal time delay
segments called excess delay bins, each bin having a time delay width equal to ( ti+1−ti) =Δt and
ti = iΔt for i∈{0, 1, …. N−1}, where N represents the total number of possible equally spaced
multipath components, including the _rst arriving component. The useful frequency span of the
model is 2/Δt . The model may be used to analyse transmitted RF signals having bandwidth less
than 2/Δt.
If there are N multipaths, maximum excess delay is given by NΔt.

{y (t ) = x (t ) ∗ h (t ,t ) i i = 0,1,....N − 1}
(10.38)

Band pass channel impulse response model is

x ( t ) → h ( t ,t ) = Re {hb ( t ,t ) e jwc t } → y ( t ) = Re {r ( t ) e jwc t }

(10.39)

Baseband equivalent channel impulse response model is given by

1 1
c (t ) → hb ( t ,t ) → r ( t ) = c ( t ) ∗ hb ( t ,t )
2 2 (10.40)

Average power is
1
x2 ( t ) = c (t )
2

2 (10.41)

The baseband impulse response of a multipath channel can be expressed as

N −1
hb ( t ,t ) = ∑ a (t ,t ) exp ⎡⎣ j ( 2p f t (t ) + f (t ,t ) )⎤⎦ d (t − t (t ) )
i =0
i c i i i
(10.42)
where ai(t, t ) and ti(t) are the real amplitudes and excess delays, respectively, of the ith multipath
component at time t. The phase term 2p f ct i ( t ) + fi ( t ,t ) in the above equation represents the
phase shift due to free-space propagation of the ith multipath component, plus any additional
phase shifts which are encountered in the channel.
If the channel impulse response is wide sense stationary over a small-scale time or distance
interval, then

N −1
hb (t ) = ∑ a exp [ jq ] d (t − t )
i =0
i i i
(10.43)

For measuring hb(t ), we use a probing pulse to approximate d(t) that is,

p ( t ) ≈ d (t − t )
(10.44)
260 Mobile Cellular Communication

Power delay profile is taken by spatial average of hb ( t ,t ) over a local area. The received power
2

delay profile in a local area is given by

p (t ) ≈ k hb ( t ,t )
2

(10.45)

10.7 Statistical models for multipath propagation

Many multipath models have been proposed to explain the observed statistical nature of a
practical mobile channel. Both the first-order and second-order statistics have been examined in
order to find out the effective way to model and combat the channel effects. The most popular of
these models are Rayleigh model, which describes the NLoS propagation.
The Rayleigh model is used to model the statistical time varying nature of the received
envelope of a flat-fading envelope. The main first order and second order statistical models are
discussed below. Two-ray NLoS multipath resulting in Rayleigh fading is shown in Figure 10.16

10.7.1 NLoS propagation: Rayleigh fading model

Let there be two multipath signals S1 and S2 received at two different time instants due to the
presence of obstacles as shown in Figure 10.16. Now there can either be constructive or destructive
interference between the two signals. Let En be the electric field and qn be the relative phase of the
various multipath signals. So we have

N
E = ∑ En e jqn
n =1 (10.46)

Now if N → • (i.e., are sufficiently large number of multipaths) and all the En are IID distributed,
then by central limit theorem we have,

Obstructions

Tx 3 Rx

v << fc λ

Figure 10.16 Two-ray NLoS multipath resulting in rayleigh fading

 Mobile Radio Propagation and Modeling 261

N
lim E = lim ∑ En e jq n
N →∞ N →∞
n =1

= Z r + jZi = Re jj (10.47)

where Zr and Zi are Gaussian random variables. For the above case

R = Zr2 + Zi2
(10.48)

Zi
j = tan −1
Zr
(10.49)

For all practical purposes we assume that the relative phase qn is uniformly distributed.

2p
1
E ⎡⎣e jqn ⎤⎦ = ∫e dq = 0
jf

2p 0 (10.50)

It can be seen that En and qn are independent. So,

E ⎡⎣ E ⎤⎦ = E ⎡⎣ ∑ En e jq n ⎤⎦ = 0
(10.51)

⎡ ⎤ N
E ⎡ E ⎤ = E ⎡⎣ ∑ En e jq n ∑ En* e − jq n ⎤⎦ = E ⎢ ∑∑ En Em e j (q n −q m ) ⎥ = ∑ En2 = P0
2

⎣⎢ ⎦⎥ ⎣m n ⎦ n =1 (10.52)

where P0 is the total power obtained. To find the cumulative distribution function (CDF) of R,

FR ( r ) = Pr ( R ≤ r ) = ∫ ∫ f Zi , Zr ( Zi , Zr )dZi dZr
A (10.53)

where A is determined by the values taken by the dummy variable r. Let Zi and Zr be zero mean
Gaussian random variables. Hence, the CDF can be written as

(
− Zr2 + Zi2 )
1
FR ( r ) = ∫ ∫ e 2s 2
dZi dZr
A 2ps 2 (10.54)

Let Zr = p cos (q) and Zi = p sin(q) So we have

2p 2p − p2
1
FR (r ) = ∫∫
2
e 2 s pdpd q
0 0 2ps 2
−r2

= 1 − e 2s
2
(10.55)

Equation (10.55) is valid for all r ≥ 0. The probability distribution function (PDF) can be written as
262 Mobile Cellular Communication

0.6065/s

p (r)

0 s 2s 3s 4s
Received signal envelope voltage r (volts)

Figure 10.17 Rayleigh probability density function

−r2
r 2 s2
f R (r ) = e
s2 (10.56)

and is shown in Figure 10.17 with different s values. This equation also is valid for all r ≥ 0. Above
distribution is known as Rayleigh distribution and it has been derived for slow fading. However,
if Doppler frequency, fD <<1 Hz, we call it as quasi-stationary Rayleigh fading. We observe the
following

p
E [ R] = s
2
E ⎡⎣ R2 ⎤⎦ = 2s 2
⎛ p⎞
var [ R] = ⎜ 2 − ⎟ s 2
⎝ 2⎠
median [ R] = 1.77s

10.7.2 LoS propagation: Rician fading model

Rician fading is the addition of a direct LOS path to all the normal multipaths. The Rician
probability density function is shown in Figure 10.18.

(
− r 2 + A2 )
r ⎛A ⎞
fR ( r ) = 2 e 2s 2
I 0 ⎜ 2r ⎟
s ⎝s ⎠ (10.57)
for all A ≥ 0 and r ≥ 0. Here, A is the peak amplitude of the dominant signal and I0 is the modified
Bessel function of the first kind and zeroth order. A factor K is defined as

Ar
KdB = 10 log
s2 (10.58)

As A →0 then KdB Ω→∞.

 Mobile Radio Propagation and Modeling 263

0.7
K=0
0.6

0.5
K=1
K=2
0.4

0.3
K=3
0.2

0.1

0 2 4 6 8 10

Figure 10.18 Rician probability density function

10.7.3 Generalized model: Nakagami distribution

A generalization of the Rayleigh and Rician fading is the Nakagami distribution. Nakagami-
probability density function is shown in Figure 10.19. The schematic representation of level
crossing with a Rayleigh fading envelope at 10 Hz Doppler spread as shown in Figure 10.20.
Its PDF is given as,

2
2r m −1 ⎛ m m ⎞ − mr
fR ( r ) = ⎜ ⎟e
Ω
Γ ( m ) ⎝ Ωm ⎠
(10.59)

where
Γ(m) is the gamma function
Ω is the average signal power and
m is the fading factor, which is always greater than or equal to 0.5

2 Ω = 1, p = 1

1.8 Ω = 2, p = 1
1.6
Ω = 5, p = 1
1.4
1.2 Ω = 1, p = 2
1 Ω = 1, p = 3
0.8
Ω = 2, p = 2
0.6
0.4 Ω = 0.5, p = 1

0.2

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 0

Figure 10.19 Nakagami-probability density function

264 Mobile Cellular Communication

10
5

0
−5
Received power dB relative to RMS −10
−15

−20

−25
Level Crossings
−30

−35
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Time, seconds

Figure 10.20 Schematic representation of level crossing with a Rayleigh

fading envelope at 10Hz Doppler spread

When m=1, Nakagami model is the Rayleigh model.

When
( M + 1)
2

m=
2M + 1 (10.60)
where,
M = A/2s
Nakagami fading is the Rician fading.
As m → ∞ Nakagami fading is the impulse channel and no fading occurs.

10.7.4 Second-order statistics

To design better error control codes, we have two important second-order parameters of fading
model, that is, the level-crossing rate (LCR) and average fade duration (AFD). These parameters
can be utilized to assess the speed of the user by measuring them through the reverse channel.
The LCR is the expected rate at which the Rayleigh fading envelope normalized to the local rms
amplitude crosses a specific level “R” in a positive going direction.

∞
 ( R, r ) dr = 2p f D r e − r
NR = ∫ rp
2

0 (10.61)
where NR is the time derivative of r(t), fD is the maximum Doppler shift, and r is the value of
the specified level R, normalized to the local rms amplitude of the fading envelope. The other
important parameter, AFD, is the average period time for which the receiver power is below a
specified level R.

1
t = Pr ( r ≤ R )
Nr
(10.62)
 Mobile Radio Propagation and Modeling 265

As
R
Pr ( r ≤ R ) = ∫ p ( r ) dr = 1 − e − r
2

0 (10.63)

Therefore,
2 2
1 − e−r e−r − 1
t = 2 =
2p f D r e − r 2p f D r
(10.64)

Apart from LCR, another parameter is fading rate, which is defined as the number of times the
signal envelope crosses the middle value (rm) in a positive going direction per unit time. The
average rate is expressed as

2u
N ( rm ) =
l (10.65)

Another statistical parameter, sometimes used in the mobile communication, is called as depth of
fading. It is defined as the ratio between the minimum value and the mean square value of the faded
signal. Usually, an average value of 10 per cent as depth of fading gives a marginal fading scenario.

10.8 Summary
• The characteristics of the radio channel depend on operating frequency and the mode of
propagation. For example, LoS radio links, diffraction/scattering, and satellite links.
• When there exists a visible straight path between the BS antenna and the mobile terminal
antenna, no other multipath component exists. This direct signal component is called as a
LoS component.
• The maximum frequency just below the escape point is called the critical frequency.
• At very-low, low, and medium frequencies, a skip zone is never present. At high frequency
spectrum, a skip zone is present.
• Longley–Rice model is the most commonly used outdoor propagation models within a
frequency band of 40 MHz to 100 GHz.
• In wireless telecommunications, multipath is the propagation of radio signals reaching the
receiving antenna by two or more paths.
• Fading means rapid fluctuations of the amplitudes, phases, or multipath delays of a radio
signal over a short period.
• The depth of fading is defined as the ratio between the minimum value and the mean square
value of the faded signal.
• Propagation models have traditionally focused on predicting the average received signal
strength at a given distance from the transmitter, as well as the variability of the signal
strength in close spatial proximity to a particular location.
• Large-scale propagation models are based on signal strength over large T–R separation
distances (several hundreds or thousands of metres).
• Reflection, diffraction, and scattering are three basic propagation mechanisms which impact
propagation in a mobile communication system.
266 Mobile Cellular Communication

• Diffraction occurs when the radio path between the transmitter and receiver is obstructed by
a surface that has sharp irregularities (edges).
• A mobile radio channel may be modelled as a liner filter with a time varying impulse response,
where the time variation is due to receiver motion in space.
• The filtering nature of the channel is caused by the summation of amplitudes and delays of
the multiple arriving waves at any instant of time.
• In a fast-fading channel, the impulse response changes rapidly within the symbol duration.
• In a slow-fading channel, the channel impulse response changes at a rate much slower than
the transmitted baseband signal S(t).

Review questions
1. Write short notes on skip distance and skip zone.
2. Explain in detail about link budget.
3. What is outdoor propagation model? Explain Hata model.
4. What is small-scale fading? Write the factors influencing fading.
5. Explain small-scale multipath measurements.
6. Explain impulse response model of a multipath channel.
7. Explain non-line-of-sight propagation for Rayleigh fading model.
8. What are the types of small-scale fading?
9. In what ways does the received signal get affected by multipath propagation in mobile
communications?
10. List the factors that influence small-scale fading.
11. What are the causes of fast and slow fading? Distinguish between them.
12. Describe at least two problems that can occur as a result of multipath interference.
13. Explain about the transmission medium. (Refer Section 10.2)

Exercise problems
1. If 120 W is applied to a unit gain antenna with a 500 MHz carrier frequency, find the
received power in dBm at a free-space distance of 150 m from the antenna. What is Pr (15
km)? Assume unity gain for the receiver antenna.
2. Assume a receiver is located 15 km from a 150 W transmitter. The carrier frequency is 1,500
MHz, free-space propagation is assumed, Gt = 1 and Gr = 4, Find the power at the receiver.
3. In a WLAN the minimum SNR required is 12 dB for an office environment. The background
noise at the operational frequency is 115 dBm. If the mobile terminal transmits power is
100 mW, what is the coverage radius of an access point if there are three floors between the
mobile transmitter and the access point? (Ans: 54 m)
4. Find the received power for the link from a synchronous satellite to a terrestrial antenna. Use
the following data: height = 60,000 km; satellite transmit power = 4 W; transmit antenna
gain=18 dBi; receive antenna gain = 50 dBi; and transmit frequency = 12 GHz.
5. For a flat Rayleigh fading channel determine the number of fades per second for r = 1
and average fade duration, when the maximum Doppler frequency is 20 Hz. What is the
maximum velocity of the mobile if the carrier frequency is 900 MHz? (Ans: 24 km/h)
6. A mobile station travelling at a speed of 60 km/h transmits at 900 MHz. If it receives or
transmits data at a rate of 64 Kbps, is the channel fading slow or fast?
 Mobile Radio Propagation and Modeling 267

Objective type questions and answers

1. The distance from the transmitter to the point where the sky wave first returns to the earth
is called
(a) near distance (b) far distance (c) skip distance (d) none
2. The skip distance depends on
(a) waves frequency (b) angle of incidence
(c) degree of ionization (d) all of the above
3. The zone of silence between the point where the ground wave is too weak for reception and
where sky wave is first returned is called
(a) dead zone (b) skip zone (c) near zone (d) far zone
4. The outer limit of the skip zone varies depending on
(a) operating frequency (b) sunspot activity (c) time of day (d) all of the above
5. A blank area on the opposite side of an obstruction in line of sight from transmitter to
receiver is called as
(a) shadow zone (b) skip zone (c) near zone (d) far zone
6. For a communication, link budget determines
(a) signal powers (b) noise powers
(c) signal-to-noise ratio (d) all of the above
7. Okumura model is applicable for base station effective antenna heights ranging from
(a) 30–1,000 m (b) 1,000–1,500 m
(c) 1,500–2,000 m (d) 2,000–2,500 m
8. Longley–Rice is most commonly used in the frequency band of
(a) 1 MHz to 40 MHz (b) 40 MHz to 100 GHz
(c) 100 GHz to 200 GHz (d) 200 GHz to 300 GHz
9. Rapid fluctuations of the amplitudes, phases, or multipath delays of a radio signal over a
short period is called
(a) interference (b) fading (c) multipath (d) none
10. Frequency selective fading occurs when the signal bandwidth is
(a) more than coherence bandwidth
(b) less than coherence bandwidth
(c) more than non-coherence bandwidth
(d) less than non-coherence bandwidth
11. ________________ occurs when the radio path between a transmitter and receiver is obstructed
by a surface with sharp irregular edges.
12. ___________ results from the presence of objects between the transmitter and the receiver.
13. __________ refers to the phenomenon by which multiple copies of a transmitted signal are
received at the receiver, due to the presence of multiple radio paths.
14. Two main reasons that contribute to the rapid fluctuations of the signal amplitude in mobile
communications are

Answers: 1. (c), 2. (d), 3. (b), 4. (d), 5. (a), 6. (d), 7. (a), 8. (b) 9. (b), 10. (a),
11. diffraction, 12. shadow fading, 13. multipath, 14. multipath fading and Doppler effect.
268 Mobile Cellular Communication

Open book questions

1. Write short notes on diffraction.
2. Explain Okumura model.
3. How is propagation path loss related to the received signal power in mobile communications?
4. State the reasons for attenuations of the signal strength of electromagnetic waves upon
reflection.
5. Explain about mobile fading characteristics.
6. What is the difference between frequency selective fading and flat fading?

Key equations
1. The directivity D of an antenna is defined as
Power density at a distance in the direction of maximum radiation
D=
Mean power density at a distance d

2. Power gain G is defined as

Power density at a distance d in the direction of maximum radiation

G=
PT / 4p d 2

3. The power received by an antenna that is separated from a transmitter antenna by a distance
d in free space is given by the Friis free-space equation
2
Pt Gt Gr l 2 ⎛ l ⎞
Pr ( d ) = = P0 ⎜ ⎟
( 4p ) d 2
2
⎝ 4p d ⎠

4. Free-space gain is defined as

2
⎛ l ⎞ 1
GFS = ⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ 4p d ⎠ PLFS

5. The empirical path-loss formula of Okumura at distance d parameterized by the carrier

frequency fc is given by

PL (d ) dB = L ( f c , d ) + Amu ( f c , d ) − G (ht ) − G (hr ) − GAREA

6. The standard Hata formula for median path loss in urban area is given by

PL50 (urban )(dB) = 69.55 + 29.16 log f c − 13.82 log hte − a (hre ) + (44.9 − 6.55 log hte ) log d

7. The mean excess delay is the first moment of the power delay profile and is defined as

∑a t 2
k k
∑ P (t )t
t = k
= k k

∑a k
2
k ∑ P (t ) k
 Mobile Radio Propagation and Modeling 269

8. The mean square excess delay spread is defined as

∑ P (t )t
k
2
k
t 2
= k

∑ P (t )
k
k

9. A generalization of the Rayleigh and Rician fading is the Nakagami distribution PDF which
is given as

2
2r m −1 ⎛ m m ⎞ − mr
fR ( r ) = ⎜ ⎟e
Ω
Γ ( m ) ⎝ Ωm ⎠

10. The LCR is the expected rate at which the Rayleigh fading envelope normalized to the local
rms amplitude crosses a specific level “R” in a positive going direction.
∞
 ( R, r ) dr = 2p f D r e − r
NR = ∫ rp
2

Further reading
Fernando Pérez Fontán, Perfecto Mariño Espiñeira “Modeling the Wireless Propagation Channel
A simulation Approach with MATLAB”, 2008, New Delhi.
Kostov, N. “Mobile Radio Channels Modeling in MATLAB,” Radio Engineering, Vol. 12, No. 4,
December 2003, pp. 12–16.
Rappaport, T. S. Wireless Communications, PHI Pvt. Ltd, pp. 177-248, New Delhi, 2007.
Parsons, J. D The Mobile Radio Propagation Channel. John Wiley, 2000, 2nd edition, New York.
Kim, Byung-ki. “Smart Base Station Antenna Performance for Several Scenarios – An Experimental
and Modeling Investigation,” PhD Thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University,
Blacksburg, Virginia, 7 May 2002.
Simmons L. D, and Ace III, F. L., Nonresident Training Course on, “Antennas and Wave
Propagation”, Vol. 7, Naval Education and Training Professional Development and
Technology Center, United States, October 1995.