BASIC LECTURE NOTE ON RESEARCH METHODS

INTRODUCTION/ DEFINITION:
Research, in the words of Obiomah and Nwulu (2002:1), “is a systematic investigation for
the purpose of gaining new knowledge”. According to Chukwudire (2005:1) “research is a
systematic process of finding out an answer to a critical question, a burning issue; or searching
for the solution to a problem that engages the interest and attention of a researcher”. From the
definitions above, one discovers that research aims at problem solving.
1:1 What Is Problem?
As a concept Chukwudire (2005:1) further remarks that “ a problem is any obstacle or
hindrance which causes worry and tends to prevent a person from realizing his/her desired
goal(s) in life or in a particular field of human endeavour. He also opines that, “social systems,
institutions and organizations, have their unique problems which could be investigated to proffer
solution, as well as, cites that, each field of human activity, discipline or learning has its peculiar
problems, and that these problems need to be removed completely or at least be minimized in
order to ensure success and progress in any field of learning, for individuals, the system
and society at large. Having clarified the above;
1:2 What then is Research Problem?
Chukwudire, equally notes that “a research problem is any problem, issues or puzzle that
engages the attention of a researcher. In line with the foregoing, Chukwudire, therefore hints
that, “a problem for research may be a real problem which most people recognize to exist”, for
example, “false prophesy in today’s Church” etc. Having said this, let it be noted that, every
effort towards finding a solution to a research problem must be objective and systematic. In other
words, a researcher must not allow his/her personal opinions or subjective impressions to
influence his/her sense of duty during research, but must be open to the works of others, as well
as be willing to accept the truth wherever it may be found. The researcher, as cited above, must
equally be systematic in his/her research efforts, that is, he/her must learn to arrange his/her
works or findings in an orderly manner, if he/she must achieve a dependable knowledge.
FUNCTIONS OF RESEARCH
According to Obiomah and Nwulu (2002:1) research is a means to;
1. Answer man’s questions about life and aspects of human living
2. Extend the boundaries of human knowledge of himself and his society
3. Seek to verify or clarify doubts about different areas of academic endeavour
4. Help to improve the quality of human life
5 Create a good social order
6. Expose other avenues for more research.
TYPES OF RESEARCH
According to Chukwudire (2005:10), “researchers generally agree that there is no
fixed system of classifying research into types” as he notes that, “one obvious fact, however, is
that every research undertaking begins with a statement of problem and ends with suggestions
on how to solve the problem”. In other words, every research obeys some definite rules.
Chukwudire, further remarks that, “problems have various characteristics or features which
inform or determine the methods that can be adopted to conduct an appropriate research. From
Chukwudire’s view, as cited above, one deduces that;

i. Every research problem has a unique nature

ii. The nature of a research problem determines the methods to be used in the research
iii. There is no stereotype solution to a research problem
iv. There are always some definite rules (convention) in solving research problems
Having given a brief analysis of the characteristics of research problems, and how to arrive at
solutions, it becomes proper to list three out of what Obiomah and Nwulu (2002:3-4) call types
of research.
1. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
This type of research deals with scientific or socially manipulated experiments. It involves the
measurement of variables or concepts. It works according to the principles that there must be an
independent variable, which is manipulated. All other variables are held constant. Then,
observation is made of the effect of the independent variable on the dependent. These tests,
observations and experiments necessitate the use of laboratory. Results and conclusions rely
heavily on observation, while references are also made to other previous reports and research
carried out in the same area.
Basic concepts that associate with Experimental Research
Chukwudire (2005:17) lists and explains the following concepts as those which relate to
experimental research.
i. Variable: This is a changeable phenomenon, e.g age, income, beauty and level of
education
ii. Dependent Variable: This is the issue at stake or problem under investigation.
iii. Independent Variable: This is a causative factor that may: lead to a problem or the
independent variable.
iv. Control Group: This is the participant group in a research whose condition or status
quo is not altered by the events of the research.
v. Experimental Group: This is the group that is manipulated to observe the resultant
effects of the manipulation or treatment
An experimental research is the type of research carried out under strictly controlled conditions,
such as in a laboratory setting, a special classroom or work situation. It is also known as
scientific research, and falls under what is referred to as applied research.
2. HISTORICAL RESEARCH
This is the type of research that requires a thorough investigation of the historical records of a
particular phenomenon. It also seeks to substantiate some claims through the analysis of
historical facts and records. It uncovers origins, developments, attendant problems of a particular
phenomenon that is being studied. This type of research relies on historical records which may
include books, periodicals, auto-biographies, newspapers and magazines, diaries and other
history books.
Characteristics of the Historical Research
In the words of Chukwudire (2005:15-16), Historical Research has peculiar features or
characteristics, which include the following:
i Data are obtainable from both primary (eye-witness account of past events) and
secondary (information obtained from books newspapers etc.) sources.
ii Information is often obtained from observation and records of people who took active
part in a historical event rather than from the involvement of the researcher himself/herself
iii. For a Historical Research to be reliable and authentic, there should be careful analysis
of the various sources of materials. This helps to sift the fact and reduce elements of bias and/or
exaggerations
iv. Historical Research process should be systematic and rigorous while actual collection
of information should be exhaustive and comprehensive.
3. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
This type of research is designed to obtain information concerning the current state of a
phenomenon. It carries out in-depth study that is directed towards determining the nature of a
situation, as it is at the time of study. Its aim is to describe what exits with respect to variables of
conditions in a given situation. Descriptive Research could be carried out on many areas of
study and proves to be both informative and educative. Sources of information could be on-the-
spot observation of phenomenon and available data and records.
According to Chukwudire (2005:19), a descriptive research seeks to find out;
i. The characteristics of a large population of variables, using its small sample size as a
basis,
ii. Detailed information about typical cases
iii. Developing trends in a system
iv. Conditions or relationships that exist between two or more variables and
v. Facts about event that had taken place
Classification of Descriptive Research
Chukwudire(2005:20), also, opines that Descriptive Research may be categorized into the
following five classes;
i Survey Research
ii. Case Studies
iii Developmental Research
iv Co relational Research
v. Ex-post-facto research (post mortem)
a. Survey Research
Kerlinger (1973) in Chukwudire (2005:20) defines “Survey Research as the type of research
which studies samples from populations (or universe) to discover frequency of occurrence,
distribution and interrelations of psychological and sociological variables”. By this definition,
Chukwudire (2005:21) remarks that, “a Survey Research aims at gathering information about
variables (such as opinions, feelings or attitudes of peoples about some events) rather than
gathering information about individuals.
Characteristics of a Survey
Chukwudire also, lists the following as the characteristics of a survey:
1. A survey is very relevant in the study of a large population of variables as is the case in
social sciences
2. Since a research population in social sciences is usually large, a survey study is imperative
and should logically rely on samples of the population for effective handling
3. Surveys mostly study variables that cannot lend themselves easily to direct observation of
effective behaviours like opinion, feeling and attitudes.
4. Survey Research was developed initially by psychologists and sociologists, but the methods
were subsequently adopted by other social scientists, including political scientists and
economists.
5. The characteristics of a population are inferred from the sample drawn from that population
6. For a Survey Research, random samples are recommended, because they have been proved to
provide as much useful information as a whole population or universe ….
7. Surveys make elaborated use of interview and questionnaires as instruments for data
collection
8. For any conclusions based on a sample study to be reliable and used to infer population
characteristics, the sample size has to be relatively sizeable and possess all the essential factures/
characteristics of the population.
Types of Survey
Kerlinger (1973) in Chukwudire (2005:22) further presents five types of survey as follows:
i Personal Interview (Face-to-face encounter)
ii Panel Technique
iii. Telephone Survey
vi Mail Questionnaire (which is self administered), and
v Case Study
Personal Interview
Personal Interview is a face-to-face encounter between the interviewer and the interviewee.
It is regarded as the principal and most reliable method of gathering information about people in
a social science research. It has peculiar features, as well as associated merits and demerits.
Panel Technique
A panel, in this context, is a group of people chosen for a research purpose. In this method, a
sample of respondents is selected and interviewed; then re-interviewed and studied at later times.
The panel technique enables the researcher to study changes in the behaviour and attitude of the
participants.
Telephone Survey
This method uses the telephone service to reach the participants. The telephone survey has the
advantage of speed in interpersonal communication and low cost. It can sometimes be useful in
obtaining preliminary information essential to a more comprehensive or in-depth study.
Telephone survey is found very useful in advanced or technologically developed societies where
the telecommunication system is efficient and relatively cheap.
The principal defect of the system obviously, is its inability to yield detailed information.
Some respondents are likely to be unco-operative and reluctant to answer more than simple,
superficial questions particularly if the telephone interviewer is unknown to them.
Mail Questionnaire
 In the Mail Questionnaire method, respondents are reached through mail. This technique
which is relatively popular in education, is best used in conjunction with other techniques.
However, it has two major defects which are;
i. Possible lack of adequate response. Mail responses are generally poor; resulting in not
more than 60 percent return.
ii. Inability of the researcher to check the responses given by the respondents as they are
not physically available
Case study
According to Chukwudire (2005:25), “a case study is the type of research, which singles
out an individual, group of individuals, institution or community for intensive investigation’. The
investigation looks into the background of the object of study, its past and present circumstances,
in great detail. The circumstances of a sample unit or individual may include parentage,
education, professional training, social, economic, political and other essential environmental
considerations.
Characteristics of Case Studies
1. A case study engages in detailed or in-depth investigation of a person, small group of
persons, or an institution. It studies the individual or group in its entirety
2. As case studies examine single subject or small number units, maximum attention is
paid to many variables and circumstances of the subject.
3. The detailed information which case studies yield, in turn, become veritable background
information which could be useful in planning more complex or multi-variable types of research
in education and social sciences
Examples of Topics of Case Studies
i The effects of False Prophecy in the Church. A case study of Pentecostal Churches in
Ogwa
ii Problem of poor welfare packages for Gospel Preachers. The case of Assemblies of
God, Nwaorieubi
iii The menace of cultural influence on the work of God in Orodo Christian Church
c. Developmental Research
Chukwudire (2005:27), also stresses that Development Research is a third example of descriptive
research based on form. This type of research is conducted to investigate issues like patterns and
sequence of growth or changes that take place as a function of time. Such studies are common in
child psychology and business studies. Furthermore, it seeks to find out how some variables or
characteristics of a given population change with time. Studies in this category are common in
biological sciences. Examples of such studies could be determining genetic traits of some
organisms over time.
d. Correlational research
Correlation implies that two things have relationship or a measure of closeness which causes
them to associate or go together. A correlational study, according to Chukwudire (2005:30), is
the type concerned with measuring the degree of relationship or association between two or more
variables that tend to go together. In the words of Obodoeze (1996:11), “Co relational Research
involves establishing the extent of relationship between two variables or among three or more
variables. Usually co relational studies are undertaken so as to ascertain how far scores or
frequencies of observation on two or more than two variables go together in some trend or are
interdependent. In furtherance, Obodoeze opines that “Co relational studies are used to establish
cause and effects of relationships”, as he notes that “examples of Co relational research include
the following
i. Relationship between parents’ socio-economic status and student’s choice of careers
ii. Wealth as predictors of success in politics
iii. Knowledge of mathematics and achievement in physics
iv. Managers traits and their drive in work situations
e. Ex-post-facto research
Ex-post-facto Research, as Chukwudire (2005:31) as well puts out, “is the type of research
which is interested in the analysis of past events or already existing condition with a view to
finding out the factors that are associated with certain occurrences, outcomes or specific types of
behaviour”. According to Obodoeze (1996:18), “this type of research could be regarded as causal
comparative research, as Ogomaka (1992) in Obodoeze (1996:18) says, “it involves finding out
the effect of past factors on what happens afterwards”. This entails determining if an event that
took place in the past or a factor that was present in the past, has any effect on a variable at the
present or at the time of the research. In other words, Ex-post-facto Research, as Obodoeze
moves on to say, “implies an investigation to ascertain whether and to what extent a factor to
which a group was exposed to, in the past, makes the same group different from other groups
which have every other thing in common with the group with exception of being exposed to the
factor at the time of the study”, as he equally gives examples of Ex-post-facto research topics as
follows;
i Exposure of children to war-torn regions and the children’s aggressive propensities
ii Effect of kindergarten education on children’s achievement in primary schools.
RESEARCH PROBLEM AND FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE SELECTION OF
REASERCH TOPIC

Obodoeze (1996:19) opines that, “every research begins with the scholar focusing his/her
attention at identifying a problem which the solution is considered to be useful to his/her
field of study. He further remarks that, “the identification of a problem in one’s field of study
which will form the topic is the first step in a research exercise”. In line with the foregoing,
Chukwudire (2005:62) opines that, “once a problem area is identified for research, the problem
has to be narrowed down to a researchable topic”. He notes further that, “certain factors can, and
do actually influences a student’s choice or selection of a topic for research”. the influence, he
says, could be either way, positive or negative. The factors include the following:
i Interest: The problem area may be of special or particular interest to a student and for
that reason he/she chooses a topic in that area.
ii Curiosity: A topic should be so topical, original or unique in nature that it appeal specially
to a curious, motivated student.
In continuation, Obodoeze (1996:22) renders that;
iii. The topic must be researchable:, as he notes that “many problems are of a philosophical
nature, which can be discussed, but not to the point where objective evidence can provide a
solution. This, he says, the problem, “should women be ordained priest? as stated, is a
philosophical issue, and not subject to scientific determination.
iv. The topic should relate to the researcher’s area of study
v. The topic should be one that would make contribution to learning and improvement
of the society
vi. The study should be accomplishable within the resources available to the student or
researcher, etc.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND RESEARCH HYPOTHESES

1 Research Questions
Chukwudire (2005:67) remarks that, “after stating or defining a research problem and
reviewing some literature, the next logical thing to do is to pose some question(s) which
the answers are likely to lead to solving the research problem”. Research questions are,
therefore, those questions that address aspects of the research problem….
A research problem could be stated in a question or statement form. Research
questions usually break down a research problem into verifiable segments,
Chukwudire concludes
2. Research Hypothesis
Chukwudire (2005:68), also, states that, “a hypothesis is a tentative answer to a
research question. It is also called an intelligent or educated guess of an answer to the
problem of the research under investigation. Research questions could easily be converted into
hypothesis to be tested.
 A hypothesis simply expresses what the researcher thinks could be the answer to an aspect
of the research problem.
However, as a general rule, Chukwudire notes further that, at the end of the investigation, a
hypothesis may or may not be supported by research findings.
Whether or not the hypothesis is supported by research evidence, it has done its job of providing
a starting point for the investigation and directing or guiding the investigation. Hypotheses
ensure that the research does not deviate from the stated purpose of the study.
Having cited the above, Nightingale (201:4-5), gives good examples of what research
questions and research hypotheses are;
Research Question:
i Does the portrayal of celebrities as role models influence youth behaviour in the
society?
Research Hypothesis
i. Portrayal of celebrities as role models influences youth behaviour in the society
ii. Portrayal of celebrities as role models does not influence youth behaviour in society..
Research Question
Is celebrities influence the cause of all social vices on the campus?
Research Hypothesis
i Celebrities influence on youth is the cause of the social and campus vices
ii Celebrities influence on youth is not the cause of the social and campus vices.
RESEARCH PROPOSAL
A research proposal is a précised or brief plan of the work of a researcher. In the words of
Obodoeze (1996:25), “a research proposal is an overview or a gist of what you want to study and
how you are going to embark on it”. Chukwudire (2005:141), cites that “a research proposal
embodies that first three chapters of the main body of a research report” ….which Obodoeze
(1996:25) outlines as follows:
CHAPTER 1
a. Background of the study: here, there is usually a discussion of the major ideas or
comments expressed or made by the writer(s) about the problem
b. Statement of the problem: The researcher at this point introduces the problem,
including the apprehensions expressed by observers or writers about the problem.
c. Purpose of the study: This includes what the study is all about in general terms, that is,
the objective, the aim, the target of the study….
d. Significance of the study: This simply means what the society is likely to benefit from
the successful completion of the research work …
e. Scope of the study: Here, the researcher sets the limits of his work. If the problem is
general or broad, the researcher can narrow it down or delimit it
f. Research Questions and Hypotheses: Research studies are guided by research
questions. And, as a rule, hypotheses are generated in attempts to answer research questions.

CHAPTER 2
a Literature Review: This should form a full chapter. “Literature review” or “Review of
literature” or “Review of related literature is a careful survey of what is already known and
documented about the problem.

CHAPTER 3
Research Methodology
a. Design of the study: The candidate discusses the design of his study, whether, experimental,
quasi- experimental or survey etc.
b. Area of study: The area of the study is defined. Example, Njikoka Local Government Area
of Anambra State.
c. Population: The population is identified and described. Example. All Catholic Women in
Onitsha Urban or all secondary school dropouts in Awka South Local Government Area.
d. Sample and sampling technique: Where applicable, sampling technique is explained.
Example: purposive and simple random sampling techniques will be used in drawing the sample.
Where the aim is to study the entire population, then, this section may not be necessary.
e. Treatment procedure: Here, details of treatment procedure are written where applicable.
Some survey studies may not have this component. It is usually common in experimental and
quasi-experimental research works.
f. Instrument for Data Collection: The student here, explains how the data collecting
instrument will be developed, validated and used in collecting relevant data for the study.
g. Data Analysis Techniques: Here, an explanation of the data analysis technique should form
part of the research proposal...

RESEARCH DESIGN AND GUIDE TO WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT

1. Research Design:
 Research Design is a plan for a research project before data are collected and analyzed.
According to Chukwudire (2005:72), “Research Design is a research plan which considers
various dimensions of the research, including the research population, sample, and sampling
techniques conditions under which the subjects or respondents would be studied, nature of the
research, such as a survey, case study, etc. Research design, basically is a guideline which guides
the researcher towards solving research problems. It defer/varies depending on the nature of the
problem to be studied. It takes into consideration the limitation posed by time, money and
availability of data, which are important factors in determining a research design, as such plans
are expected to be systematic and scientific in nature.
Ways of formulating Research Design
Here, the researcher is expected to provide answers to the following questions
a. What/who will form the population to be studied? By this, we mean that the researcher
must identify or determine his/her population size before going into the study.
b. Is it every member of this population that would be studied? This is usually determined
by population size. It is also influenced by time and money
c. Is/are the population(s) going to be studied in their natural stage or under some
stimulated experience?
d. Which variables are going to be experimented on, and which variable are going to be
under control?
The nature of the study
In the words of Chukwudire (2005:72) “under research design or plan, the researcher
determines the nature of the research, such as whether it should be a survey, a case study, an
experimental study etc. The nature of the study determines other variables like population
sample…..and methods of data analysis.
Population:
In research, the population is not just the number of people. It is used in a broader sense to
include not just people but, also events, objects, animals, items etc who/which are members of
the target of the study as defined by the aims and objectives of the researcher. According to
Obodoeze (1996:6), “one of the earliest tasks of a researcher is the definition of his/her study
population” as he, as well notes that “a population in research refers to animate or inanimate
things on which the study is focused”. He equally outlines that, “a population could be a class,
school libraries, towns, local government areas, states, nations or persons.
Samples
Obodoeze, also, notes that, “a part or section of a population is referred to as a sample. In
some research the entire population of let”s say people, institutions and things are studied, while
in some research only a representative sample is studied.
Methods of sample selection
The following are some methods of selecting a sample size:
a. Random sampling
b. Systematic sampling
c. Stratified sampling
d. Area or cluster sampling
Random sampling:
This is a method of selection which guarantees an equal distribution/selection of the
sample. By this, we mean that every number of the population has equal chance of being
selected. For example, suppose one wants to choose a sample of ten students out of a hundred
students from a school, the procedure should be one student out of every ten students. This
could be done by writing “No” and “Yes” in folded papers for the students to pick. To this end,
any student who picks the paper written “Yes” stands the chance of being selected.
Systematic sampling
This is a sampling technique which is otherwise called interval selection method. It is a
method of selecting at fixed interval (s) from a population arranged severally in an alphabetical
or systematic order. For example, a population of one thousand students where one hundred
students are to be selected. This system could be fixed at every tenth number, which is a row line
or column, etc. This suggests that every number that has the number “ten” in the row stands the
chance of being selected.
Stratified sampling technique
This is a sampling technique whereby the researcher divides the entire population into
strata or sub-groups. After this division, the researcher then uses random sampling method in
selecting stratum. The method of division could be sex, age, status, religion, etc.
Area of cluster sampling
This method is used for a vast or wide spread population. This population is based on
geographical disposition. The cluster is first divided into sampling units, e.g. wards, local
governments, states and the entire nation. Each cluster would be closely together and share
similar characteristics from the cluster, then a random sampling would be made which enables
any member of the cluster to be selected or not.
2 Writing a Research Report
A research report is a format for presenting a research work. There are varieties of formats in
research report presentation. However, the American Psychological Association (APA) style or
format, according to Chukwudire (2005:98) is universally acknowledged as a standard format
and undergoes regular review.
Chukwudire, also, notes that the APA style prescribes five chapters and some relevant
supplements for a research report. The chapters in broad outline are:
Chapter 1 - Introduction
Chapter 2 - Literature Review
Chapter 3 - Research Methodology
Chapter 4 - Analysis of data and results
Chapter 5 - Interpretation and discussion of results

The supplements are References (not bibliography) and appendix (plural appendices)
Chukwudire (2005:99) further states that, the APA style of research report work is in two
sections, namely the preliminary and main sections, which some are hereby listed.

THE PRELIMINARY SECTION OF A RESEARCH REPORT

a. The cover
A bound copy of a research report is usually in a hard cover. The colour may be black,
blue, green, etc. as prescribed by a specific institution/faculty.
b. Title (page)
This first page, contains
1. The title of the research work or topic
2. The author’s or researcher’s full names (and may be with matriculation/Registration
number, in the case of a student in a tertiary institution)
3. Department and faculty (school or college) where the report is to be submitted.
4. The relation of the research to a course or degree requirement (in partial fulfillment….)
5. Year of presenting the research report to the institution.
Worthy of note is that the title (page) is typed in capital letters, single line spaced and centered
between the right and left margins of the page.
A Specimen
THE EFFECT OF POOR WELFARE PACKAGE
OF GOSPEL MINISTERS IN NIGERIA
A CASE STUDY OF MBAITOLI PASTORS
BY
ONYEUKWU JOY BEN
A RESEACH PROJECT PRESENTED
TO THE DEPARTMENT OF THEOLOGY
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF BACHELOR
OF THEOLOGY DEGREE IN PASTORAL COUNSELLING
CROWN UNVERSITY
(SCHOOL OF BIBILCAL STUDIES)
JUNE, 2014

c. Approval (page) or Certification (page)

Chukwudire (2005:101), equally cites that the next page following the title page is the
approval page. He notes, as well that in this page, some key person(s) certify that the research
was actually carried out by the author or researcher under guideline specified by the institution
and moderated by the supervisor(s). The signatories certify that the contents, quality and
presentation of the research report are satisfactory.
According to Chukwudire, “the key persons expected to append their signatures on the
certification page include:
- The researcher’s supervisor(s)
- The head of the department in which the research project is based
- The dean of the school (faculty or college) in which the department is based and
- an external examiner (if any)
The standard format or a approved schedule is as follows:
This is to certify that the Research Project Thesis/Dissertation was carried out by Joy Ben
Onyeukwu of the department of theology, Crown University, Nigeria, and that the quality
and presentation of the report are satisfactory.
Name signature Date
____________________ ________________ _____________
Supervisor’s Name

____________________ ________________ _____________

Head of Department

____________________ ________________ _____________

Dean of school

____________________
External Examiner ________________ _____________

d. Dedication (page)
According to Obodoeze (1996:112), the statement in the dedication page should
be short. Example: the project is dedicated to my beloved mother Mrs. Beatrice Enwereama
e. Acknowledgement:
Here, the researcher registers his/her gratitude to all who contributed to the
overall success of the research endeavour….
f. Abstract or synopsis
This is usually the outline or summary of the major features of the study.
The abstract is usually not more than two hundred words.
g. Table of contents
This is normally a list of all the chapters
that constitute the entire study in the order in which they have been written.
THE MAIN BODY OF A RESEARCH REPORT
Chukwudire (2005:104), further remarks that the main body of a research report is the
entire research. In this section, the research activities of the researcher in respect of each chapter
and subsidiary section are outlined. Based on the foregoing, Obodoeze (1996:113, gives brief
explanations of the main body of a research report.
CHAPTER ONE-INTRODUCTION
1:1 Background of the study
Here, the observation, experience, etc that caught the interest that raised questions in
the mind of the researcher that gave rise to the study are stressed.
1:2 Statement of the problem
This is where the researcher states what exactly is the problem he/she is trying to solve.
1:3 Purpose of the study
At this point, the researcher is expected to state the general goals of the study
1:4 significance of the study
Here, the researcher states the benefits of the study if successfully carried out
1:5 Research Questions
Research questions are the sub-sets of the purpose of a study which the researcher converts into
questions
1:6 Research Hypothesis
This is researcher’s mental guess on how to solve research problem. As a rule, it is the research
questions that are reframed into research hypothesis
1:7 Scope of the Study (or Delimitation)
This is narrowing down the study to a manageable size
CHAPTER TWO – LITERATURE REVIEW
Literature Review usually form a whole of the chapter. This is where the researcher brings to
focus previous studies conducted in the very problem area and other related materials.
CHAPTER THREE – METHODOLOGY
3:1 Area of study
Here, the researcher indicates the geographical area, e.g. Mbaitoli L.G.A, Crown
University, etc. where the study was conducted.
3:2 Design of the study
This is the point where the researcher drops the hint on the type of research employed in
realizing the fundamental objectives of his/her study, whether it is descriptive or survey, etc.
3:3 Population of the study
The population of a study refers to all the people, events, objects, etc. involved in the study
3:4 Sample and sampling technique
Here, the researcher states his/her sample, which is the population of the study, as well as states
the technique by which he/she had chosen a portion of the population for his/her study.
3:5 Instrument for data collection
This is the point, where the researcher states the instrument used for data collection e.g.
questionnaire etc
3:6 Administration of the instrument
Here, the researcher visits the area chosen as sample for his/her study, with the help of research
assistants administers his/her research instrument (e.g. questionnaire) to avoid mistakes.
3:7 Method of data analysis
At this point, the researcher scores the responses or the results of the instrument of his/her study.
CHAPTER FOUR-ANALYSIS OF DATA AND RESULTS
This chapter, may or may not begin with a brief introduction of what the reader is likely to read
about in the chapter. However, the most essential thing about the chapter four of a research work
is to present the analysis of data, usually arranged in tables or graphs.(see chapter four of some
written projects)
CHAPTER FIVE- DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
5:1 Discussion of findings
According to Chukwudire(2005:130),the researcher at this point should do the following:
i Re-state the Research Questions and/or hypotheses which had appeared earlier in chapter 1
and 3 respectively. Chukwudire further states the guiding pillars in the discussion that should as
well follow.
ii try to provide answer to the research questions by turning to the relevant tables (in chapter
4) where the analyzed data had been presented…
iii Give reason(s)to explain the findings/results…
iv In giving such explanations, the researcher may find that the reasons for the differences or
similarities in the findings were due to differences, for instance, in the environment,
participants/subjects, or instruments used to collect data for the present study
v Cite or make references to previous, but related studies with findings similar or dissimilar
to the result of the present study.
5:2 Conclusion
At this point, based on the analysis of data collected for the research and the findings
obtained, the researcher should present in a comprehensive form the conclusion of the study
5:3 Recommendations
Here, the researcher is expected to present both practical and theoretical recommendations
that follows directly from the findings of the study
5:4 Implications of the study (eg. Educational or moral etc.) implication of the findings/study
refers to the message or lesson from the study which calls for necessary actions by different
interest groups or stakeholders
5:5 Suggestions for Further Studies
 Here, according to Chukwudire (2005:133) the researcher recommends to potential
researchers some aspects of his/her study or result of his/her study, which can lead to further
research by any interested researcher ….
5:6 Limitations of the study:
Limitation of the study, which comes up under chapters 5 refers to short comings of the
study, such as poor design of the study, inappropriate sample, poor return of questionnaire, poor
instrument design, item ambiguity, etc. it includes various technical difficulties uncounted in the
course of the study other than financial and time constraints.
5:7 Summary
Here, Chukwudire (2005:134) says,, “it is recommended to end the research report with a
brief account summary of the entire work. This is not the abstract which comes up before chapter
1 (Introduction)
The summary, Chukwudire, further notes should begin with a preamble re-stating the
research problem, then the purpose of the study, methodology, findings, implications, limitation
and suggestions for further studies.
For a better understanding of this lecture on Research Report, the student should do well to get a
copy of a well written project, which he/she should inspect closely as he/she reads/studies the
lesson.
DATA COLLECTION AND DOCUMENTATION
OF SOURCES OF RESEARCH INFORMATION
1. Data Collection:
According to Queen Otti (2007), “data are information, facts and observations in isolation,
which relate to the topic/subject under study”. Research writing cannot be undertaken without
data. This is because, it is the data that we collect and arrange that lead us to results, analysis,
conclusions and suggestions for further investigation.
Instruments of data collection
Otti further says that instruments of data collection, “are devices used in measuring or
recording data”. These are at times referred to as Research instruments. Data collection comes
after the selection of research topic and formulation of research questions/hypotheses. This is
because, it is through the data so collected that the researcher will use to test the hypotheses so
formulated. In other words, research writing cannot be carried out without data collection. We
have the following as instruments for data collection.
a. Questionnaire
b. Interview
c. Test
d. Scale-rating
e. Observation/documentary statistics
f. Experiments etc.
a. Questionnaire
The questionnaire is a set of questions relating to the aims and objectives of a study which
the respondents (sample) are expected to answer by writing responses or opinions about the
questions asked. A questionnaire is otherwise called a written interview.
Questionnaire as an instrument, is a good testing measure in terms of information collection,
though it has its own limitations or disadvantages. It covers a wide area, and tests a large sample
size. This questions are structured to incorporate the personal data and questions to be answered.
According to Chukwudire (2005:84), questionnaire has the following merits and demerits
Merits.
i Many respondents can be reached within a short time, even by mail
ii. A variety of delivery systems could be employed to reach the respondents.
They include, “drop and go,” “post”, “wait and collect, etc.
Demerits
i There can be faked responses, as respondents try to please the researcher
ii Some of the delivery systems, such as, drop, go away and return to collect”
and the post system do not ensure 100% return of accurately completed
questionnaire, etc.
b. Interview
Interview is an oral questionnaire. It is a face-to –face interaction situation
in which the interviewer asks the interviewee questions orally. Interview as a
research instrument gives a very good result, if it is
well conducted. Time consumption and money are some
of the limitations or disadvantages of interview
c. Test
This is also a research instrument used in data collection. It is an
instrument used in collecting data, especially in schools to determine the learning
ability of students. Test is of two types, namely;
i Achievement test and
ii Aptitude test
i Achievement test
This is a test given at the end of an instruction to find out the learning ability of students or how
much learning the learner has acquired. It is very helpful in determining the academic status of
the student or testee. During the achievement test, examinations/questions based on what is
taught are given, marked and scores collected .
ii Aptitude Tests
These are tests which aim at finding out how much the learner can learn in future or how much
he/she can think. It could be looked at as a predictive tests, which predicts an individual:’s
capacity to acquires improved information/performance with additional training
d. Rating Scale
This is a research instrument whereby the rater assigns attributes to the ratee, according to
the rater’s observation/ experience about the ratee. It is a scale that indicates the degree to which
each attribute is present in the object/ratee from the rater’s point of view. These rating attributes
could be friendliness, neatness, reading ability, speech ability, science ability, lateness,
responsibility, etc. The scoring could be between zero – 5, for the high depending on the rater.
Zero for nil, one for very how, 2 for low, 3 for average, 4 for above average and 5 for excellent,
as the case may be. The rating scale has its limitations and one of them is that it has subjective
effect.
e. Observation
Observation is another research instrument used to obtain an individual’s behaviour,
objects or situation. By direct observation, the researcher is able to see or get first hand
information about the person(s) objects or situation, and so not much information is lost
f. Experiment
This is a research instrument that is based on scientific proof. It is a form of data collection
whereby the researcher performs experiment on a burning issue, having the treatment and the
control groups, which he/she collects the results of the experiment as a valid data/information, as
a result of the experiment which he later uses in his/her analysis or generalization.
Sources of Data
Queen Otti (2007) also, remarks that “data can be generated from two main sources” namely;
a. The primary source and
b. The secondary source
a. Primary source of Data
The primary source of data has to do with eye-witness account, in the form of official
records, such as file interview, minutes of meetings, individuals and picture, etc.
b. Secondary source of Data
 The secondary source of data hinges on the accounts of events that were not actual
witnessed by the reporter. To this end, the reporter will be reporting the information that is
handed over to him/her by someone else. In line with this, Obodoeze (1996:59) lists what he
calls “sources of published secondary information”, which he says are;
a. Government Publications
b. Magazines and Journals
c. Professional Associations Publications
d. Newspapers and Almanacs
e. General Reference Books, e.g. Encyclopedias, Dictionaries, Directories , etc
f. Monographs or textbooks
g. Microfilm
h. Magnetic tapes, computer memories and other information storage and retrieval
systems.
2. Documentation of sources of research information
According to Obiomah and Nwulu (2002:54) “many styles of documentation of sources exist,
but the most widely used are the MLA (Modern languages Association) and the APA (American
Psychological Association). Generally, the MLA style is used by scholars in the liberal arts or
the humanities, while the APA system is used by those in the social sciences and science.
However, in this course, we shall be giving attention to the APA style of documentation, which
is referred to as referencing. In the words of Chukwudire (2005:135), “the essence of
referencing is to give credibility to one’s work and facilitate replication of the study, if need be.
In this connection, Obiomah and Nwulu (2002:66), give the APA specimen reference as follows

Obechina, E.N. (1975) Culture, tradition

and Society in the West African novel
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Obiomah, M.A. and Ton. – Duruaku, C (2000)
Communication in English (part three) Owerri
Cherry Bran publishers
Emenyonu, E. (1998). The rise of the Igbo novel
Ibadan: Oxford University press
Obiomah and Nwulu (2002:66-67) further note that in the APA style of referencing:
a. The author’s name begins with the surname, followed by abbreviated letters for the first
name and other names
b. The first word of the title and subtitle and all proper nouns are capitalized. Others remain in
small letters
c. Author’s name begins at the margin, while subsequent lines following the first line are
indented (as in paragraph form)
d. The date of publication comes directly after the author’s name and is enclosed within
parenthesis.
e. The title of the book is underlined. Only the first word and other proper Nouns are capitalized
f. The abbreviation ”p” and “pp” for “page” and “pages” respectively, within parentheses
should come before the page numbers of magazine and
g. The place of publication is followed by a colon, after which comes the name of the publisher
h. Names should be presented in alphabetical order.
In conclusion, this lecture note is an attempt by the compiler to instill in the freshmen to the
course, the basic principles which would stir them into the actual writing of academic projects.
However, since there are deliberate omissions of certain topics on the subject- matter,
considering the level of the students or learners the work targets, it becomes advisable that
additional helps be sought from books and other materials written by other professionals on the
subject under review.
PUBLISHED 2014
REFERENCES

Chukwudire, , H. U. C. (2005), Basic Research Methodology

in Education and Social Science, Owerri,
Ambix Printers Nigeria.
Obodoeze, F.O. (1996), Modern Textbook of Research
Methodology, Enugu Academic Publishing Company
Obiomah, M.A. and Nwulu, V. C. (2002) Research Methodology
(A step-By- Step Guide) Second edition, Port
Harcourt, Zelon Enterprises
Onyeukwu, B. L. (2006), Conflict of the Western Education
and African Value in the Up-brining of the
Nigerian Child, Nsugbe, Unpublished
Onyeukwu, N. (2010), The Negative Effects of for
portraying celebrities as role Models Amongst Youth (A
case study of Federal Polytechnic, Nekede) Unpublished
Otti, Q. (2007) Lecture Note on Research Methods, International Institute
of Journalism, Abuja (Owerri Campus), Unpublished