Wireless Communication Systems

Dr. Renjith R J

Department of ECE
SCT College of Engineering

February 15, 2023

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 Cellular System Design Fundamentals: Frequency Reuse,
channel assignment strategies, handoff Strategies.
Interference and system capacity: Cell splitting, Sectoring,
Repeaters, and Microcells.
Wireless propagation mechanism, free space propagation model,
ground reflection model, knife edge diffraction model, path loss
prediction in hilly terrain.
Iintroduction to fading and diversity techniques, Introduction to
MIMO system

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Frequency Reuse

The design process of selecting and allocating channel groups for all
of the cellular base stations within a system is called frequency reuse
or frequency planning

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Frequency Reuse...

Figure: Frequency reuse concept

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Handoff

The process of transferring a mobile station from one channel or base

station to another.

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Handoff...

Figure: Handoff scenario

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Interference and System capacity

Co channel interference
Adjacent channel interference

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Interference and System capacity...

The parameter Q, called the cochannel reuse ratio, is related to the

cluster size. For a hexagonal geometry

D √
Q= = 3N (1)
R
A small value of Q provides larger capacity since the cluster size N is
small, whereas a large value of Q improves the transmission quality,
due to a smaller level of co-channel interference. A trade-off must be
made between these two objectives in actual cellular design.

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Interference and System capacity...

Let i0 be the number of co-channel interfering cells. Then, the signal-to

interference ratio (S/I or SIR) for a mobile receiver which monitors a
forward channel can be expressed as

S S
= Pi (2)
I 0
i=1 Ii

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Interference and System capacity...

The average received power Pr at a distance d from the transmitting

antenna is approximated by
 −n
d
Pr = P0 (3)
d0
or  
d
Pr (dBm) = P0 (dBm) − 10n log (4)
d0
where P0 is the power received at a close-in reference point in the far
field region of the antenna at a small distance d0 from the transmitting
antenna.

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Trunking and Grade of Service

Cellular radio systems rely on trunking to accommodate a large

number of users in a limited radio spectrum.
The concept of trunking allows a large number of users to share
the relatively small number of channels in a cell by providing
access to each user, on demand, from a pool of available
channels.
Trunking exploits the statistical behavior of users so that a fixed
number of channels or circuits may accommodate a large, random
user community.

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Trunking and Grade of Service...

Grade of Service (GOS) is a measure of the ability of a user to

access a trunked system during the busiest hour.
The grade of service is a benchmark used to define the desired
performance of a particular trunked system by specifying a
desired likelihood of a user obtaining channel access given a
specific number of channels available in the system.
GOS is typically given as the likelihood that a call is blocked, or
the likelihood of a call experiencing a delay greater than a certain
queuing time.

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Trunking and Grade of Service...

A measure of congestion which is specified as the probability of a call

being blocked (for Erlang B), or the probability of a call being delayed
beyond a certain amount of time (for Erlang C).

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Improving Capacity in Cellular Systems

Cell Splitting
Sectoring
Microcell Zone Concept

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Cell splitting

Cell splitting is the process of subdividing a congested cell into

smaller cells, each with its own base station and a corresponding
reduction in antenna height and transmitter power.
Cell splitting increases the capacity of a cellular system since it
increases the number of times that channels are reused.

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Cell splitting..

Figure: Cell splitting

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Cell sectoring

The technique for decreasing co-channel interference and thus

increasing system capacity by using directional antennas is called
sectoring.
The factor by which the co-channel interference is reduced
depends on the amount of sectoring used.
Three 1200 sectors or six 600 sectors as shown in figure.

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Sectoring..

Figure: 1200 & 600

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Microcell Zone concept

The increased number of handoffs required when sectoring is

employed results in an increased load on the switching and
control link elements of the mobile system.
A solution to this problem was microcell concept for 7 cell reuse.
Multiple zones and a single base station make up a cell.

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Microcell Zone concept..

As a mobile travels within the cell, it is served by the zone with the
strongest signal.
This approach is superior to sectoring since antennas are placed
at the outer edges of the cell, and any base station channel may
be assigned to any zone by the base station.

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Microcell Zone concept..

Figure: Zone illustration

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Free space propagation model

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Free space propagation model..

The free space power received by a receiver antenna which is

separated from a radiating transmitter antenna by a distance d, is
given by the Friis free space equation,

Pt Gt Gr λ2
Pr (d) = (5)
(4π)2 d 2 L

The gain of an antenna is related to its effective aperture by,

4πAe
G= (6)
λ2

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Free space propagation model..

The path loss, which represents signal attenuation as a positive

quantity measured in dB, is defined as the difference (in dB) between
the effective transmitted power and the received power, and may or
may not include the effect of the antenna gains. The path loss for the
free space model when antenna gains are included is given by

Gt Gr λ2
 
Pt
PL( dB) = 10 log = −10 log (7)
Pr (4π)2 d 2

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Ground reflection (2 ray) model

Figure: Two-ray ground reflection model.

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Ground reflection (2 ray) model..

Two propagating waves arrive at the receiver: the direct wave that
′ ′′
travels a distance d and the reflected wave that travels a distance d .
The E field due to the LoS component at the receiver can be
expressed as

d′
  
′

E0 d0
EL◦S d , t = cos ωc t − (8)
d′ c

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Ground reflection (2 ray) model..

The E fleld for the ground reflected wave, which has a propagation
distance of d ” , can be expressed as

d ′′
  
′′

E0 d0
Eg d , t = Γ ′′ cos ωc t − (9)
d c

The resultant E field, assuming perfect ground reflection (Γ=-1) is the

vector sum of ELoS and Eg and and the resultant total E field envelope
is given by
|ETOT | = ELoS + Eg (10)

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Ground reflection (2 ray) model..

d′ d ′′
     
E0 d0 E0 d0
ETOT (d, t) = cos ωc t − + (−1) ′′ cos ωc t −
d′ c d c
(11)

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Knife edge diffraction model

The phenomenon of diffraction can be explained by Huygen’s

principle, which states that all points on a wavefront can be
considered as point sources for the production of secondary
wavelets, and that these wavelets combine to produce a new
wavefront in the direction of propagation.
Diffraction is caused by the propagation of secondary wavelets
into a shadowed region.
The field strength of a diffracted wave in the shadowed region is
the vector sum of the electric field components of all the
secondary wavelets in the space around the obstacle.

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Knife edge diffraction model..

Figure: Knife-edge diffraction geometry. Receiver is located in shadow region

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Knife edge diffraction model..

Consider a receiver is located in the shadowed region (also called the

diffraction zone). The field strength at point R is the vector sum of the
fields due to all of the secondary Huygen’s sources in the plane above
the knife edge. The electric field strength, Ed , of a knife-edge diffracted
wave is given by

(1 + j) ∞
Z
Ed   
= F (v ) = exp −jπt 2 /2 dt (12)
Eo 2 v

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Knife edge diffraction model..

where F (v ) is the complex Fresnel integral. This integral, F (v ), is a

function
q of the Fresnel-Kirchoff diffraction parameter v , defined as
v = h 2(d 1 +d2 )
λd1 d2 , and is commonly evaluated using tables or graphs for
given values of v .
The diffraction gain due to the presence of a knife edge, as compared
to the free space E -field, is given by Gd ( dB) = 20 log |F (v )|

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 Thank You

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