UNIVERSITY OF MINES AND TECHNOLOGY (UMaT),

TARKWA

FACULTY OF MINERAL RESOURCES TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL AND SAFETY ENGINEERING

ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING

COMPILED BY

DR ISHMAEL QUAICOE
 COURSE ASSESSMENT

Assessment of Students

The students’ assessment will be in two forms:

• Continuous Assessment [40%] (Quizzes, Class Attendance, Assignments and Group

Work)
• End of Semester Examination [60%].
The results of the Continuous Assessment shall be made known to students at least one week before
the start of the Semester Examinations. The End of Semester shall be marked over 60.

Assessment of Lecturer

At the end of the course each student will be required to evaluate the course and the lecturer’s
performance by answering a questionnaire specifically prepared to obtain the views and opinions
of the student about the course and lecturer. This exercise is schedule to take place from Monday,
April 15, 2019 - Friday, April 19, 2019. Please be sincere and frank!

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Contents Pages
COURSE ASSESSMENT i

Assessment of Students i

Assessment of Lecturer i

TABLE OF CONTENTS ii

CHAPTER 1 1

OVERVIEW OF POLLUTION AND CONTAMINATION 1

1.1 Types of Pollutants: 1

1.2 Agents Causing Pollution: 2

1.3 Sources of Pollution 3

CHAPTER 2 5

OVERVIEW OF MODELING 5

2.1 Modeling Principles 8

2.2 Creation of Environmental Models 9

2.3 Model Building 10

2.4 Modelling Approaches 12

2.4.1 Algebraic Solutions 12

2.4.1 Modelling using Differential Equations 13

CHAPTER 3 14

WATER QUALITY 14

3.1 The Water Cycle 14

3.2 Structure of Water 15

3.3 Unique Properties of Water 16

3.4 Wastewater 16

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 3.5 Water and Human Health 16

3.6 Water Quality Parameters 17

3.7 Physical and Chemical Parameters 17

3.7.1 Temperature 17

3.7.2 pH 18

3.7.3 Total Dissolved Solids and Total Suspended Solids 18

3.7.4 Colour 18

3.7.5 Turbidity 18

3.8 Metals 19

3.8.1 Major Cations 19

3.8.2 Heavy Metals 20

3.9 Anions 21

3.9.1 Sulphates 21

CHAPTER 4 23

WATER QUALITY MODELS 23

4.1 Types of Water Quality Models 23

4.2 Water Quality Index 23

4.3 Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) 28

4.3.1 Why soils have a CEC 28

4.4 Water Aptitude for Irrigation 29

4.5 Ion Balancing 31

4.6 Dissolved Oxygen Sag Curves in Streams: The Streeter–Phelps Equation 32

4.6.1 Basic Input Sources (Wastewater Flow Rates and BOD Levels) 35

4.7 Mixing Zone Model 44

4.8 Piper’s Diagram 45

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 4.8.2 Procedure for plotting 46

4.8.3 Interpretation of The Piper Diagram 47

CHAPTER 5 52

DISPERSION AND DEPOSITION MODELLING OF ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTANTS 52

5.1 Sources of Air Pollution 52

5.2 Lapse Rate 53

5.2.1 Types of Lapse Rate 54

5.3 Air pollutants 56

5.4 Air Quality Index (AQI) 57

5.4.1 Communication of AQI 60

5.4.2 Computation of AQI 60

5.5 Exceedence Factor 62

5.6 Gaussian Dispersion Model 63

5.6.1 Gaussian Coefficients 68

5.6.2 Plume Rise 69

CHAPTER 6 72

NOISE 72

6.1 Environmental Noise Study 72

6.1.1 Elements of Environmental Noise 73

6.1.2 The Decibel Noise Scale 74

6.1.3 Multiple Sound Sources 76

6.1.4 Sound Pressure at a Distance 76

6.2 Statistical Noise Levels 77

6.2.1 Computation of Noise Indices 77

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 CHAPTER 1

OVERVIEW OF POLLUTION AND CONTAMINATION

Is there really a difference between the terms, pollutant and contaminant? Some would argue no,
while others will argue vehemently yes. In the United States, environmentalists and those working
for Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) prefer the terms pollution and pollutant. But what
makes a chemical a pollutant? Basically, this distinction is determined by where the chemical is
located and how much of the chemical is present. For example, a bottle of mercury chloride is
typically not considered a pollutant when it is sitting on the shelf in a chemical storeroom. But pour
that same chemical down the drain, and it immediately becomes a pollutant, even at extremely low
concentrations. Likewise, if a chemical is present in an environmental media below the
concentration deemed to be a problem (which is subject to a variety of views and laws), then the
chemical is not a problem and contamination is not present. Thus, the legal definition usually
specifies two factors, where the pollutant is and its concentration. Contamination is therefore the
presence of a substance where it should not be or at concentrations that are not harmful. Pollution
is contamination that results in or can result in adverse biological effects to resident communities.
All pollutants are contaminants, but not all contaminants are pollutants. Differentiating pollution
from contamination cannot be done solely on the basis of chemical analyses because such analyses
provide no information on bioavailability or on toxicity. Effects-based measures such as laboratory
or field toxicity tests and measures of the status of resident, exposed communities provide key
information, but cannot be used independently to determine pollution status. Laboratory studies can
be predictive, but are rarely realistic.

1.1 Types of Pollutants:

In terms of ecosystem, pollutants can be classified into two basic groups:

A. Non-degradable Pollutants
These are not broken down the natural processes like action of microbes. Most of these Mutants get
accumulated in the environment and also get biologically magnified as these moves along the food
chains in an under composed state. These may also react with other compounds in the environment
to produce toxins. These can be further subdivided into two more classes:
i. Waste e.g. glass, plastic, phenolic, aluminum cans etc.

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 ii. Poisons e.g. radioactive substances, pesticides, smog gases, heavy metals like mercury, lead
and their salts.
B. Degradable pollutants or Biodegradable Pollutants
These are natural organic substances which can be decomposed, removed or consumed and thus,
reduced to acceptable levels either by natural processes like biological or microbial action or by
some engineered systems, like sewage treat-ment plants. The degradable pollutants can be further
sub-divided into two categories:
i. Rapidly degradable or non-persistent pollutant: The degradation of these pollutants is very
faster process. For example, the decomposition of sewage and wastes of animals and plants
is a faster process. The domestic sewage can be rapidly decomposed by natural processes.
However, the problems become complicated when the input into environment get exceeded
of the decomposi-tion or dispersal capacity.
ii. Slowly degradable or persistent pollutant: The degradation of these pollutants is a very
slower process. It seems as if the amount of pollutant remains unchanged with time. For
example, degradation of synthetic compounds and radioactive elements like Iodine 137,
Strontium 90 or Plutonium 239 takes a longer period of time.

1.2 Agents Causing Pollution:

Depending upon the nature of the pollutants and their interaction with environment process, the
pollution caused by different agents can be classified into the following categories:
a. Pollution caused by solid wastes. The solid wastes include the pollutants like garbage,
rubbish, ashes, large wastes formed due to demolition and construction processes, dead
animals wastes, agricultural wastes etc. Prom the above examples, it is clear that the solid
wastes may be domestic and industrial in nature
b. Pollution caused by liquid wastes. Oxygen cycle is nicely operated in aquatic system
maintaining ecological balance. That is, the dissolved oxygen is used by aquatic living
organisms for their respiration and in return, these liberate carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide
molecules are again used by green plants and algae in the process of photosynthesis. During
photosynthesis, oxygen is again liberated to water which remains in dissolved state.
However, if some organic matter (food for bacteria) enters the water course, then bacteria
oxidise these materials consuming oxygen from water. At such a condition, if the process of
re oxygenation is slower than the process of deoxygenation, then the river will be devoid of
life sustaining dissolved oxygen and aquatic living organisms will die. The most important

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 source of organic pollutants is sewage which contains faecal matter, urine, kitchen washing
and oil wash-ings. Sewage also contains a large number of pathogenic and harmless bacteria.
The strength of organic waste material of sew-age is measured in terms of bio-chemical
oxygen demand (BOD). The value is expressed in terms of mg. of oxygen per liter of waste
for 5 days at 20C. If the volume of B.O.D. is below 1500 mg per liter, the sewage is termed
as weak waste, if it is 4000 mg per liter it is medium and above this value it is termed as
strong Waste. However, if liquid industrial wastes containing acids, alkalis and poisonous
substances enter the river, the aquatic life is affected and self-purification system of water
is impaired. Pesticides and herbicides which enter water may Kill some organisms or
accumulate in fishes which, when consumed by man, pass on the chemicals giving rise to
cumulative poisoning.
c. Pollution caused by gaseous wastes. The gaseous wastes include Carbon monoxide (CO),
Sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), Ozone (O3) and smog gases (composed of
a complex mixture of photochemical oxidation products of hydrocarbons). These gases are
more abundant in the atmosphere of industrial cities.
d. Pollution caused by wastes without weights. This type of pollution is also known as
pollution by energy waste. Wastes without weight may be of the following types:
i. Radioactive Substance: Despite of all possible precautions in the functioning and
maintenance of nuclear reactors, it is seen that minute quantity of radioactive waste escapes
out into the environment. From the mining operation of the uranium to the use and final
disposal of wastes from the reactor, radioactive materials continuously escape out into the
environment. Besides, a lot of radio-active wastes enter into environment during the nuclear
tests.
ii. Heat: A large quantity of waste heat energy is dissipated into environment by the way of hot
liquid streams or hot gases released by industries and automobiles.
iii. Noise: The unwanted sound is known as noise. These sources of noise for the general public
are the machines in the industry, traffic noise, indiscriminate use of transistor, radios, public
address systems.

1.3 Sources of Pollution

Sources of pollutants are commonly divided into point source, non-point source pollutions.

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 i. Point sources are well-defined sources such as the end of a pipe, smoke stack, or drain.
ii. Nonpoint sources are less well defined, but contain all sources where you cannot directly
pinpoint the emission. Transboundary pollution is a type of non-point source pollution.
Sometimes, pollution does not affect only one area in which the pollution happened but
contamination spreads to many other places
The distinction becomes a bit vaguer, depending on physical scale. For example, if you are studying
a large watershed (the land surface that drains into a stream or lake), a cattle holding lot could be
considered a point source. Obviously, the farm is the source of the cattle waste. But on a smaller
scale, what is the point source? The answer is possibly each cow, or the entire holding lot, since the
pollution will be spread over its entirety. But, in general the terms point and nonpoint are used to
describe sources.
Below is a list of sources of waste by categories and the general wastes for each category are also
given. This list is certainly not complete, but contains the major sources of waste generated and
provides a starting point for discussion of waste sources
a. Agricultural: field and chemical wastes, nutrients (fertilizers), pesticides/herbicides,
petroleum fuels, feedlot waste, dairy waste
b. Chemical industry: metal products, metal sludges, nonmetal waste, electrical equipment
waste, detergents/soaps/cleaners, petroleum-related waste, metal plating, solvents,
wastewaters and off-specification wastes, pesticides, insecticides, rodenticides, herbicides.
c. Mining industry: Mine tailings, mineral leaching (cyanide), acid mine drainage, coal,
smelting waste, atmospheric particulates.
d. Energy industry: petroleum-based waste, solvents, gas and vapor emissions, coal tars, boiler
waste, nuclear waste, petroleum stored in underground storage tanks (gasoline stations),
precursors to acid rain and smog
e. Municipal and hazardous landfills: all chemicals disposed in the landfill, incinerators,
incomplete combustion of feedstocks, combustion by-products, metals, particulates.
f. Medical industry: biodegradable waste (biohazards), pharmaceutical waste, solvents.
g. Food processing: waste food products, rinsing waste, slaughterhouse waste.
h. Domestic waste: detergents/cleaners, pesticides fertilizers, paints/solvents gasoline

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 CHAPTER 2

OVERVIEW OF MODELING
According to the US Environment Protection Agency (2009), a model is defined as a simplification
of reality that is constructed to gain insights into select attributes of a physical, biological, economic,
or social system. A formal representation of the behaviour of system processes, often in
mathematical or statistical terms. The basis can also be physical or conceptual. Models can be used
to improve understanding of natural systems and their reactions to changing conditions. They can
also help inform decisions and policy. Models are becoming increasingly sophisticated as
computational power increases and our knowledge of processes and behaviours improves, but they
will never completely replicate the full complexity of environmental system, and must be based on
simplifications of, and assumptions about, environmental processes. Despite these limitations,
models can be invaluable tools in helping diagnose what has taken place, to examine the causes of
behaviour and to forecast outcomes and future events.
Models are often used to represent more complicated or larger systems. Perhaps the most common
model we use is a road map. Scientists and engineers use models to help understand how something
in the past happened or to predict what will happen in the future. These models can be very simple
or very complicated, depending on the system being imitated or the accuracy desired in the
calculations.
We have three primary scientific tools at our disposal to evaluate transformation and transport
processes in the environment or to find solutions to environmental pollution problems and make
decisions based on these solutions. These are, in no particular order:
i. Direct field observations
ii. Laboratory scale tests and physical modeling studies and
iii. Mathematical modeling.
We recognize that transformation and transport processes that may occur in the environment and
the accurate characterization of these processes both in the physical and also the mathematical
domain are extremely complex. Thus, each of these tools has its appropriate place and mutually
supporting role, as well as advantages and disadvantages of its use in understanding and solving
environmental pollution problems. It is well established in the literature that field observations tend
to be costly but necessary. They are commonly used after the primary symptoms of the problems
emerge at a contamination site. In this sense, they are extremely useful in characterizing the extent

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of the environmental problem, identifying its bounds or in evaluating whether the proposed remedial
strategies are contributing to the solution of the environmental problem at a specific site. Laboratory
studies, on the other hand, may be only useful in understanding the basic principles governing the
problem at a micro or molecular scale. Findings and knowledge gained at this scale may experience
significant problems in up-scaling the results to the field-scale analysis. Nevertheless, laboratory
studies are extremely useful for both solving problems and for understanding micro scale issues at
various stages of environmental pollution investigations and remediation.
In this course, we will focus our attention on the use of mathematical modeling techniques in
evaluating environmental transformation and transport processes. Thus, it is important that we
discuss problems we may encounter during model building and application, and the expectations
we may have from a modeling study in an environmental application. First, we should agree that
mathematical models cannot help us in the problem recognition stage of an environmental pollution
problem. However, they are very useful tools in the “gaining control” and “finding solutions” stages
of our problem solution spectrum. They are cost effective and can be easily set up to test “what if”
scenarios associated with a remedial application or a contamination problem. This cannot be easily
studied with the other two scientific tools. The downside is the approximate nature of these tools
which should always be kept in mind when their outcome is utilized. The level of contribution of
each of these three tools to an analysis throughout the environmental problem-solving spectrum is
shown in Fig. 2.1. Mathematical models are an abstraction of the environmental system and they
are based on our understanding of the physical principles that govern the system. Since models are
always going to be an abstraction of a system or a physical process, their outcome should always
go through a careful and detailed interpretation stage before the results obtained from a model are
determined to be representative of the behavior of the process or the system modeled (Fig. 2.2).
The purpose of mathematical model building and modeling is to simulate the behavior of the
environmental system being modeled and choose solutions where and how to invest for the
environment’s quality improvement on the basis of comparison among human needs with given
quality and investment option. Models are built to represent the system behavior in a controlled and
cost effective computational environment. In this sense, modeling has become a common building
block of most scientific applications. Using this tool, we may observe, analyze, synthesize and
rationalize the behavior of these systems under controlled conditions, and also we may evaluate the
performance of the proposed solutions to an environmental problem

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Fig 2.1 Scientific Tools in Assessing, Evaluating and Solving Environmental Problems

Fig 2.2 Principles of Modelling Philosophy

A common feature of all models is that they are all based on the “concept” of simplification of the
environmental system they are built to represent. This simplification may be achieved either through
reducing the dimensionality of the system, elimination of less important processes that govern or
affect the system, or through the introduction of simplified definitions for the parameters and
variables that are used to describe the system. All of these or a selected subset of these
simplifications are always observed in models built to represent an environmental process or an
environmental system. As a rule of thumb, modeling should always be considered to be a cost
effective, efficient but approximate substitute for observing the modeled system behavior in its

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natural environment. Since observation of a process cannot always be achieved in a timely and cost-
effective manner, the models are here to stay among our scientific arsenal of tools as an important
and alternative method. The three evaluation tools identified above also differ from one another in
the instruments that they may use to perform the analysis. In this sense, field study tools and
laboratory tools are more closely related. Both of these methods may use electronic instrumentation
to record and measure macro scale or micro scale processes. To provide a systematic procedure,
these instruments may be linked to a computer or the observations can be done manually. Finally,
the analysis tools described above should always be used in coordination with one another. Field
studies should support the laboratory studies or vice versa, and mathematical modeling should
support both of these efforts and vice versa. The advantages of any one tool should be exploited to
the utmost for the benefit of finding a satisfactory solution to the problem. The outcome of each
tool should be checked and verified with the outcome of the other tool. In this sense, these tools
should be viewed as complementing, rather than competing scientific methods.

2.1 Modeling Principles

Principal steps involved in modeling and the uncertainty and approximations introduced at each
step are summarized in Fig. 2.2in their simplest form. As a preliminary definition, one can say that
to model is to abstract from the natural system a description which addresses a question we have
posed for the system. All models are developed to answer a specific question about the system
outcome. The use of models in a specific application cannot and should not go beyond the question
posed during the model development stage. This is an inherent approximation and limitation that is
involved in all models. After this stage several other uncertainties are introduced in model coding
and analysis. Some of these uncertainties are associated with mathematical representations used in
modeling and others are related to the choice of model parameter characterization during
implementation. When the model is used in the simulation phase it may produce a significant
amount of output. The evaluation of this output is identified as the interpretation stage. Thus, the
overarching goal of mathematical modeling is first to come up with an abstract representation of an
environmental system and to characterize this abstraction in a mathematically consistent manner
such that it yields easy to use and understandable representations of the outcome, and second to use
the outcome to interpret the behavior of the modeled system within the bounds of the model. Within
this sequence, approximations and uncertainties are introduced to the analysis at each stage as
shown in Fig.2.2.

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A common aspect of all mathematical models is that there is an input and an output component.
Outputs are tied to inputs in some mathematical sense which describes the behavior of the abstracted
physical problem. Since all models are approximate representations of a natural system, they are
commonly designed to accept only a subset of all possible inputs an environmental system may
have. Consequently, models can only generate a subset of outputs that is expected from an
environmental system. In other words, we can never see the complete output or picture of the
modeled system. When the inputs of a model are limited the outputs will be limited as well.

As a rule of thumb the following are key elements of a successful modeling effort:

i. Understand the problem and clearly state the question that needs to be addressed.
ii. Evaluate existing models first, do not re-invent the wheel.
iii. Create a conceptual model that is logical and represents the conceptual model in consistent
mathematical terms.
iv. In developing the model, involve the user or think like a user.
v. Simplify the conceptual model, its mathematical interpretation and its user interface. This
may lead to a trial and error process. Don’t be shy of remodeling.
vi. When complete make sure that the model satisfies the objective and mission of the effort.
vii. Design the simulations such that they provide answers to the question posed. Do not expect
answers beyond the questions posed.

2.2 Creation of Environmental Models

The key elements for creation of the suitable environmental models are related with the good
knowledge about a change in state of a system, presented with the difference in properties between
the final and the beginning state. The process of model building is an iterative process, which starts
with expression of a working hypothesis, typically based on a prior knowledge about the system in
the form of mathematical model. An experiment is like a window through which nature is viewed.
Our view is never perfect.

Interaction between experimental data collection and data analysis provides the opportunity for
improving precision by shifting emphasis to different variables, making repeated observations, and
adjusting experimental conditions. The assessment of environmental quality is always related with
the determination of characteristics the environment. For example, it is not possible to assess water
quality without evaluation of the water quantity. That is why water quality modelling includes as a

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main part the water quantity modelling, which gives the answer; how water movement affects the
concentration of dissolved and suspended substances.

The creation of a water quality model involves the following 2 stages:

1. Analysis of the system - this may be theoretical, observational, or experimental

2. Synthesis of a mathematical replica of the system

2.3 Model Building

The main steps of model building may be explained as follows

1. Formulation of objectives - In model building, the starting point should always be the
identification of the goals of the modeling study. As more precisely the objectives are
formulated, preferably in quantitative terms, the more satisfactory model is possible to be
created and adapted. Given the list of goals stated, we should expect the dominant features
of the model built to be related to the goals.
2. Review of theoretical background - It should include an analysis of the processes affecting
water quality, method of representation, and appropriate ranges for any model parameter,
review and compile all relevant information at both local and regional scales;
3. Formulation of the model - This step involves a decision about the type of model,
elimination of the relationships that do not affect the output results, examination of
alternative types of models and careful relationships of base data collection. This
information is integrated into a conceptual model, in general through the introduction of
simplifying assumptions and qualitative interpretations regarding the flow and the transport
process.
4. Creation of a model structure –Generally the process begins by identifying the large
subdivisions of a model and proceeds by fitting these together in diagrammatic form with a
flow chart. It is better the model to be created from different modules (separated parts) and
every part to be developed, tested and calibrated apart.
5. Formulation of equations – On the basis of the review of theory and the model structure it
is possible to state the relationships involved in some formal mathematical or statistical way.
Adoption of a hierarchical approach to this process often results in a clearer set of equations
in which the influence of primary and secondary relations can be more easily appreciated.
Some preliminary data may be needed to guide the choice.

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6. Formulation of methods of solution – Only in a few special cases it may be possible to
solve the equations analytically, but most models involve the use of numerical methods for
solving partial differential equations, interpolation, etc. The choice of the appropriate
numerical technique is crucial for numerical stability and accuracy and also for minimizing
computational effort.
7. Selection of a computer code - The decision depends on the project goals. If a modelling
is intended only to provide a first approximation, a simple code may be appropriate. The
form of input and output results and the choice of the language, are in dependence of the
available facilities.
8. Calibration of the model –It is essential that completely independent data sets are used for
the calibration procedure. Calibration is one of the most critical, difficult, and valuable steps
in the model application process. After a pollutant transport model is calibrated to a
satisfactory degree, it is often applied to predict and simulate the future contaminant
migration.
9. Validation of the model – It is impossible to apply the model as representative without
suitable proof. The validation of the model depends on the local possibilities. Model
validation, evaluation, confirmation, or testing is the process of assessing the degree of
reliability of the calibrated model using one or more independent data sets. Ideally it is
possible to compare the output results from the model with the observed data.
10. Statistical assessment of paired observations and simulations - The basic statistical
parameters and goodness-of-fit criteria are: average error, standard deviation, correlation
coefficient, index of agreement, per cent deviation per year by flow and pollutants, and
others.
11. Sensitivity analysis –This procedure is used before and after calibration mainly to test the
responsiveness and sensitivity of the numerical model to every input parameter. The
sensitivity analysis is useful for: examining the likely uncertainty in simulation results due
to uncertainty in model input parameters, and examining how well parameters are likely to
be estimated from the available data for model calibration. Sensitivity analysis provides
important information on how uncertainties in the model parameters affect the model results.
If the model results are highly sensitive to a particular parameter, the uncertainty associated
with that parameter will significantly affect the ability of the model to make meaningful

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 interpretations and predictions. Sensitivity analysis is the mean of determining the model
parameters.

2.4 Modelling Approaches

2.4.1 Algebraic Solutions

A linear model is the simplest and easiest to understand, since we tend to think in a linear manner.
Figure 2.3 shows a common plot used in chemistry to calibrate an instrument. Instruments that
measure pollutant concentrations need daily calibration, accomplished by analysing solutions with
known pollutant concentrations. The instrument responds to these different known concentration
levels with a proportional signal. These outputs are created by the instrument’s interaction with the
sample, and they are expressed in units such as millivolts, transmission (a function of absorbance),
peak height, and peak area. We use these data to make a calibration plot such as the one shown in
Figure [Link], we derive a linear relationship (y=10.0x+0.05) between instrument response and
concentration, and we can then use the instrument to measure a solution containing a pollutant. If
the instrument produces a response of 65 units (as shown on the y-axis) for a sample, we can trace
the response over to the calibration line and then down to the concentration line and determine the
concentration of pollutant in the sample (6.49 mg/L in this example).This is typically how
instrumental measurements are made. This concept can be extended to environmental systems,
where we look at flow rate and travel time in a system. If the water or wind flow rate is 2.00 m/sec,
then we can calculate that it will take 10 sec to travel 20.0 m. Linear relationships are easy to
understand, but unfortunately many environmental processes are not linear.

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 Fig 2.3 A Linear Calibration Model.
2.4.1 Modelling using Differential Equations

The models used to predict the concentrations of pollutants in environmental media fall into a class
of equations referred to as differential equations, which fall into a special class of calculus.
Differential equation techniques have been used to derive most of the governing equations given in
modelling the environment, which expresses changing pollutant concentration with time in rivers,
lakes, and groundwater and atmospheric systems. It is beyond the scope and intention of this course
to show the derivation of these equations. Our goal is to show the use of these equations and learn
which model parameters affect pollutant concentrations. Thus, in the following chapters we will
only give the governing equation.

But how realistic is our differential equation approach to modelling? For simple systems where you
are only looking at a basic understanding, these approaches are fine. However, industry, the
government, and the public demand a much more involved (and sometimes more accurate)
representation of the environmental system being modelled. Thus, more complicated methods have
been developed, and these are the ones used by professionals today.

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 CHAPTER 3

WATER QUALITY
There are several factors responsible for life on Earth, including the Earth’s ideal distance from the
sun and a stable planetary rotation, which result in hospitable conditions. A view of the Earth from
space almost tells the complete story as to why life as we know it thrives; the planet’s surface
consists of approximately 71% water. Water vapor rising from the oceans replenishes the
landmasses with essential freshwater and, as a greenhouse gas, warms the Earth. Water acts not
only as the medium of life but also as a transport medium for chemicals that can threaten life.
Whether we are discussing water in rivers, lakes, or groundwater, or as it leaves the oceans and
passes through and cleanses the atmosphere, the unique properties of water will play an important
role in understanding transport phenomena.

3.1 The Water Cycle

Water, one of the abundant compounds found in nature, is covering approximately three-fourths of
the surface of the earth. Over 97% of the total quantity of water is in the oceans and other saline
bodies of water and is not readily available for our use. Over 2% is tied up in polar ice caps and
glaciers and in atmosphere and as soil moisture, which is inaccessible. An essential element for
livelihood, domestic, industrial and agricultural activities, we have to depend upon only 0.62% of
water found in fresh water lakes, rivers and groundwater supplies, irregularly and non-uniformly
distributed over the vast area of the globe. Water occurs on Earth in distinct settings that we
generally refer to as compartments: atmosphere, land, groundwater, rivers, lakes, and oceans. The
water cycle is the exchange between these compartments and is a highly dynamic system. Figure
3.1 is a simplified representation of the global water cycle
Solar radiation causes evaporation. Through evaporation from surface waters or by
evapotranspiration from plants, water molecules convert into atmospheric vapour. Atmospheric
water condenses and falls to the earth as rain and snow. Once on the earth’s surface, water flows
into streams, lakes and eventually oceans or percolates into the soil and into aquifers.

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Fig 3.1 The Hydrological Cycle
3.2 Structure of Water

Water molecule (H2O) is composed of one oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms. Each hydrogen
atom is covalently bonded to the oxygen via a shared pair of electrons. Water has a partial negative
charge near the oxygen atom due to the unshared pairs of electrons and partial positive charge near
the hydrogen atom.
An electrostatic attraction between the partial positive charge and the partial negative charge results
in the formation of hydrogen bond as shown in Figure 3.1. The hydrogen bond is responsible for
joining of several water molecules together. Most of the anomalous properties of water can be
explained on the basis of the presence of hydrogen bonds.

Fig 3.2 Hydrogen Bonding between Water Molecules

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3.3 Unique Properties of Water

1. Water shrinks on melting (ice floats on water)

2. Unusually high melting point
3. Unusually high boiling point
4. Unusually high surface tension
5. Unusually high viscosity
6. Unusually high heat of vaporization
7. Unusually high specific heat capacity

3.4 Wastewater

Water is an essential ingredient of life. House as well as industry consume water and give out
wastewater. Sanitary sewage is of domestic origin and its quantity depends on the number of people
and nothing to do with the weather. Hence it is called Dry Weather Flow (DWF). On the other
hand, runoff from catchments (particularly from roofs and roads) because of heavy rainfall is called
Storm Water and is directly dependent on the intensity and duration of rainfall. Industrial
wastewater is the effluent delivered out of a particular industry. Its quality and quantity depends
upon nature of industry, raw materials used, manufacturing process and house-keeping. Their
characteristics vary widely from industry to industry. Water pollution is defined as contamination
of water or alteration of the physical, chemical or biological properties of natural water. Water is
said to be polluted when it changes its quality or composition either naturally or as a result of human
activities, thus becoming unsuitable for domestic, agricultural, industrial, recreational uses and for
the survival of wildlife. A water pollutant can be defined as an agent affecting aesthetic, physical,
chemical and biological quality and wholesomeness of water.

3.5 Water and Human Health

One of the major problems facing developing countries is insufficient water supply. The Joint
Monitoring Programme (JMP) for Water Supply and Sanitation, implemented by the World Health
Organisation (WHO) and UNICEF, reports that, about 11% of the world population have limited
access to potable water, 84% of them being rural inhabitants. About 187 million people utilize
surface water for drinking purposes, with 94% of this number living in the rural areas and majority
of them living in sub- Saharan Africa. Microbial contamination poses a great threat when it comes
to water quality in developing countries. Heavy metals pollution of surface waters are also major
concern in developing nations and Ghana is no exception.

16
3.6 Water Quality Parameters

Water quality is a measure of the suitability of water for a particular use based on selected physical,
chemical, biological and radiological characteristics. Hence, water can only be judged as good or
bad based on its usage. This can be done by measuring the various parameters of water, which can
be grouped into physical, chemical and biological parameters. Table 3.1 summarizes some common
water quality parameters. The number of parameters analysed for a particular work may be based on
the objective of the study. Parameters analysed are compared to national and international standards
to determine the suitability of the water in study. The result obtained from a sample analysis can be
used to characterize the location from which the sample was taken from. A wide range of natural
and anthropogenic factors can affect water quality. Notably among the two are anthropogenic
sources, ranging from runoffs from farming activities, mining, faecal pollution and leachates from
landfills.

Table 3.1 Some Water Quality characteristics

3.7 Physical and Chemical Parameters

3.7.1 Temperature

Temperature is one of the most essential parameters that greatly affect an aquatic system.
Temperature directly affects the metabolic rate of plants and animals. Aquatic species have evolved
to live in water of specific temperatures. If the water becomes colder or warmer, the organisms do
not function as effectively, and become more susceptible to toxic wastes, parasites and diseases.
With extreme temperature change, many organisms will die. Changes in long-term temperature

17
average may cause differences in the species that are present in the ecosystem. Temperature has a
pronounced effect on reaction and solubility of substances in water.

3.7.2 pH

pH is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a substance. Values of pH range from 0 (highly acidic)
to 14 (highly alkaline). Pure water has a pH of 7, acidic solutions have lower pH values and alkaline
solutions have higher values. pH is greatly affected by temperature as chemical and reactions are
increased. In unpolluted waters, pH is principally controlled by the balance between the carbon
dioxide, carbonate and bicarbonate ions. Fluctuations in pH can indicate the presence of certain
effluents. The pH of most natural waters is between 6.0 and 8.5. Variations pH can be caused by
photosynthesis and microbial activities in water.

3.7.3 Total Dissolved Solids and Total Suspended Solids

Total dissolved solids (TDS) and total suspended solids (TSS) relates non-filterable and filterable
residue. Residue are substances that remain after evaporation and drying of a sample at a given
temperature. Suspended or dissolved substances in water may be from organic or inorganic origin.
Inorganic solids such as clay and silt and organic material such as plant fibers and biological solids
as algal cells and bacteria contribute to the TSS of a water body. Inorganic substances such as
dissolved minerals and metals and decay organic matter contributes to the total dissolved substances
of water. Both TDS and TSS affect the colour, taste and smell of water. Domestic water however
should be colourless, odourless and tasteless.

3.7.4 Colour

The colour and the muddiness of water influences the depth to which light is transmitted. Ideally,
water should have no visible colour. Dissolved substances and suspended particles affect the colour
of a water body. In determine the colour of water, both true and apparent colour are measured.
Dissolved natural minerals and organic substances cause true colour, while suspended particles give
apparent colour to water. Different species of aquatic living organisms can also cause apparent
colour of a water body. Hence, water with a strong apparent colour shows the presence of pollutants.

3.7.5 Turbidity

Turbidity is the property of absorption of light or its scattering by suspended material in water. The
size and nature of the surface of the suspended particles affect both absorption and scattering of
light. Turbidity is the opacity of water caused by particles that are not clear or transparent. Colloidal

18
material of clay, silt, rock fragments and metal oxides from the soil, and microorganisms as well as
soaps, detergents and emulsifying agents, which form stable colloids in water, contributes to
turbidity. Suspended particles in water serves as a medium for adsorption of chemicals and other
toxic materials. Turbidity can be measured in Jackson turbidity unit (JTU) or Nephelometric
turbidity unit (NTU).

3.7.6 Conductivity and Salinity

Conductivity is a measure of water’s ability to pass electrical flow and depends on the concentration
of ions in solution. Hence, the more ions that are present in water, the higher the conductivity and
vice versa. Conductivity is measured in millisiemens per metre (mS/m). Salty water conducts
electricity more rapidly than purer water. Therefore, conductivity is normally used to measure
salinity. The types of salts (ions) causing the salinity usually are chlorides, sulphates, carbonates,
sodium, magnesium, calcium and potassium. Salinity can cause stress and death of organisms when
it is beyond the normal range. Salinity also affects the availability of nutrients to plant roots.
Discharge of effluent that has a high content of heavy metals into waterbodies can raise the
conductivity of a waterbody.

3.7.7 Dissolved Oxygen

All living aquatic organisms rely on oxygen in one way or another for survival. The amount of
dissolved oxygen (DO) in natural waters varies with temperature, salinity, turbulence, the
photosynthetic activity of phytoplankton and atmospheric pressure. Warm saline water holds less
dissolved oxygen than cold water or freshwater. In freshwaters, dissolved oxygen (DO) at sea level
ranges from 15 mg/l at 0°C to 8 mg/l at 25°C. Concentrations in unpolluted waters are usually close
to, but less than; 10 mg/l. Low concentrations of DO can affect the taste and smell of water.
Variations in DO can be caused by biological activities such as photosynthesis and respiration
caused by microbial activity.

3.8 Metals

3.8.1 Major Cations

Major cations in water are Calcium (Ca2+), Magnesium (Mg2+), Sodium (Na+) and Potassium (K+).
Calcium, Magnesium Potassium and Sodium ions are abundant in natural waters and these elements
are essential for the growth and health of all organisms. Calcium and magnesium, when combined
with certain anions, contribute to the hardness of natural waters. The effect of hardness include the

19
formation of scum in boilers or metal containers when such waters are heated. Normally, hardness
due to calcium predominates than hardness due magnesium. In natural waters, calcium
concentrations are normally below 15 mg/l although this can rise to 100 mg/l where waters are
associated with carbonate-rich rocks. Natural sources of calcium include minerals such as
amphiboles, feldspars, gypsum, pyroxenes, aragonite, calcite, dolomite, and clay minerals.
Magnesium concentrations also vary widely and can be from 1mg/L to over 100 mg/l depending
upon the rock types within the catchment. Natural sources of magnesium are amphiboles, olivine,
pyroxenes, dolomite, magnesite, clay and minerals. The concentration of potassium ions (K+) in
natural fresh waters is generally low (normally less than 10 mg/l). Sources of natural potassium are
feldspars, feldspathoids, some micas and clay minerals. Normally, sodium concentrations are below
200 mg/l in natural waters. High concentrations in inland waters, however, are normally associated
with anthropogenic sources such as pollution from industrial discharges or sewage effluent. Primary
sources of sodium are Feldspars, clay minerals, halite, mirabilite and industrial wastes.

3.8.2 Heavy Metals

Heavy metal refers to any metal and metalloid element that has a relatively high density ranging
from 3.5 to 7 g/cm3 and is toxic at low concentrations. Heavy metals include mercury (Hg),
cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu) and lead (Pb). These
metals are mainly found in the earth’s crust and are non-biodegradable. The human route of
exposure includes inhalation and mouth (water and food). Some metals, when present in small
amounts play essential role human and animal metabolic activities; however, they may cause toxic
effects and health hazards when they are present in large amounts. Heavy metals may enter into
aquatic ecosystems from anthropogenic sources, such as industrial effluent discharges, sewage
wastewater, fossil fuel combustion, landfill and atmospheric deposition. Heavy metals can also
occur through geological formations. Their toxicity differs and depend on the nature and
concentration of the metal. They are bio-accumulative; hence, when they enter the tissue of an
organism their concentrations do not decrease but keeps on increasing based on the rate of
consumption. Anthropogenic and natural activities can lead to the release of metals like cadmium,
iron, mercury etc. Cadmium metal is used as an anticorrosive, electroplated on steel; cadmium
sulfide and selenide are commonly used as pigments in plastics, batteries and in the production of
inorganic fertilizers. The metal gets into water bodies when the materials containing cadmium are
dumped into the environment or carried into water bodies by runoffs. Cadmium can cause kidney
damage and detrimental effects to plants and animals. Sources of iron include geology formations

20
and mining activities. Iron is an important element in human nutrition. However, the toxicity of iron
to the human body is dependent on the absorption rate. The ingestion of high amounts of iron in
drinking water can pose health problems such as anorexia, oligura, diarrhoea, hypothermia,
metabolic acidosis and in some cases death. Hepatoma, the primary cancer of the liver has become
the most common death among patients with hemochromatosis.

3.9 Anions

3.9.1 Sulphates

Sulphate is present in all surface waters as it arises from rocks and from sea water which contains
a high sulphate concentration. In addition to its role as a plant nutrient, high concentrations of
sulphate can be problematic as they make the water corrosive to building materials (e.g., concrete)
and are capable of being reduced to hydrogen sulphide (a toxic, foul-smelling gas) when zero
dissolved oxygen conditions prevail in the water body. Normally, sulphate concentrations in surface
waters are between 2 and 80 mg/L although they may exceed 1000 mg/L if industrial discharges or
sulphate-rich minerals are present. The WHO guideline value for sulphate in drinking water is 400
mg/L.

3.9.2 Carbonates and Bicarbonates

The concentration of carbonates and bicarbonates in water has a major effect on both the hardness
and the alkalinity (capacity to neutralize acid) of water. The relative amounts of carbonate,
bicarbonate and carbonic acid (dissolved carbon dioxide gas) in water is related to the pH. Under
normal surface water pH conditions (i.e., less than pH = 9), bicarbonate predominates. Bicarbonate
concentrations in natural waters range from less than 25 mg/L in areas of non-carbonate rocks to
over 400 mg/L where carbonate rocks are present. Carbonate concentrations in surface and ground
waters by contrast are usually low and nearly always less than 10 mg/L.

3.9.3 Chlorides

Chlorides in fresh waters generally come from rocks, the sea or sewage, agricultural and industrial
effluents. Fresh water concentrations of chloride are normally less than 40 mg/L and can be as low
as 2 mg/L in waters, which have not been subject to pollution. Chloride concentrations over 100
mg/L give the water a salty taste and thereby make it unsuitable for drinking by humans or animals.

3.9.4 Nitrate

21
Nitrate is not listed as a major ion but high concentrations up to 200 mg NO3-N/L have been
reported from many sites in the country where municipal wastewater or leachate from garbage
dumps has contaminated the groundwater. Excessive amount of nitrate in drinking water causes
methaemoglobinaemia in bottle fed infants. WHO has recommended a guideline value of 10 mg
NO3-N/L.

22
 CHAPTER 4

WATER QUALITY MODELS

Water quality is becoming an ever more important issue, as water of low quality causes many
significant problems. Specifically, there is a wide range of microbial and chemical constituents of
drinking water that can cause either acute or chronic detrimental health effects, and the detection of
these constituents in treated water is often time-consuming, complex, and expensive. Contrarily,
water of bad quality can also be harmful from an economic perspective, as resources have to be
directed towards improving the water supply system every time a problem occurs. For these reasons,
there is growing pressure to improve water treatment and water quality management in order to
ensure safe drinking water at reasonable costs.
Systematic assessments of raw water, treatment processes, and operational monitoring issues are
needed to meet these challenges.
There are many parameters which can be used to measure the quality of water, (as discussed in the
previous chapter), the purpose being to measure impurities in the water. Currently, there exists
several regulations that mandate everyone to take actions in mitigating or eliminating the
environmental problems and concerns affecting our planet, there is a need for knowledge or
predictions of the solute concentrations in space and time.

4.1 Types of Water Quality Models

Below is a list of water models to be considered in the course

1. Water Quality Index

2. Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR)
3. Sodium percentage (Na%)
4. Ion Balancing
5. Dissolved Oxygen Sag Curve Model
6. Piper’s Diagram
7. Mixing Zone Model

4.2 Water Quality Index

Water quality index (WQI) provides a single number that expresses overall water quality at a certain
location and time, based on several water quality parameters. The object of water quality data into
information that is understandable and usable by the public. A single number cannot tell the whole

23
story of water quality; there are many other water quality parameters that are not included in the
index. However, a water quality index based on some very important parameters can provide a
simple indicator of water quality. In general, water quality indices incorporate data from multiple
water quality parameters into a mathematical equation that rates the health of a water body with
number. Calculation of WQI is carried out in this text using the Horton’s method. The parameters
chosen to calculate the WQI is compared to a standard for drinking water. This index enables to
know the suitability of water for its usage. The calculation of the water quality index follows the
following the steps:

a) The unit weight (Wn) of each parameter is calculated using Equation 4.1
𝑊𝑛 = 𝐾/𝑆𝑛
(4.1)
th
Where, Sn= the standard permissible value of the n parameter

K= the constant of proportionality and can also be calculated from Equation 4.2

𝐾 = [1/ (∑ 1/𝑆𝑛=1,2…𝑛 )] (4.2)

b) The quality rating (qn) for each parameter was calculated from Equation (4.3)
𝑉𝑛 − 𝑉𝑖𝑑
∗ 100 (4.3)
𝑆𝑛 − 𝑉𝑖𝑑

Where, Vn = estimated value of the nth parameter at a given sample location

Vid = the ideal value of the nth parameter in pure water.

(Vid for pH = 7 and 0 for all other parameters).

c) Finally, the water quality index is calculated using the expression in Equation 4.4
∑ 𝑞𝑛 𝑊𝑛
(4.4)
𝑊𝑛

The values of WQI are usually classified into six categories as shown in Table 4.1

24
Table 4.2 Classification of WQI Values for Human Consumption

WQI Status Possible usages

0-25 Excellent Drinking, irrigation and

industrial

26-50 Good Domestic, irrigation and

industrial

51-75 Fair Irrigation and industrial

76-100 Poor Irrigation

101-150 Very poor Restricted use for irrigation

Above 150 Unfit for drinking Proper treatment required

before use

Example 4.1

Calculate the WQI for the following data and rate the status of the water

Table 4.3 Water sample data for three different seasons

25
 SOLUTION TO EXAMPLE 4.1

Table 4.4 Calculation of WQI in the Rainy Season

Table 4.5 Calculation of WQI in Winter Season

26
Table 4.6 Calculation of WQI in Summer Season

27
4.3 Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)

Cations are positively charged ions such as calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), and potassium
(K+). The capacity of the soil to hold on to these cations is called cation exchange capacity (CEC).
These cations are held by the negatively charged clay and organic matter particles in the soil through
electrostatic forces (negative soil particles attract the positive cations). The cations on the CEC of
the soil particles are easily exchangeable with other cations and as a result, they are plant available.
Thus, the CEC of a soil represents the total amount of exchangeable cations that the soil can adsorb.
The cations used by plants in the largest amounts are calcium, magnesium, and potassium. In most
soils within humid regions, sodium is not present in sufficient quantities to occupy a significant
amount of the CEC. However, in dry climates, sodium can occupy an important portion of the CEC.

4.3.1 Why soils have a CEC

Soils have a CEC primarily because clay particles and organic matter in the soil tends to be
negatively charged. Most soils have silicate clay minerals (clay minerals that contain silica). Each
silicate clay particle is made up of individual layers or “sheets”. Most clay minerals, contain
aluminum as well as silica. They have a net negative charge because of the substitution of silica
(Si4+) by aluminum (Al3+) in the mineral structure of the clay. This replacement of silica by
aluminum in the clay mineral’s structure is called isomorphous substitution, and the result is clays
with negative surface charge. Since the soil as a whole does not have electric charge, the negative
charge of the clay particles is balanced by the positive charge of the cations in the soil. The negative
charges associated with isomorphous substitution are considered permanent, that is, the charges do
not change with pH changes. Organic matter can have a 4 to 50 times higher CEC per given weight
than clay. The source of negative charge in organic matter is different from that of clay minerals;
the dissociation (separation into smaller units) of organic acids causes a net negative charge in soil
organic matter, and again this negative charge is balanced by cations in the soil. Because organic
acid dissociation depends on the soil pH, the CEC associated with soil organic matter is called pH-
dependent CEC. This means that the actual CEC of the soil will depend on the pH of the soil. Given
the same amount and type of organic matter, a neutral soil (pH ~7) will have a higher CEC than a
soil with e.g. pH 5, or in other words, the CEC of a soil with pH-dependent charge will increase
with an increase in pH.

The higher the CEC the more clay or organic matter present in the soil. This usually means that
high CEC (clay) soils have a greater water holding capacity than low CEC

28
(sandy) soils. Low CEC soils are more likely to develop potassium and magnesium (and other
cation) deficiencies, while high CEC soils are less susceptible to leaching losses of these cations.
So, for sandy soils, a large one-time addition of cations e.g. potassium can lead to large leaching
losses (soil isn’t able to hold on to the excess K). More frequent additions of smaller amounts are
better. The lower the CEC, the faster the soil pH will decrease with time. So, sandy soils need to be
limed more often than clay soils. The higher the CEC, the larger the quantity of lime that must be
added to increase the soil pH; sandy soils need less lime than clay soils to increase the pH to desired
levels.

4.4 Water Aptitude for Irrigation

Water that is high in sodium is not suitable for irrigation purposes as this can be dangerous to the
health of plants. The permeability of the soil is reduced when two atoms of sodium replaces one
atom of calcium or magnesium resulting in the destruction of soil structure. The water’s aptitude
for irrigation can be determined by calculating the amount of sodium content in a water source. To
determine the suitability of water for irrigation, Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) or Sodium
percentage (Na%) can be used.

a) The SAR values are calculated according to Equation (4.5).

(4.5)

The concentrations of the ions are in milliequivalents per liter. The calculated values are compared
to the values in Table 4.7 to determine its aptitude for irrigation

29
Table 4.7 Classification of Irrigation Water based on SAR

SAR VALUE TYPE OF WATER WATER QUALITY

0-10 Low sodium water Excellent

10–18 Medium sodium water Good

18-26 High sodium water Fair

Above 26 Very high sodium water Poor

b. The Na % is calculated using Equation (4.6). According to Wilcox classification, high

percentage of sodium in irrigation water has dangerous effects on soil. This percentage
should not exceed [Link] values gotten from the calculation are compared to the values in
Table 4.7 to determine the water’s aptitude for irrigation.

𝑁𝑎+ (4.6)
𝑁𝑎(%) = ∗ 100
𝐶𝑎2+ + 𝑀𝑔2+ + 𝑁𝑎+ + 𝐾 +

Table 4.8 Sodium percent Water Class

SODIUM (%) WATER CLASS

< 20 Excellent

20-40 Good

40-60 Permissible

60-80 Doubtful

> 80 Unsuitable

30
Example 4.2

Calculate the SAR and Na % for the data in Table 4.8

Table 4.9 Major Cations of a Sample and their Concentrations

Cation Concentration (mg/l)

Ca2+ 93.8

Mg2+ 28.0

Na+ 13.7

K+ 30.2

4.5 Ion Balancing

When a water quality sample has been analysed for the major ionic species, one of the most
important validation tests can be conducted: the cation-anion balance. The principle of
electroneutrality requires that the sum of the positive ions (cations) must equal the sum of the
negative ions (anions). Thus the error in a cation-anion balance can be written as:

∑𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 − ∑𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
% balance error= ∗ 100
∑𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 + ∑𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

where the ions are expressed in meq/L.

For groundwater and surface water, the % error should be less than 10. If it is greater, the analysis
does not pass the validation check.

Example 4.3
A laboratory measures the following concentrations of ions in a sample of water. Perform the
validation check.

31
 1. First the concentrations of cations and anions must be converted from mg/l to meq/l.
This conversion is made using the mg/meq value for each major ion species. This value is equal to
the atomic weight of the species divided by the ion charge.
For Calcium (Ca2+):
 atomic weight = 40
 ion charge = 2
 mg/meq = 40/2 = 20
a. Dividing the concentration (mg/l) by the mg/meq value for each species results in meq/l.
For Calcium (Ca2+):
 Concentration (mg/l) = 93.8
 mg/meq = 20
 93.8/20 = 4.69 meq/l
b. A table should be completed with all the values per species, and the sum of cations and anions.
 Total cations = 8.36 meq/l
 Totalanions = 8.14 meq/l
2. Check accuracy (% balance error)
∑𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 − ∑𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
% balance error= ∗ 100
∑𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 + ∑𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
8.36 − 8.14
% balance error= ∗ 100
8.36 + 8.14
= 1.3%
This is less than the allowed error, so the sample results can be accepted. If error > 10% then check
results, and possibly re-analyse samples.
Note: An accurate ion balance does not necessarily mean that the analysis is correct. There may be
more than one error and these may cancel each other out.

4.6 Dissolved Oxygen Sag Curves in Streams: The Streeter–Phelps Equation

This section is concerned with modeling the effects of the release of oxidizable organic matter to a
flowing body of water. The most common form of organic waste is raw or untreated domestic
sewage, but organic waste containing animal waste can have the same environmental effects. As
we discussed in the earlier chapter, the term dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to the chemical
measurement of how much oxygen is dissolved in a water sample, usually expressed in mg/L. The
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is an estimate of how much total DO is required to oxidize the

32
organic matter in a water sample. Thus, the BOD of a water or wastewater is actually calculated as
the change in DO from initial DO at saturation to the amount remaining after 5 days, and BOD is
expressed in mg O2/L. Before we discuss the modeling aspects of BOD in streams, represented by
the Streeter–Phelps equation, it is important to gain an appreciation for the extent of the global
sewage problem and the environmental issues surrounding wastewater and pathogens contained in
the wastewater. Examples of microorganisms and viruses associated with waterborne diseases are

Bacteria responsible for typhoid fever, cholera, and shigellosis

Viruses causing hepatitis and viral gastroenteritis

Protozoa that are the agents of the waterborne diseases cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis.

These microbes can be killed or removed, and their associated diseases prevented, in domestic water
supplies by a combination of sand filtration with chlorination or ozonation, placed at the end of
modern sewage treatment processes.

While these diseases pose risks to human populations, the release of untreated sewage to waterways
can also result in the immediate death of aquatic systems. Surface aquatic systems are aerobic, and
the life forms contained in these systems are dependent on the constant presence of dissolved
oxygen. Most streams are at or near saturation with respect to DO, with concentrations between 812
mg/L depending on the temperature and altitude of the stream. When readily oxidizable organic
matter, such as domestic sewage, enters the stream, native microorganisms not only rapidly
consume DO in the process of oxidizing this organic matter, but consume oxygen faster than it can
be replenished through re-aeration from the atmosphere. Table 4.10 lists the saturated dissolved
oxygen concentration as a function of water temperature and salt content at 1.0 atmosphere of
pressure. As you can see, increasing temperature and salt content decrease the amount of DO in
water.

Table 4.10 Solubility of Oxygen for Water in Contact with the Atmosphere (at 1 atm)

33
A typical plot of the dissolved oxygen concentration as a function of distance from a point source,
for a step release of sewage, is shown in Figure 4.1. Note the shape of the curve. Above the entry
point of the sewage, the water is near saturation with respect to DO. Where the sewage enters the
stream, the DO concentration plummets to near zero and often does drop to zero for a considerable
length downstream of the input. As the organic matter is oxidized and as the stream re-aerates, the
DO level slowly rises, eventually achieving natural background concentrations. Figure 4.2 shows
the dramatic effect of treating the sewage (for the same model input data used in Figure 4.2) before
discharge into the stream. In this model simulation, the stream waters are not significantly affected
by the small amount of BOD in the treated wastewater. In this chapter, we will learn to use the

Streeter–Phelps equation, the mathematical model used to generate Figures 4.1 and 4.2. This model
predicts the effects of sewage input to streams, evaluates the effectiveness of sewage treatment
systems on stream quality, and can be used to determine which model parameters are the most
important.

34
Fig 4.1 DO Sag Curve Plot Showing the Effects of Sewage on DO Concentration in a Stream

Fig 4.2 DO Sag Curve Plot of the Same Stream Shown in Fig 4.1 but after Sewage Treatment
has been Installed
4.6.1 Basic Input Sources (Wastewater Flow Rates and BOD Levels)

The Streeter–Phelps equation is designed to model the oxidation of any constant (step) input of
oxidizable waste flowing to streams. Thus, the input source can be a variety of point and non-point
sources, including the waste from domestic sewage plants, food-processing facilities, and inputs
from livestock feedlots and agricultural settings. The only wastewater parameters that must be
known are the flow rate of wastewater, the temperature of the wastewater, the DO of the wastewater
(usually zero), and the concentration of BOD in the wastewater. All of these are relatively easy
parameters to measure, with the possible exception of BOD. The BOD of a wastewater can be
measured in most chemistry laboratories by taking a sample of the wastewater and diluting it so that
it does not contain more than approximately 8.0 mg/L of BOD. (The total amount of organic matter
in the bottle will not require more than 8 mg DO/L). The appropriate dilution is determined based
on experience with the wastewater or by trial and error in conducting the BOD test. Several 300mL
portions of the diluted wastewater are incubated at a constant temperature (usually 20°C) for 5–20
days.

35
4.3.2 Mathematical Development of the Model

The Streeter–Phelps equation can be represented by

𝑘 ′ 𝐵𝑂𝐷𝐿 −𝑘 ′ (𝑥⁄ ) ′ 𝑥 ′ 𝑥
𝐷= ′ (𝑒 𝑣 − 𝑒 −𝑘2 ( ⁄𝑣) ) + 𝐷 𝑒 −𝑘2 ( ⁄𝑣)
′ 𝑜
𝑘 2−𝑘

where

 D= dissolved oxygen concentration deficit (value below saturation) in mg O2/L,

 BODL= ultimate BOD (in mg/L)
 k12= re-aeration constant (in day-1)
 k1= BOD rate constant for oxidation (day-1)
 x= distance downstream from the point source (in miles or kilometers)
 V= average water velocity (in miles/day or kilometers/day but units must be compatible
with distances, x)
 D0 = initial oxygen deficit of the mixed stream and wastewater (in mg/L)

The equation is the net effect of two opposing reactions: the consumption of DO by microorganisms
in oxidizing the BOD (represented by k’) and re-aeration of the stream by dissolution of atmospheric
oxygen (represented by k’2). Both of these processes can be modeled by first-order reactions, hence
the inclusion of exponential terms for the two k values. Of course, the model must incorporate the
ultimate BOD (BODL) and the stream DO deficit. Note that the purpose of the equation is to
calculate the amount of oxygen consumed by the waste (D). It is very important to note that D is
not the remaining DO content of the stream water, but rather the amount of the original DO that has
been consumed. In order to calculate the resulting DO of the stream, we must subtract D from the
original DO of the stream without BOD waste. We use the DO of the stream immediately prior to
BOD entry for this value. The term k’2 is the first-order rate constant associated with the re-aeration
of the stream water. Exact measurement of this parameter is difficult since it is dependent on factors
such as the stream depth, mixing in the stream, and the degree of water and air contact. For
simplification purposes, a set of values has been tabulated by the Engineering Board of Review for
the Sanitary District of Chicago (1925) and can be used based on a qualitative description of the
stream. These values have been summarized by Metcalf and Eddy (1972) and are given in Table
4.9.

Table 4.9. Table of Re-Aeration Constants

36
BODL is the ultimate BOD or maximum oxygen required to completely oxidize the waste sample.
This value is determined or estimated through the BOD experiment discussed earlier. Normally
BOD values are determined on a 5-day basis, which corresponds to the O2 consumed during the
first 5 days of degradation (oxidation). However, since we may be concerned with a travel time in
the stream exceeding 5 days, we need to know the ultimate BOD (BOD L). This value can be
determined experimentally or estimated from the BOD5 value using the following equation

𝐵𝑂𝐷5
𝐵𝑂𝐷𝐿 = ′ (𝑥⁄
1 − 𝑒 −𝑘 𝑣)

 The k’ term is the DO uptake constant, a measure of the rate of the chemical reaction by
which microorganisms use dissolved oxygen to degrade organic matter. This is obtained
from a 20-day BOD experiment. The data are transformed by what is known as the Thomas
slope method, and the slope of the line is equal to the rate constant, k’, in day -1
 The average water velocity is represented by v. This value is easily measured and is usually
given in the problem statement. As noted above, the initial oxygen deficit (D0) is calculated
by subtracting the initial DO content of the stream-waste mixture from the dissolved oxygen
level in the stream immediately upstream from the waste input. The plotted value is a result
of subtracting the oxygen deficit (D) at each point, calculated using Eq. (4.7), from the
stream DO concentration above the waste input (x<0). The net result is the remaining DO
concentration in the stream

The dissolved oxygen curve for a BOD-contaminated river can be divided into several zones based
on dissolved oxygen content and physical appearance of the stream. These are shown in Figure 4.3
and 4.4.

 Zone of Clean Water. The area of the stream above the entry of sewage is referred to as the
Zone of Clean Water (Zone 1 in Figure 4.3 and 4.4) and has the physical appearance of any

37
 natural clean system (stable fish, macro-invertebrate, and plankton populations). At the
point of sewage entry, microbial consumption of the waste and oxygen begins. This marks
the beginning of the Zone of Degradation
 Zone of Degradation (Zone 2 Figure 4.3 and 4.4) continues down the stream until the oxygen
level falls to 40% of the initial value (as compared to the Zone of Clean Water). The Zone
of Degradation is also characterized by the presence of more turbid water, an increase in
CO2 levels, and the presence of organically bound nitrogen. Physical characteristics of this
zone include a high presence of green and blue-green algae (cyanobacteria), fungi, protozoa,
tubiflex worms, and blood worms. Larger aquatic plants die off in this region.
 Zone of Active Decomposition. Zone 3 Figure 4.3 and 4.4 begins when the oxygen level falls
below40% of the initial dissolved oxygen concentration and ends where it rises above
40%again. This is the Zone of Active Decomposition. Water in this zone tends to be grayor
black and releases gases typical of anoxic environments (H2S, CH4, and NH3).Bacteria and
algae are usually the dominant life forms present.
 Zone of Recovery. As the dissolved oxygen level rises above 40% of the initial value, the
Zone of Recovery begins (Zone 4 in Figure 4.3 and 4.4). Carbon dioxide levels decrease,
but nitrogen is still present as NH3and in organically bound forms. Biological characteristics
include a decrease in the number of bacteria and an increase in the presence of protozoa,
green and blue-green algae, and tubiflex and blood worms.
 Zone of Cleaner Water. Finally, the Zone of Cleaner Water (Zone 5 Figure 4.3 and 4.4) is
achieved where the chemical and biological characteristics of the stream are similar to those
of Zone 1 (Zone of Clean Water).

Fig 4.3 A DO Sag curve labeled with its various Zones of Pollution and Recovery

38
Fig 4.4 Zones of Pollution in Streams (Oxygen Sag Analysis)
With respect to these zones, one point is of special interest: the point at which the dissolved oxygen
concentration (D) reaches its minimum value, which is referred to as the critical dissolved oxygen
concentration (Dc). This point can be characterized by either

1. the time after which this minimum value occurs (the critical time, tc) or
2. its distance downstream from the point source (the critical distance, xc).

The time required to reach the critical distance can be calculated by

1 𝑘′2 𝐷𝑜 (𝑘 ′ 2 − 𝑘 ′ )
𝑡𝑐 = ′ ln [1 − ]
𝑘 2 − 𝑘′ 𝑘′ 𝑘 ′ 𝐵𝑂𝐷𝐿

where D0 is the initial oxygen deficit (O2 saturation value minus initial stream-waste mixture value)

The critical distance is calculated by

𝑥𝑐 = 𝑣𝑡𝑐

where the water velocity, v, can be given in miles/time or km/time.

The critical dissolved oxygen concentration (Dc), the minimum DO concentration in the stream,
can be calculated by

𝑘′ 𝑥
−𝑘 ′ ( 𝑐⁄𝑣)
𝐷𝑐 = 𝐵𝑂𝐷𝐿 𝑒
𝑘′2

Example 4.3

39
A city discharges 25 million gallons per day (mgd) of domestic sewage into a stream whose typical
rate of flow is 250 cubic feet per second (cfs). The velocity of the stream is approximately 3 miles
per hour. The temperature of the sewage is 21°C, while that of the stream is 15°C. The 20°C
BOD5of the sewage is 180 mg/L, while that of the stream is 1.0 mg/L. The sewage contains no
dissolved oxygen, but the stream is 90% saturated upstream of the discharge. At 20°C, k’ is
estimated to be 0.34 per day while k’2is 0.65 per day.

1. Determine the critical oxygen deficit and its location.

2. Also estimate the 20°C BOD5of a sample taken at the critical point. Use temperature
coefficients of 1.135 for k’ and 1.024 for k’2.
3. Plot the dissolved oxygen sag curve.
4. Determine the dissolved oxygen concentration at 1000 km from the point source.

SOLUTION

1. Determine the dissolved oxygen in the stream before discharge.

 Saturation concentration at 15°C (from table on worksheet) =10.2 mg/L
 Dissolved oxygen in stream=0.90 (10.2 mg/L)=9.2 mg/L
2. Determine the temperature, dissolved oxygen, and BOD of the mixture using the mass
balance approach. Note that units should be compatible.

Flow rate of stream (conversion from cubic feet per second to liters per day):

Flow rate of sewage effluent (from gallons per day to liters per day):

Note: Flow rates should be expressed in million gallons/day, million liters/day, or million cubic
feet/day

Temperature of mixture:

40
Dissolved oxygen of mixture:

BOD5 of mixture:

BODL of mixture (at 20°C):

41
3. Correct the rate constants to 15.7°C: Rate constants are not linearly related to changes in
temperature; therefore, we must correct them using an exponential relationship. Typically,
these can be corrected using the two constants and equations given below. Note that 20°C
is used as the reference point since this is where the original data for the k’ values were
collected.

4. Determine the critical time (tc) and critical distance (xc): In the table note that the saturation
value for O2 at 15.7 °C is 10.1 mg/L; however, the stream is at 90% of the saturation value
(9.2 mg/L). Thus, the initial oxygen deficit is

42
 5. Determine Dc: To calculate the critical oxygen deficit, Dc, we must first convert the water
velocity into units of miles/day: 3 miles/hr=72 miles/day.

Thus, the DO will be depressed 6.37 mg/L from its saturation value. The minimum O2 concentration
of the stream will be the saturation value minus the Dc, or 9.2-6.37=2.83 mg O2/L.

6. Determine the BOD5 of a sample taken at distance xc

7. The oxygen sag curve in km from the point source is shown in Figure 4.5.

43
Fig 4.5 A DO Sag curve for the example problem.
4.7 Mixing Zone Model
It has been a common practice throughout the world to discharge wastewater into natural streams.
In recent years, however, increased environmental awareness has demonstrated that, unless
preceded by careful planning, discharged wastewater may result in serious and long-lasting
ecological damage. Thus it has become necessary to treat and regulate wastewater discharges to
meet in-stream water quality standards designed not to cause harmful damage to the indigenous
aquatic biota. A receiving water body contiguous to the wastewater discharge point, called the
mixing zone, is often allowed in the enforcement of water quality standards. A mixing zone is an
area within the receiving water body where dilution of a discharge takes place and where
exceedances of numeric criteria are allowed if criteria cannot be met by the discharger at end-of-
pipe. Mixing zones may only be authorized by a state if the state has a mixing zone policy. Mixing
zone policies must be approved by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). A mixing zone
may contain high concentrations of pollutants, without liability for violating water quality
standards. For some discharges, this can cause serious harmful effects on the indigenous aquatic
biota. An understanding of the distribution of the discharged pollutants in the mixing zone is the
first step towards establishment of discharge limitations on critical pollutants and wisely planned
discharges to permit maximum beneficial use of a natural resource.
A very simple mass balance model can be developed for the mixing zone of a stream, as shown in
Fig. 4.6. A waste stream is discharged into a stream. At some point downstream, the waste
discharged will be uniformly mixed across the entire cross-section of the stream.

44
 Fig 4.6 Simple Mixing Zone Relationship
The concentration of a substance at the downstream end of this reach is given by:
𝐶𝑤 𝑄𝑤 + 𝐶𝑢 𝑄𝑢
𝐶𝑟 =
𝑄𝑟

Where Cr = concentration in the river downstream, mg/L

Cw= concentration in waste discharge, mg/L
Cu= upstream river concentration, mg/L
Qu= upstream river flow, m3/s
Qw= waste discharge rate, m3/s
Qr = Qu+Qw = river flow at downstream station, m3/s
Example 4.4
• An industrial plant is proposed for location on a stream. The industry would discharge
wastewater containing 1300mg/L of total dissolved solids (TDS) at a rate of 3m3/s. The
receiving stream has an average velocity of 0.5m/s, an average width of 15m, and an average
depth of 0.6m with a TDS concentration of 310mg/L.
1. Will this proposed plant discharge result in violation of the EPA standards (assumed to be
500mg/L)?
2. What is the level of impact?
4.8 Piper’s Diagram
In 1994, Arthur M. Piper, proposed an effective graphic procedure to segregate relevant analytical
data to understand the sources of the dissolved constituents in water. This procedure was born under
the statement that most natural waters contain cations and anions in chemical equilibrium. It is
assumed that the most abundant cations are two “alkaline earths” calcium (Ca) and magnesium
(Mg) and one “Alkali” sodium (Na). The most common anions are one “weak acid” bicarbonate
(HCO3-) and two “strong acids” sulphate (SO42-) and chloride (Cl-). Piper diagram provide visible
interpretation of water chemistry with respect to presence of some key cations like Na+, K+, Ca2+
and Mg2+ and some chief anions like HCO3-, CO32-, Cl- and SO42-. A Piper diagram consists of
geometrical combination of two outer triangles and a middle or inner diamond-shaped quadrilateral.
To create a graph with the major water constituents, Piper (1994) suggested drawing two triangles
corresponding with the cations and anions, respectively, and one diamond that summarize both
triangles. The apexes of the cation plot are calcium, magnesium and sodium plus potassium cations.

45
The apexes of the anion plot are sulfate, chloride and carbonate plus bicarbonate anions. The relative
abundance of cations, in % meq/l, is plotted on left cations’ triangle, while relative concentration of
anions, also in % meq/l, is simultaneously plotted on right anions’ triangle and the resultant points
from the cation and anion triangular plots are placed over the inner diamond-like quadrilateral
structure. The two ternary plots are then projected up onto a diamond. The diamond is a matrix
transformation of a graph of the anions and cations. In Piper diagrams the concentrations are
expressed as %meq/L. Water types are designated according to the zones in which these points fall
on the middle quadrilateral plot.

Fig 4.7 Piper Diagram Projections

4.8.1 Applications
1. It is used to classify and designate ionic nature of water. This illustration of ionic signature
helps in uncovering the principal ions controlling the water chemistry
2. It can be used to identify mixing of waters
3. It is used to determine the hydrochemical facies of a water system
4.8.2 Procedure for plotting

To use the Piper diagram, firstly, the concentration of anions and cations must be placed in the
triangles. Then, a perpendicular line must be drawn from the sample point in one triangle to the
diamond and repeat it from the other triangle. The following procedure can be followed

The characteristics of the sample are as follows:

46
1. Locate the point in the cation triangle:

2. Locate the sample in the anion triangle:

3. Draw a perpendicular line toward the diamond from the sample point in the cation triangle:

4. Draw a perpendicular line toward the diamond from the sample point in the anion triangle:

5. Draw a point in the intersection of the perpendicular lines

4.8.3 Interpretation of The Piper Diagram

Fig 4.8 Interpretation of The Piper Diagram

We can determine which compound dominates in the water chemistry based on which region the
lines meet in the triangle

47
Fig 4.9 Interpretation of The Piper Diagram
Example 4.5
Draw a piper diagram from the data below

48
SOLUTION

CATIONS PLOT

49
ANIONS PLOT

THE FINAL PLOT

50
Analysis of the Plot
Now, we can interpret the hydrochemical facies comparing the plot to Fig 4.8 and Fig 4.9
The sample is dominated by sodium chloride, strong acids exceeds weak acids and alkaline earths
exceed alkalies

51
 CHAPTER 5

DISPERSION AND DEPOSITION MODELLING OF ATMOSPHERIC

POLLUTANTS
In the recent era, air pollution has become a major environmental issue with ultimate repercussions
on human health. Phenomenal growth of population, use of energy, economic transformation, rapid
urbanization and industrialization have made enormous ramifications on the habitability of the
Earth. In contrast to the contribution to the economic affluence of the country, hasty
industrialization has also drastically affected the adjacent environment. Coupled with rapid
industrialization, substantial increase in traffic has also resulted in the deterioration of the quality
of the environment. Therefore, the situation is alarming and warrants careful planning for future
industrial development. For comprehensive analysis of air quality, environmental monitoring
should be continued for a minimum of 1 year, taking into account all the seasons to cover the entire
range of changing weather conditions and emission patterns. However, the extensive monitoring
program is often time consuming and expensive, and, therefore, applications of air pollution models
often get preference in practice. Further, the applicability and precision of air quality simulation
models are only evaluated through comparison with monitored data, and, therefore, both these
techniques go on simultaneously.

5.1 Sources of Air Pollution

Air pollution comes from Point Sources and Non-point Sources

a. Point Sources
These include chimneys used to disperse combustion products and residues of minerals being
processed, drilling, crushing, screening, conveyors and transshipment points.
b. Non-point Sources
These include all sources that are laterally so extensive that a specific point of emission cannot be
readily identified. Examples are:
i. Blasting (dust and combustion gases).
ii. Dust blown from haulage roads.
iii. Dust blown from working areas, ore or waste tips, stockpiles, tailing dumps, etc.
iv. SO2 and CO from spontaneous combustion of pyritic wastes in colliery waste tips

52
Anthropogenic emission sources of air pollution have been classified into 10 different Standard
Nomenclature for Air Pollution (SNAP) categories. An explanation of the SNAP source categories
is given in Table 5.1.

Table 5. 1 The SNAP Source Categories

SNAP SECTOR NAME
1 Energy industries
2 Non-industrial combustion
34 Industry (combustion + processes)
5 Extraction and distribution of fossil fuels
6 Product use
7 Road transport
8 Non-road transport and other mobile sources
9 Waste treatment
10 Agriculture

5.2 Lapse Rate

All emissions go to the Troposphere (A space above the earth not extending about 10 to 12 km
altitude). Above the troposphere comes the Stratosphere at an altitude of about 50 km. Figure 5.1
illustrates the various layers above the earth’s surface and the temperature profiles. The temperature
within the troposphere is up to about -50 oC at 10 km altitude. In the stratosphere, the temperature
increases to about -10 oC. Decrease in temperature with height within the troposphere is a
phenomenon known as the Lapse Rate. This is illustrated in Figure 5.2

53
Figure 5.1 Prevailing Atmospheric Temperature Profiles
5.2.1 Types of Lapse Rate

The following types of Lapse Rate are known:

i. Adiabatic Lapse Rate or Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate.

ii. Saturated Lapse Rate.
iii. Environmental Lapse Rate
Adiabatic Lapse Rate is the temperature history followed by a dry parcel of air as it rises or
descends in the atmosphere due to buoyant or momentum forces.
Saturated Lapse Rate is the temperature history followed by a parcel of air saturated with water
vapour as it rises or descends in the atmosphere due to buoyant or momentum forces.
Environmental Lapse Rate is the actual lapse rate of the atmosphere. Environmental Lapse Rate
is determined by the ambient conditions and may present in any of the following forms:
i. Superadiabatic Lapse Rate.
ii. Subadiabatic Lapse Rate.

54
 iii. Inversion:
 Ground level Inversion.
 Elevated Inversion (Superadiabatic or Subadiabatic Lapse Rate plus Inversion).
Superadiabatic Lapse Rate occurs when the actual decrease in temperature of air (pollutants) is
faster than the adiabatic lapse rate. In such a situation, the atmosphere is unstable and mixing of air
(pollutants) occurs rapidly resulting in Looping of fumes (Figure 5.2).

Figure 5.2 a) Superadiabatic Lapse Rate b) Looping Fumes

Subadiabatic Lapse Rate occurs when the decrease in temperature is slower than the adiabatic
lapse rate. In this case stable atmospheric conditions prevail and fumes fan (see Figure 5.3).

Figure 5.3 a) Subadiabatic Lapse Rate and Inversions b)Fanning Of Fumes

55
5.3 Air pollutants
Air pollutants may be grouped into
a. Gaseous
b. Particulates
c. There are also pollutants like smoke that contains both gaseous and particulate components
(soot, etc.). Fog consists of water droplets suspended in the air and Smog is fog together
with particulates (mainly soot).
a. Gaseous Pollutants
Gaseous pollutants often encountered in industry are:
Carbon Dioxide (CO2): This gas is seldom considered as a pollutant. It is required for plant growth
and may be considered beneficial. However, the “Greenhouse” theory has an opposing viewpoint -
suggesting that increased CO2 causes increase in temperature of earth and melting of polar (ice)
caps. It is estimated that CO2 has increased by 26% in 126 years (1860 - 1986) and by 2040, it will
double.
Carbon Monoxide (CO) is an important gaseous pollutant. It is colourless, odourless and tasteless
with well-known effects on humans. When even in sub-lethal doses it could have adverse effects
on the human being. The health threat of CO is greatest to those with cardiovascular diseases
because it reduces oxygen delivery to organs and tissues. At elevated concentrations CO impairs
visual perception, manual dexterity, and mental ability. The effect on other organisms or on the
external environment is not well documented.
Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) is a highly destructive pollutant. There are known effects both on humans
and on other organisms. Major health effects include effects on breathing, respiratory illness,
breakdown of lung defences, aggravation of existing cardiovascular diseases and death. Sensitive
persons include asthmatics and those with chronic lung diseases or cardiovascular diseases. The
elderly and children are affected the most. Many plants are damaged at about 0.3-0.5 ppm
particularly coniferous plants (forest). The atmosphere can support a reaction of SO2 with Oxygen
(O2) yielding SO3 which is highly hygroscopic producing H2SO4 (Acid rain).
Nitrogen Oxides (NOX): NO is a colourless, reactive gas that plays a major role in tropospheric
ozone formation. Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2), a reddish brown gas with a pungent smell, irritates the
lungs, causes bronchitis and pneumonia, lowers resistance to respiratory infections and plays a
major role in tropospheric ozone formation.

56
Ozone is a colourless gas that affects healthy adults and children as well as persons with impaired
respiratory systems. Ozone reduces lung function, usually in association with coughing, sneezing,
chest pain and pulmonary congestion. High concentrations of ozone are frequently associated with
eye irritation, although this may not be caused by the ozone itself. The goal of attaining tropospheric
ozone standards continue to be elusive because of the complexity of the photochemical reactions
generating the ozone and because of the variability in available ultraviolet light from year to year.
The overall ozone control strategy is a subject of intensive research.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were discovered by Thomas Midgley Jnr., an American Scientist in
1930. Until recently it was considered an inert gas. It is now known to react with Ozone (O3) and
thus causing depletion of the protective Ozone layer found at the boundary of the Troposphere and
the Stratosphere. The Ozone layer protects the earth from the sun’s ultraviolet radiations. Depletion
of the Ozone layer leaves a hole that allows hazardous ultraviolet radiations into the troposphere
causing various skin cancers.
Greenhouse Gases: These include gases like CO2, CH4, NOx, CFCs and O3, whose presence in the
atmosphere in large quantities lead to the formation of a barrier that prevents the escape of heat
from the troposphere. The consequence is global warming, also known as the Greenhouse effect.
b. Particulates
The major health effects of particulate matter include effects on breathing and respiratory system,
aggravation of existing respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, alteration of the body’s defense
system against foreign materials, damage to lung tissue, carcinogenesis, and premature mortality.
Persons with chronic obstructive pulmonary or cardiovascular disease, influenza, or asthma, the
elderly and children are the most sensitive.
The models used model air include
1. Air Quality Index
2. Exceedence factor (EF)
3. Puff model
4. Eddy and Gaussian diffusion models
5. Effective Stack Height and Spatial Concentration Distributions

5.4 Air Quality Index (AQI)

The AQI is a referential parameter that describes the air pollution level and provides information
about real-time ambient air quality to enhance public awareness. An “Air Quality Index” may be
defined as a single number for reporting the air quality with respect to its effects on the human

57
health. It combines many pollutants concentrations in some mathematical expression to arrive at a
single number for air quality. It tells us how clean or polluted the air is, and what associated health
effects might be a concern for us. The AQI focuses on health effects we may experience within a
few hours or days after breathing polluted air. The fundamental advantages of AQI are its simple
calculation with a sound scientific basis. An air quality index (AQI) is used by government agencies
to communicate to the public how polluted the air currently is or how polluted it is forecast to
become. As the AQI increases, an increasingly large percentage of the population is likely to
experience increasingly severe adverse health effects. Different countries have their own air quality
indices, corresponding to different national air quality standards. Some of these are the USEPA Air
Quality Index, Air Quality Health Index (Canada), the Air Pollution Index (Malaysia), National Air
Quality Index(India) and the Pollutant Standards Index (Singapore). The selection of the parameters
to compute AQI depends upon several factors such as

1. The purpose of the index,

2. The significance of the air quality variables
3. Data availability.

The index (Table 5.2) varies from 0 to 500. An AQI value of 100 corresponds to the air quality
standard for a single pollutant. AQI values of <100 indicate good to moderate air quality, whereas
values of 101 to 500 indicate increased public health risk; values of >300 are considered hazardous

The index also has associated health effects and a colour representation of the categories as shown
in Table 5.2. The health message associated with each category is also shown in the Table 5.3
Sensitive groups in the third AQI category (Table 5.3) include children and adults with respiratory
disease, adults with cardiovascular disease, and children and adults who are active outdoors

Table 5.2 The Air Quality Index

58
Table 5.3 AQI Health Messages

There has been health advise on the actions to take to protect your health when pollution is high.
These include:

59
 1. Avoid exercising or working outdoors for long periods of time

2. Choose less strenuous outdoor activities

3. Avoid exercising near busy roads

4. Postpone outdoor recreational activities

5. Avoid sources of particles indoors: wood-burning stoves, fireplaces, candles

5.4.1 Communication of AQI

In the US, checking local air quality is as easy as checking the weather. You can find the latest AQI
values on the Internet, in your local media, and on many state and local telephone hotlines. You can
also sign up to receive AQI forecasts by e-mail.

1. AQI ON THE INTERNET

Real time monitoring data and forecasts of air quality that are color-coded in terms of the air quality
index are available from EPA's AirNow web site. Historical air monitoring data including AQI
charts and maps are available at EPA's AirData website. Detailed map about current AQI level and
its two-day forecast is available from Aerostate web site New York inhabitants who subscribe to
AirNYC get notifications (free email) about the changes in the AQI values for the selected location
(e.g. home address), based on air quality conditions.

2. AQI IN THE MEDIA.

Many local media—television, radio, and newspapers—and some national media (such as USA
Today, The Weather Channel, and CNN) provide daily air quality reports, often as part of the
weather forecast. Here’s the type of report you might hear; Tomorrow will be a code red air quality
day for Center City. The cold winter air, morning traffic, and wood smoke are expected to cause
particle pollution to rise to unhealthy levels. People with heart or lung disease, older adults, and
children should avoid prolonged or heavy physical activities.

5.4.2 Computation of AQI

𝐼 𝐿𝑜 −𝐼
I = 𝐵𝑃𝐻𝑖 −𝐵𝑃 (𝐶𝑃 − 𝐵𝑃𝐿𝑜 ) + 𝐼𝐿𝑂
𝐻𝑖 𝐿𝑜

Where, I = the Air quality index

60
Cp = the daily reference concentration

BPHi = highest breakpoint of the pollutant that is ≥ Cp

BPLo = lowest breakpoint that is ≤ Cp

IHi = the AQI value corresponding to BPHi

ILo = the AQI value corresponding to BPLo

The breakpoint values for the pollutants is shown in Table 5.4

Table 5.4 The Breakpoint of Pollutants

Real-time monitoring data from continuous monitors are typically available as 1-hour averages.
However, computation of the AQI for some pollutants requires averaging over multiple hours of
data. (For example, calculation of the ozone AQI requires computation of an 8-hour average and
computation of the PM2.5 or PM10 AQI requires a 24-hour average.) To accurately reflect the current
air quality, the multi-hour average used for the AQI computation should be centered on the current
time, but as concentrations of future hours are unknown and are difficult to estimate accurately,
EPA uses surrogate concentrations to estimate these multi-hour averages. The AQI is determined
by the pollutant with the highest index. For example, if the PM2.5 AQI is 125, the PM10 AQI is 50,
SO2 is 30, NOx is 50, and all other pollutants are less than 125, then the AQI is 125–determined
ONLY by the concentration of PM2.5

Example 5.1

61
Suppose a monitor records a 24-hour average of the following pollutants Tarkwa, find the AQI of
the area and the appropriate health message and recommendations for the inhabtants

POLLUTANTS CONCENTRATIONS

CO 50.5 (ppm)

SO2 0.3 (ppm)

PM2.5 131 (µg/m3)

5.5 Exceedence Factor

O3 O.190 (ppm)) The exceedence factor is

the ratio of the annual
NO2 1.33 (ppm) average concentration of
a particular pollutant with
a respective standard for the particular area class. The most significant pollutants causing maximum
air quality deterioration are sorted out by comparing the relevant EF. values among all the identified
parameters. The equation used to calculate EF is described below:

𝑂𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 of a critical pollutant

𝐸𝐹 =
𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

Values of EF are categorized into four general categories (Table 5.2). Any pollutant having an EF
value of more than 1.0 is considered to be a major pollutant, significantly contributing toward the
deterioration in the air quality. Adequate consideration for management is also essential for the
pollutants having an EF value between 0.5–0.9, which may cross national standards, if not
controlledadequately. However, any specific air pollutanthaving an EF value of less than 0.5 is not
considered to be critical.

Table 5.2 Description of Exceedence Factors (EF) and the Corresponding Range

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Example 5.2

Use the Exceedence factor to determine the air quality in the following areas in India. The monitored
values are shown below

Pollutants Time weighted Industrial Areas Residential/Rural

average areas

Sulphur dioxide Annual 90 65

Oxides of Nitrogen Annual 85 75

Suspended Annual 450 150

Particulate Matter

5.6 Gaussian Dispersion Model

The atmosphere is the environmental medium where we live and breathe, and therefore we are very
sensitive to inputs of pollution to the air. Modeling of atmospheric pollution can be used to
determine human exposure to existing pollution sources and to predict future exposures from
industrial accidents. There are many sources of atmospheric pollution, including industrial
smokestacks, fugitive (or non-point) industrial emissions, gasoline stations, industrial accidents,
automotive and railroad accidents, volcanoes, and forest fires. In this section, we will develop
relatively simple models to predict the fate and transport of pollution released from these and similar
sources. One major difference between the atmosphere and the other environmental media is that
the atmospheric models must allow mixing in three dimensions since air and pollutants readily mix.
Thus, in contrast to the one-dimensional modeling equations presented elsewhere in this course, we
will be using a three-dimensional model for our atmospheric studies

63
Atmospheric dispersion pollution modelling is of great and actual concern in the scientific
international community. Many dispersion models have been developed and used to estimate the
downwind ambient concentration of air pollutants from sources such as industrial plants, vehicular
traffic or accidental chemical release. Among them, Gaussian model is perhaps the most commonly
used model type. It is often used to predict the dispersion of air pollution plumes originated from
ground-level or elevated sources

Consider a point source somewhere in the air where a pollutant is released at a constant rate Q
(kg/s). The wind is blowing continuously in a direction x (measured in metres from the source) with
a speed, u (m/s). The plume spreads as it moves in the x direction such that the local concentrations
C(x, y, z) (kg/m3) at any point in space form distributions which have shapes that are “Gaussian”
or “normal” in planes normal to the x direction.

Fig 5.4 Wind profile

In the lateral, or y, direction the profile shape is given by

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whilst in the vertical, or z, direction it is given by

The parameters σy and σz (m) are the standard deviations of these Gaussian distributions, which
indicate the spread of the plume in the y and z directions, respectively. They increase with the
distance x from the source. The area under the distribution, determined by integration of the
functions given above between plus and minus infinity, is equal to unity.

Combining these two-dimensional shape distributions by multiplying the functions together gives
us the function for the shape of the distribution in three-dimensions (a kind of “hill” of pollutant)

The concentration at any point is given by

Hence, the concentration is equal to the rate of emission from the source divided by the wind speed
and then multiplied by the shaping function. This distribution measures y and z normally from the
x-axis (the x-axis may also be considered to be the direction of the center-line of the plume. In
practice, the source will usually be raised above the ground (for example the exit of a chimney).
Hence we need to modify the z coordinate so that it is measured from the ground

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 Fig 5.5 Emission from Stack

 H = effective height of plume centre-line (m)

 hs= height of source above ground (m)
 ∆h = initial plume rise (m)
 z = coordinate measured vertically from the ground to a point in the plume (m)
Hence, relative to the plume axis the new vertical coordinate is (z-H) giving

There is one further modification to be made to this equation. Unlike a plume spreading in free air,
most plumes will be emitted close to the ground, like the case of the chimney shown above. Hence,
as the plume spreads downwards (as well as upwards) as it moves downwind from the source, it
will eventually “hit” the ground. Clearly, the plume cannot continue to spread into the ground,
instead, it is “reflected” back into the air above the ground. The effect of the ground boundary is
included in the concentration equation mathematically by using a fictitious “mirror-image” source
(Si= S) of the same strength (Qi= Q) placed at the same distance from the ground (hs) but on the
other side of the boundary

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 Fig 5.6 Fictitious Mirror Image of a Plume that hits the Ground

Hence, at any point P there is a contribution to the concentration C(x, y, z) from both the real source
(S) and the imaginary source (Si). The vertical distance to P from the center-line of the real plume
is (z-H). The vertical distance to P from the center-line of the imaginary source is (z + H). The
lateral distance (y) into the page is the same for both sources. Hence, the total concentration at P is

If only concentrations at ground level (e.g modelling of roadways emissions, which is represented
as line source) on the center-line of the plume (along the x-axis direction) are required, then the
equation is simplified further since both z=0 and y=0. This gives

Using the basic equation, if we know the rate of emission from the source (Q), the prevailing wind
speed (U) and direction (x) and the height of the center-line of the plume above ground (H), we can

67
determine the concentration (C) at any point (x, y, z). However, to do this we need information
about the plume spread by obtaining values for σy and σz

5.6.1 Gaussian Coefficients

The values of σy and σz have been determined empirically and are conveniently graphed as functions
of x and atmospheric turbulence or stability categories. The averaging time for the prediction is
determined by the averaging base for the Gaussian coefficients (σy and σz) selected for the analysis.
Averaging times are usually 1 hour (however, some coefficients have been established using 10
minutes). Once the coefficient is selected, the remaining input data (Qj, U) must be averaged over
the same period.

In order to incorporate dispersion coefficient graphs into computer model algorithms, Martin (1976)
developed a set of equations that closely resemble the experimentally determined curves. The
Martin equations are:

σy = axb

and

σz = cxd + f

The constants a, b, c, d and f are given in Table 5. where σ is in (m) and x is in (km)

Table 5.7 Martin Equations Coefficients

The stability categories used to determine the dispersion coefficients are given Table 5. 8

Table 5.8 Stability Categories Used to Determine the Dispersion Coefficients

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5.6.2 Plume Rise

Observation of a plume emitted from a stack at a temperature Ts above the ambient air temperature
TA shows that the plume rises above the top of the stack is due to its discharge momentum and its
thermal buoyancy. For plumes form most combustion sources, the momentum rise is so small
relative to the buoyancy rise (due to the high temperature of the plume) that is to be neglected. The
final plume height H is the sum of the stack height Hs and the combined momentum and buoyancy
plume rise

H = hs + ∆h.

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Many plume rise equations have been proposed, but those developed by Briggs (1969) using
dimensional analysis are the most widely used today. Briggs postulated that plume rise occurs
simultaneously with a relatively rapid plume expansion (diffusion) as a result of entrainment of
ambient air into the plume. Therefore, the plume rise must also be a function of the stability of the
atmosphere. Briggs proposed the following equations

1. For stable and near- neutral conditions,

𝐹 1/3
∆h = 2.6 ( )
𝑢𝑆

Where F is the initial buoyancy flux of the emitted plume defined by:

𝑔(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝐴 )𝑊 𝐷 2
𝐹= ( )
𝑇𝑠 2

Where g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)

 Ts and TA = absolute temperatures of the emitted gas and the environment respectively,
at the point of emission
 W = exit velocity of the plume (m/s)
 D = diameter of the stack at the top (m)
 u = mean wind speed through the atmospheric layer of the depth frequently taken to
correspond to u at the height, hs of the stack
 S = stability parameter (1/s2)

S = stability parameter (1/s2) is defined by

 ∆TA/ ∆Z = Temperature lapse rate

2. For unstable atmosphere where the plume theoretically would never stop rising as a result
of ambient air entrainment

∆H = 1.6 F1/3u-1x2/3

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Example 5.3
A proposed processing plant is expected to emit 450g/s of SO2 from a single stack of height 60m.
The nearest receptor is a small town 500m from the site. The winds are expected to move at a rate
of 2m/s which will cause the plume to rise to a height of 30m. If the temperature of the day is 40oC
What is the pollution concentration at ground level at the start of the town. (Take y= 100m and z=
120m)
Example 5.4
Sulphur dioxide is emitted at a rate of 2kg/s from the top of a chimney that is 120m high. The plume
initially rises vertically above the chimney exit, before being convected horizontally by a wind
speed of 15m/s under conditions of neutral stability. Find the concentration of the gas a distance of
1.7 km from the stack. The physical characteristics of the emissions and the ambient atmosphere
are as follows
 Gas exit velocity = 20m/s
 Gas exit temperature = 122oC
 Stack diameter at the top = 2.5m
 Ambient air temperature = 14oC
 Stability parameter (1/s2) = 2.8

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 CHAPTER 6

NOISE
Noise is generally referred to as unwanted sound that can negatively disrupt human or animal life.
Goldsmith (2012), has recently taken issue with that definition arguing that such a definition leaves
open the possibility that some sounds could be unwanted simply for what they signify rather than
the sound being unwanted in itself (e.g. the voice of an enemy). This demonstrates the contested
nature of how noise is defined. And we can never completely agree on what noise is: a rock concert
can be a musical nirvana to some ears but an unbearable racket to others. He suggests an alternative
based on the physicist George William Clarkson Kaye’s 1931 definition of noise as ‘sound out of
place’. It is sound that is unwanted, inappropriate, interfering, distracting and irritating (Henry,
2013).
Sound is defined as a disturbance that propagates through an elastic medium at a speed that is
determined by the properties of the medium (air, liquid, solids).
If the pressure disturbance or wave is propagated at speed c, then the time taken for the wave to
travel a distance of one wavelength λ is known as the period T.
The wavelength may be expressed as: λ = cT
The period T is the reciprocal of the frequency f, in cycles per second
Hence c = λf
Where c = speed of propagation, m/s
λ = wavelength, m
f = frequency, Hz (1/s)

6.1 Environmental Noise Study

Noise is playing an ever-increasing role in our lives and seems a regrettable but ultimately avoidable
corollary of current technology. The trend toward the use of more automated equipment, sports and
pleasure craft, high-wattage stereo, larger construction machinery, and the increasing numbers of
ground vehicles and aircraft has created a gradual acceptance of noise as a natural by-product of
progress. Various noise-monitoring studies and sociological surveys in recent years have indicated
the need for noise abatement. Noise pollution is thus another environmental pollutant to be formally
recognized as a genuine threat to human health and the quality of life. The fundamental insight we
have gained is that noise may be considered a contaminant of the atmosphere just as definitely as a
particulate or a gaseous contaminant. There is evidence that, at a minimum, noise can impair

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efficiency, adversely affect health, and increase accident rates. At sufficiently high levels, noise can
damage hearing immediately, and even at lower levels, there may be a progressive impairment
of hearing.
Environmental noise can be defined as any unwanted sound created by human activities that is
considered harmful or detrimental to human health and quality of life (Murphy et al., 2009).
Specifically, environmental noise refers only to noise affecting humans and is concerned
exclusively with outdoor sound caused generally by transport, industry and recreational activities.
Thus, environmental noise is a form of pollution. And this classification is quite useful because it
means that confronting noise becomes quite intuitive. By way of definition, pollution is something
that is to be avoided, controlled, regulated or eliminated because of its negative impact on humans
and human–environment relations.

6.1.1 Elements of Environmental Noise

The basic elements of environmental noise are:

1. The sound source
2. The sound propagation path
3. The receiver (receptor)
The first two may be analysed in terms of physics and engineering principles, where as in dealing
with the receiver, the physiology of human hearing, nuisance and health issues associated with noise
are involved

Sound Source

A sound source may be characterized by the sound energy generated. The amount of energy
generated and propagated per unit time is called the Sound Power (W) of the source. The amount
of sound energy per unit time passing through a unit area A, is defined as the Sound Intensity I.

Thus I = W/A [W/m2]

Sound Propagation and Reception

Sound propagation in environmental noise study occurs in most cases through the air, however in
some instances, it could be through solids (i.e. a wall of a room). Sound pressure disturbances that
the human being is capable of hearing are very small relative to atmospheric pressure and it is time
dependent. The sound pressure at a receptor from a source is expressed as

P(t) = Pa + p(t) in [N/m2]

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Where Pa is the atmospheric pressure (1.01 x 105 Pa)

p(t) is the pressure disturbance

The statistical parameter used to describe the sound pressure values is the root-mean-square (rms),
and it is related to sound intensity by the equation:

𝑃2
𝐼= [W/m2]
𝜌𝑐

Where P = root-mean-square (rms) Sound pressure (Pa)

ρ = air density (kg/m3)

c = sound propagation speed (m/s)

The human ear can detect sound pressures ranging from as low as 2 ×10-5 N/m2, the

threshold of hearing, to over 200 N/m2, the threshold of pain. This wide range has

prompted the use of a logarithmic scale to express sound pressures.

6.1.2 The Decibel Noise Scale

The decibel (dB) is a dimensionless unit used to express the sound pressure level (SPL or Lp); the
term “level” is used to emphasize the fact that a logarithm of a ratio is being expressed. More
specifically, the sound pressure level is defined as

𝑃2
𝑆𝑃𝐿 = 10log ( 2 )
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑓

𝑃
= 20 log ( ) decibels (dB)
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑓

Where p is the measured root-mean-square sound pressure (N/m2) and p ref is the reference sound
pressure, 2 ×10 −5N/m2. It is useful to note that the reference pressure is the threshold of hearing
such that 0 dB corresponds to the limit of hearing. Noise measurements are, quite simply, sound
measurements, and the term “noise level” is often the word used synonymously with sound pressure
level. Comfort requires that the sound level, from all sources, should be of the order of 65 dB or
less (i.e., sound with a root-mean-square pressure of 3.56 ×10 −2N/m2). Some typical noise levels
are as follows

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Noise levels in general have increased over the years and some authorities hold that average noise
levels in cities have increased at about 1 dB per year for the last 30 yr. The sound pressure level
represents the magnitude of a noise source and is one of the characteristics that can assess whether
a given noise is considered to be annoying. There are other characteristics, both intrinsic to the noise
and its context, that dictate whether people will consider it to be annoying (2):

1. Duration
2. Intermittency
3. Time of day
4. Location (or activity)
5. Individual differences

Depending on the frequency of the air pressure, different types of decibel scales are used in
environmental noise measurement. Typically, we have:

1. Linear “L” scale [dB (L)]- for air pressure measurements affecting structures.

Linear measurement is generally used to measure the effect of low frequency air pressure on
buildings. The linear scale records sound pressure without modification in the 2 to 300 Hz range.
Measurement units may be in absolute, Pascal, or relative dB scales.

2. “A” weighted scale [dB (A)]- for human response

“A” weight measures noise levels people may consider as annoying. The incoming signal is filtered
over a 20Hz to 20000Hz range reflecting the hearing range of human ear. The signal is then
converted to root mean square (rms). Units are measured using the decibel scale dB(A).

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6.1.3 Multiple Sound Sources

In environmental noise study, we may be interested in the total noise at an observer’s location
resulting from more than one sound source. In this case, the sound intensities (or sound pressure
squared) is first added, then converted to decibels.

Thus for two sound sources 1 and 2 with pressure levels P1 and P2

Lp total = 10 log (P12/Po2 + P22/Po2)

If the sound pressures from two sources are equal (P1 = P), then

Lp total = 10 log (2P12/ Po2)

= LP1 + 10 log 2

= LP1 + 3 dB

Or simply add 3 dB to the sound pressure level of one source

 For identical sources

Lp total = LP1 + 10 log N

6.1.4 Sound Pressure at a Distance

Often the sound power of a source is not known but the sound pressure level LP1 at a distance r1
from the source is known (measured). The sound pressure level LP2 at a distance r2 from the source
can be calculated from the equation:

LP2 = LP1 - 20 log (r2/r1)- Ae1,2

Where Ae1,2 is excess attenuation along path r2- r1 between location 1 and 2. For a homogeneous
loss – free atmosphere, Ae = 0

Excess attenuation may be a result of any one or more of the following:

 Attenuation by air absorption

 Attenuation by rain, snow, sleet, or fog
 Attenuation by barriers
 Attenuation by vegetation

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6.2 Statistical Noise Levels

Statistical noise levels LN are commonly used for environmental noise monitoring, such as road
traffic or community noise assessments. In these applications, noise levels fluctuate significantly
over time, and level statistics help to better understand what's going on. The measured noise and
the number of times that the noise level falls within the classified incremental levels (for example
5 dBA incremental) is determined. These are then plotted on a histogram that shows the percent of
the time during the interval that the noise level falls within these intervals. A widely used measure
obtained from the histogram is the percentage of time certain noise levels are exceeded during the
period of measurement. The notations for these statistical quantities are:

 L90: the noise level exceeded 90 percent of the time. It is taken to be the ambient or
background noise level as used. When assessing nuisance from industrial sources it is
common practice to measure the noise levels from the factory at the complainant’s house
and compare them with the background or ideally the pre-existing levels before the alleged
nuisance was introduced. However, the background levels fluctuates as well, so the L90 have
been widely adopted to quantify background noise levels.
 L50: the noise level exceeded 50 percent of the time. It is the middle point and has been
incorporated in some American Community Noise Assessments
 L10: the noise level exceeded 10 percent of the time. This is often used to give an
indication of the upper limit of fluctuating noise, such as that from road traffic. The L10 has
been found over the years to be a useful descriptor of road traffic noise as it correlates quite
well with the disturbance people feel when close to busy roads as well as more rural
situations. By definition the L10 value is the level just exceeded for 10% of the time and
takes account of any annoying peaks of noise. L10 calculated levels are widely used when
planning new traffic schemes.

6.2.1 Computation of Noise Indices

Noise index like Traffic Noise Index (TNI) are computed using the notations for statistical noise
level quantities

TNI = 4(L10-L90) + L90−30

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Threshold Limit Value for noisy working conditions: (An 8 hour shift in all following cases)

 8 hours work – 90 dBA

 4 hours working – 95 dBA
 hours working – 100 dBA
 1 hour working – 105 dBA
 Half hour work – 110 dBA
 Threshold of hearing – 125 dBA

Example 6.1

Derive a histogram for the noise level recording dB (A) given, and calculate the L10, L50 and L90
levels for the noise recorded:

61, 62, 65, 69, 68, 64, 59, 58, 61, 64, 67, 72, 77, 82, 80, 76, 72, 67, 62 and 61

78