A Module in

Hydrometeorology

Prepared By:

NATHANIEL R. ALIBUYOG

Mariano Marcos State University

College of Engineering
City of Batac, Ilocos Norte

August 2020
 Module 2
Weather and Hydrology

Introduction

The hydrologic characteristics of a region are determined largely by its climate and its geological structure.
Among the climatic factors that establish the hydrologic features of a region are the amount and
distribution of precipitation; and the effects of temperature, wind and humidity on evaporation.
Consequently, the design and operation of hydraulic projects involve meteorological consideration. For
instance, spillway designs required the determination of probable maximum rainfall while rainfall
forecasts are needed for reservoir operations.

Hence, in this module we will study weather and climate and the factors controlling or affecting them.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

• Define weather, climate, meteorology and climatology
• Identify the various elements of weather and climate
• Discuss and illustrate the atmospheric structure
• Illustrate the heat balance at the earth’s surface
• Discuss the general atmospheric circulation and explains its relation to weather and climate
• Discuss the factors affecting Philippine weather and climate

Learning
Input

2.1 Weather and Climate

Weather is an atmospheric condition at a particular place over a short period of time, daily or short
term variation of different conditions of the lower air in terms of temperature, pressure, wind, rainfall,
among others.

Climate is the average weather pattern of a place over a long period to yield meaningful averages as
exhibited by temperature, wind velocity, and precipitation. The long time means a period of 25-30
years.

Generally, weather refers to day to day temperature and precipitation activity whereas climate is the
term for the average atmospheric conditions over longer periods of time.
Macroclimate is the climate of a large area. The macro climate extends up to 40-50 km area
surrounding the weather yard.

Microclimate is the climate of a lower scale. It determines the climate of surrounding a plant, leaf or
even stomata, etc.

Local climate is the climate between macro and micro climate such as the climate of a field, a tree or
a house, etc. What crops should be grown in a field depends on macro climate. The production
depends on mainly local climate. The micro climate is necessary for research.

Climate is an important physical element because it indicates the atmospheric condition of heat,
moisture and circulation. It plays a dominant role in shaping vegetation and soils.

Factors that affect weather conditions in a specific time and location include:

• Humidity and precipitation

• Time of day or year
• Local geography
• Pressure and winds
• Cloud formations
• Temperature and sunshine
• Solar irradiance
• Topography

Meteorology refers to the study of the physical processes of the atmospheric conditions. It is a branch
of applied science which deals with the details of the atmosphere and its effects.

Climatology is the branch of meteorology studies about climate. It seeks to describe and explain the
nature of climate why it varies from place to place and how it is related to the other elements of the
natural environment and human activities.

Agrometeorology is the study of those aspects of meteorology which have direct relevance to
agriculture, in its various forms, to help the sensible use of land, accelerate production of food and to
avoid the irreversible abuse of land resources.

Comparison between weather and climate

Weather Climate
Atmospheric condition of a particular day Average weather condition of a particular period
of years
Vegetation does not depends on weather Climate greatly influences on vegetation
Daily agricultural operation depends of weather Climate determines the seasonal cropping
Weather influences on agricultural production Climate determines the types of crops on
location
Natural hazards (insects, diseases etc.) Initial information is given by climate
influenced by weather
No influence on soil information, soil reaction Temperature, rainfall has influence on soil
formation and reaction
Weather changes rapidly Climate does not changes rapidly
Measured by thermometer, rain gauge, Climate cannot be measured by any instrument
barometer, etc.
Activity 2.1 Assess your knowledge about the atmosphere

1. Name the four layers of the atmosphere

a.
b.
c.
d.

2. What are the main gases found in the atmosphere?

a.

b.

3. The troposphere is the region of the Earth’s atmosphere and

is where occurs.

4. The stratosphere contains the which absorbs

.

5. As you go higher in the mesosphere, the temperature becomes .

Scientists do not know much about the mesosphere, but they do know that
burns up in this layer.

6. The thermosphere contains a layer of charged particles called

which makes communication by possible and is home to the
(Northern lights) This is the layer in which fly.

7. Look at the diagram and list the height span of each layer:

a. Troposphere

b. Stratosphere

c. Mesosphere

d. Thermosphere

8. What happens to the temperature in each layer (does it get hotter or colder)?

a. Troposphere

b. Stratosphere

c. Mesosphere

d. Thermosphere
2.2 The Earth’s Atmosphere and its structure

Nature and Origin of the Atmosphere

• The atmosphere is a mixture of gases and suspended particles of liquid and solid which entirely
envelop the earth.
• Air is mobile, elastic, compressible and expandable
• According to the Nebula Theory, the principal gases constituted the original atmosphere are
believed to have been hydrogen, helium, and hydrogen compounds (e.g., NH4, NH3, etc.)

Atmospheric Composition

The atmosphere contains many gases, most in small amounts, including some pollutants and
greenhouse gases. The composition of the atmosphere, among other things, determines its ability to
transmit sunlight and trap infrared light, leading to potentially long-term changes in climate.

• Variable components
o aerosols (including water droplets, ice crystals, smoke, clay mineral dust, volcanic ash)
o water vapor – concentration varies greatly from 4% in tropical summer to 0.3% in cold
winter. In the cold, dry artic regions water vapor usually accounts for less than 1% of the
atmosphere, while in humid, tropical regions water vapor can account for almost 4% of
the atmosphere. Water vapor content is very important in predicting weather.
• Stable components
o Nitrogen – 78%
o Oxygen – 21%
o Argon – 0.93%
o Carbon dioxides – 0.035%
o All other gases – 0.005%

Greenhouse gases whose percentage vary daily, seasonally, and annually have physical and chemical
properties which make them interact with solar radiation and infrared light (heat) given off from the
earth to affect the energy balance of the globe. This is why scientists are watching the observed
increase in greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide and methane carefully, because even though they
are small in amount, they can strongly affect the global energy balance and temperature over time.
Structure of the atmosphere

The atmosphere is derived from global averages of temperature, density, chemical composition of air, and
so on, ignoring the regional and local variations that are the central source of weather. The atmosphere
has 4 layers. The structure of the atmosphere dictates the way the atmosphere behaves and controls how
weather develops near the surface of the earth.

Troposphere

• is the lowest portion of the atmosphere and it is the turning layer at the earth’s surface, extending
from the surface to about 12 km altitude
• The troposphere has air pressure of 1000 mb at the surface and 200 mb at its top (the
tropopause), with a temperature range of 20oC at the surface to -60oC.
• As altitude increases, the temperature falls, the air pressure declines and air density diminishes
• Most weather phenomena originate in the troposphere
• It contains most of the heat retaining gases (especially CO2 and H2O) that contribute to the
greenhouse effect
Stratosphere

• An area between 12 km and 90 km altitude, with a pressure range of 100mn to 1 mb and a

temperature range of -60oC to 0oC
• The stratosphere has the unusual property of temperature inversion
• The temperature increases with altitude because, although air density and pressure decline, the
sun’s radiation is absorbed in the stratosphere’s ozone layer.
• The rising temperature in the stratosphere acts to increase air density and pressure
• The troposphere and stratosphere is where most weather-creating actions takes place.

Mesosphere

• An area extending from 50 km to 85 km altitude

• The “middle layer” air temperature declines from 0oC to -80oC, pressure falls from 1mb to 0.01.
mb, and air density declines

Thermosphere

• Extends from 85 km up
• In this “heated layer” pressure falls from 0.01 to 0 mb and temperature rises from -80oC to
extremely high levels as the sun bakes the atmosphere

Why do temperature and pressure decrease with height?

Pressure decrease with height rapidly above the surface

 • The molecules that make up the atmosphere are pulled close to the earth's surface by gravity.
This causes the atmosphere to be concentrated at the Earth's surface and thin rapidly with height.
Air pressure is a measure of the weight of the molecules above you. As you move up in the
atmosphere there are fewer molecules above you, so the air pressure is lower.

• Temperature decreases with height in the troposphere. This is true for a couple different reasons.

o First, even though the sun's energy comes down from the sky, it is mostly absorbed by
the ground. The ground is constantly releasing this energy, as heat in infrared light, so the
troposphere is actually heated from the ground up, causing it to be warmer near the
surface and cooler higher up.
o Another reason is the decreasing air pressure with height. If the warm air at the surface
gets blown upward into the cooler air above it, the surface air will continue to rise. As air
rises into areas of lower pressure it expands because there are less molecules around it
to compress it. The molecules in the air use some of their energy to move apart from each
other, causing the air temperature to decrease. The constantly decreasing air pressure in
conjunction with the ground-up heating keeps the temperature in the troposphere
decreasing with height.

General Circulation of the Atmosphere

Single Cell Model

• Energy involved in producing movement of the earth’s atmosphere comes directly from the sun.
• In the vicinity of the equator the sun tends to warm the atmosphere to a greater degree than in
nearby regions to the north and south.
• Since it is lighter than the cooler surrounding air, this warmed air rises. Conversely, cold air at the
earth’s pole descends.
• This result in surface winds blowing from the poles towards the equator as shown in the figure
below. This is called the single-cell model or Hadley Cell.

General circulation of the earth’s atmosphere

based on single loop model.

Three-Cell Model
• If we allow for the effects of a rotating planet, the simple-cell model above breaks down into
multiple cells in each hemisphere as shown below.
• At the equator, the air near the surface is warm, winds are light, and the pressure gradient is
weak. This region of monotonous weather is known as the doldrums. The warm air here rises,
condensing into massive cumulonimbus clouds and thunderstorms, which release large amounts
of latent heat as they form. The additional heat makes the air even more likely to rise, and
provides the energy that drives the rising branch of the Hadley cell. This rising air reaches the
stable tropopause, which blocks it from rising further, causing the air to diverge at upper levels
and move poleward. Due to the Coriolis force, this upper-level poleward flow is deflected to the
right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere, providing westerlies
aloft (near the tropopause) in both hemispheres in the Hadley cell.

• As air moves poleward from equatorial regions, it is constantly experiencing radiational cooling
as it emits infrared radiation. Simultaneously, this air begins to converge and pile up as it
approaches the mid-latitudes (around 30° latitude in both hemispheres). This convergence of air
far above the surface increases the mass of air aloft, increasing the pressure at the surface. This
increase in surface pressure results in a belt of high pressure centers called subtropical
highs around 30°N and 30°S. These latitudes are commonly known as the horse latitudes.

• As this converging air above the subtropical highs slowly descends, it warms adiabatically by
compression. This sinking air, dries the atmosphere creating generally clear skies and little rain.
Over the oceans, weak pressure gradients in the high centers produce weak winds. Some of
these lighter surface winds begin to move back toward the equator, and are deflected by the
Coriolis force. This causes northeasterly winds in the Northern Hemisphere and southeasterly
winds in the Southern Hemisphere in tropical regions. These winds are known as the trade
winds. Near the equator, the northeasterly and southeasterly trade winds converge at the
surface at what is known as the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ). Here, convergence
further reinforces the rising branch of the Hadley cell.

• Back at 30° latitude, while some of the air sinking along the subtropical highs goes equatorward
to complete the Hadley cell, some sinking air also moves poleward. This poleward moving surface
air travels from 30° to 60° and is again deflected by the Coriolis force. This results in the prevailing
surface westerlies that impact the mid-latitudes in both hemispheres.

• As the surface air travels poleward from 30° to 60°, it collides with cold polar air moving
equatorward. These air masses do not mix easily, and are separated by a boundary known as
the polar front. At the polar front, surface air converges and rises at the subpolar low, and storms
and convection develop here. Some of this rising air goes all the way up to the tropopause where
it moves back to 30° latitude and sinks at the subtropical high along with the descending branch
of the Hadley cell. This circulation cell from 30° to 60° is known as the Ferrel cell, which is
a thermally indirect circulation in which cool air rises and warm air sinks.

• Behind the polar front in the Northern hemisphere, cold surface polar air moves from the poles
toward 60°. As the air moves equatorward, it is again deflected by the Coriolis force. In the Arctic
regions, air typically flows from the northeast while in the Antarctic, air flows from the southeast.
These are known as the polar easterlies. Along the polar front where cold polar air collides with
warm air from the Ferrel cell, some of the rising air moves back toward the poles, which gets
deflected as a westerly wind aloft. Eventually this air reaches the poles, sinks back to the surface,
and flows back toward the polar front, which gives us the Polar cell.
 Three-cell model of the rotating Earth and the resulting wind circulations

Climatic Environment of the Philippines

The Climate of the Philippines is tropical and maritime. It is characterized by relatively high temperature,
high humidity and abundant rainfall. It is similar in many respects to the climate of the countries of Central
America. Temperature, humidity, and rainfall, which are discussed hereunder, are the most important
elements of the country's weather and climate.

Temperature
Based on the average of all weather stations in the Philippines, excluding Baguio, the mean annual
temperature is 26.6o C. The coolest months fall in January with a mean temperature of 25.5oC while the
warmest month occurs in May with a mean temperature of 28.3oC. Latitude is an insignificant factor in
the variation of temperature while altitude shows greater contrast in temperature. Thus, the mean annual
temperature of Baguio with an elevation of 1,500 meters is 18.3oC. This makes the temperature of Baguio
comparable with those in the temperate climate and because of this, it is known as the summer capital of
the Philippines.

The difference between the mean annual temperature of the southernmost station in Zamboanga and
that of the northernmost station in Laoag is insignificant. In other words, there is essentially no difference
in the mean annual temperature of places in Luzon, Visayas or Mindanao measured at or near sea level.

Humidity
Humidity refers to the moisture content of the atmosphere. Due to high temperature and the surrounding
bodies of water, the Philippines has a high relative humidity. The average monthly relative humidity varies
between 71 percent in March and 85 percent in September. The combination of warm temperature and
high relative and absolute humidity give rise to high sensible temperature throughout the archipelago. It
is especially uncomfortable during March to May, when temperature and humidity attain their maximum
levels.
Rainfall
Rainfall is the most important climatic element in the Philippines. Rainfall distribution throughout the
country varies from one region to another, depending upon the direction of the moisture-bearing winds
and the location of the mountain systems.

The mean annual rainfall of the Philippines varies from 965 to 4,064 millimeters annually. Baguio City,
eastern Samar, and eastern Surigao receive the greatest amount of rainfall while the southern portion of
Cotabato receives the least amount of rain. At General Santos City in Cotabato, the average annual rainfall
is only 978 millimeters.

The Seasons
Using temperature and rainfall as bases, the climate of the country can be divided into two major seasons:
(1) the rainy season, from June to November; and (2) the dry season, from December to May. The dry
season may be subdivided further into (a) the cool dry season, from December to February; and (b) the
hot dry season, from March to May.

September–
Months December–February March–May June–August
November

Rainfall Dry Wet

Temperature Cool Hot

Season Cool Dry Hot Dry Rainy

Climate Types
Based on the distribution of rainfall, four climate types are recognized, which are described as follows:
Typhoons have a great influence on the climate and weather conditions of the Philippines. A great portion
of the rainfall, humidity and cloudiness are due to the influence of typhoons. They generally originate in
the region of the Marianas and Caroline Islands of the Pacific Ocean which have the same latitudinal
location as Mindanao. Their movements follow a northwesterly direction, sparing Mindanao from being
directly hit by majority of the typhoons that cross the country. This makes the southern Philippines very
desirable for agriculture and industrial development.

There are four recognized climate types in the Philippines, and they are based on the distribution of
rainfall. The four climatic type is shown in the figure below.

Type I - Two pronounced seasons: dry from November to April and wet during the rest of the year.
Type II - No dry season with a pronounced rainfall from November to January.
Type III - Seasons are not very pronounced, relatively dry from November to April, and wet during the rest
of the year.
Type IV - Rainfall is more or less evenly distributed throughout the year.