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Engineering & Technology:

Other Applications
Chapter 11

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Understanding the S & T Heritage of India
Three approaches

(a)The archaeological evidence that shows how S & T

1 ought to have been deployed in ancient times

(a)Living examples of physical entities that point to

2 the use of good S & T practices

(a)Literary resources pointing to the use of S & T in

3 ancient times

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S & T Heritage of India
• Archaeological excavations, and remains of metalworking mines and furnaces that were
in use long ago points to a culture of Science, Engineering, and Technology in the ancient
Indian society
• On account of appropriate know-how, it has been possible
• to extract large quantities of metals from the oars
• manufacture corrosion-resistant steels that can stand the test of time
• build lofty physical structures of staggering magnitude such as temples
• deploy irrigation and water management systems, etc.
• In the area of health
• we find instructions and processes pertaining to surgical practices,
• preparation of therapeutic formulations involving metallic compounds and their extracts
• Ancient Indian literature also points to maritime trade between several parts of
peninsular India with the countries in the far east, China, and the Roman Empire.
• This presupposes knowledge of building ships that are capable of withstanding long voyages across the
oceans
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 Indian Science and Technology in the 18th
century
• Dharampal provides interesting insights and suggests that various
Indian technologies were in a flourishing state in the 18th century CE.
• widespread practice of inoculation against smallpox,
• practice of plastic surgery which was transmitted from India to the Europe
• The quality of Madras Mortar to name a few
• Several contemporary European observers, commented on the
sophistication, efficacy and possible adoption in the Europe of the
Indian science and technology practices
Source: Dharampal (2021). “Indian Science and Technology in the eighteenth century: Some contemporary European Accounts”, Dharampal Classics Series 2, Rashtrotthaana
Sahitya, Bengaluru.

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S & T references in ancient Indian literature
No. Period Source Issues of S & T discussed in the text
1 Up to 1st century Ṛgveda References to Iron, ironsmith and melting process in several passages – no
BCE mention of copper
Atharvaveda, Yajurveda Mention of six metals (gold, silver, iron, tin, lead, copper), various technical
occupational categories
Chāndogya-upaniṣad, Taittirīya- Mention of black metal and red metal
brāhmaṇa
Rāmāyaṇa Description of iron ores, metals and mines
Manusṃṛti Mention of the use of household utensils made of copper, iron, bronze,
brass, tin and lead and enjoins their purification with ashes, acid and water.

Caraka and Suśruta Saṃhitās Description of surgical instruments, mention of six metals, alloys of copper
(brass, zinc), tools for surgical interventions
Arthaśāstra Primarily a book on statecraft and public administration, description of
various warfare implements such as iron swords, arrows, axes, spades, etc.,
ores and mines of gold, silver, copper, iron, lead, tin and precious stones,
state functionaries such as superintendents of mines, ships and weaving, use
of copper in making alloys and in gold and silver coins, goldsmith roles

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S & T references in ancient Indian literature

No. Period Source Issues of S & T discussed in the text

2 1st Century CE to Rasaratnākara of Reduction of metals, recipes for transmutation of base
10th Century CE Nāgārjuna metals, yantras for carrying out several physio-
chemical processes, alchemical processes and
preparations of mercurial compounds
Bṛhat-saṃhitā of Primarily an astronomy treatise, Geological formations
Varāhamihira (rain, dust storm, water etc.) mining, earthquakes,
yantras, medicine, botany, architecture (temple, idols
etc.)
Amara-kośa Technical terms, vocabulary

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S & T references in ancient Indian literature

No. Period Source Issues of S & T discussed in the text

3 11th Century CE to 14th Yukti-kalpataru by Bhojarāja Architectural principles, ideas of different types of ships and
Century CE shipbuilding
Samarāṅgaṇa-sūtradhāra of Architectural principles, different types of yantras (devices), ideas or
Mahārājādhirāja Bhojadeva aerial vehicles
Mānasollāsa of king Sōmeśvara Process of making metal icons by the lost wax casting process
Rasacintāmaṇi of Madanāntadeva - preparation of medicine, information on chemistry and metallurgy,
including the production of zinc
Rasaratna-samuccaya of Vāgbhaṭa Contemporary method of production of zinc, different categories of
iron, mineral purification; extraction of metals and mercury; fuels,
crucibles, furnaces; metals, alloys and their properties, 51
metallurgical implements, 36 types of equipment, 17 types of
crucibles, and 9 types of furnaces. It is considered as a metallurgical
encyclopaedia of the 13th century, pharmaceutical procedures of
metals and minerals, description of many herbo-metallic and
mineral formulations

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 World Heritage sites in India (up to 13th Century CE)
No World Heritage Site Period Short Description of the site and its importance
1 Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka, 30,000 years Five clusters of rock shelters with paintings in some of the shelters dated from 100,000 BCE
Madhya Pradesh to 1000 CE amidst dense forest has been discovered. Twenty-one villages surrounding them
reflect the traditions displayed in the rock paintings.
2 Champaner-Pavagadh Prehistoric and Largely unexcavated archaeological, historic and living cultural heritage properties which
Archaeological Park, Gujarat 8th – 14th century includes prehistoric sites, a hill fortress of an early Hindu capital, and remains of the 16th-
CE century capital of the state of Gujarat.
3 Mahābodhi Temple 3rd Century BCE The first temple was built by Emperor Aśoka in 260 BCE around the Bodhi Tree. The oldest
Complex at Bodh Gaya, to 6th century CE temple in the Indian sub-continent built during the Gupta period.
Bihar
4 Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh 2nd Century BCE A group of Buddhist monuments dated between 200 BC and 100 BC. The sanctuary has a
to 12th Century plethora of monolithic pillars, palaces, temples and monasteries in different status of
CE preservation.
5 Ajantā Caves, Maharashtra 6th – 2nd century 31 rock-cut cave monuments depict richly decorated fresco paintings, which are unique
CE representations of the religious art of Buddhism
6 Archaeological Site of 5th – 12th century Archaeological remains of a monastic and scholastic institution. It includes stūpas, shrines,
Nalanda Mahāvihāra at CE and vihāras (residential and educational buildings). The most ancient university of the Indian
Nalanda, Bihar Subcontinent that functioned uninterrupted for a period of 800 years.
7 Elephanta Caves, 5th – 8th century Consists of two groups of caves — the first is a large group of five Hindu caves containing
Maharashtra CE rock cut stone sculptures, the second, a smaller group of two Buddhist caves.
8 Ellorā Caves, Maharashtra 600 CE to 1000 A mix of artistic creation of the ancient civilization of India depicting Buddhism, Hinduism
CE and Jainism. 34 monasteries and temples sculpted contiguously into rock walls.
Source: Adopted from [Link]

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 World Heritage sites in India (up to 13th Century CE)
No World Heritage Site Period Short Description of the site and its importance
9 Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu 7th and 8th
About 40 monuments including the largest open-air bas-relief in the world carved out of
century CE rock.
10 Hill Forts of Rajasthan 7th – 16th century
Rajput forts at Chittor, Kumbhalgarh, Ranthambore, Gagron, Amer and Jaisalmer
CE characterized by its mountain peak settings, utilizing the defensive properties of the terrain.
11 Paṭṭadakal, Karnataka 8th century CE Nine temples representing a fusion of Nāgara and Draviḍa architectural features, as well as
a Jain sanctuary. The Virupaksha Temple, is an outstanding architectural edifice.
12 Khajurāho, Madhya Pradesh 950 CE to 1050 The surviving monuments with striking fusion of sculpture and architecture and unique
CE original artistic creation.
13 Chola Temples, Tamil Nadu 11th and 12th Includes three great temples namely, the Bṛhadīśvara Temple, Tanjāvūr, the Bṛhadīśvara
century CE Temple, Gaṅgaikoṇḍa Cholapuram and the Airāvateśvara Temple, Darasuram. The temples
testify to the brilliant achievements of the Chola in architecture, sculpture, painting and
bronze casting.
14 Rani ki vav (The Queen's 11 century CE Famous for its size and sculpture. Most of the sculptures are in devotion to Vishnu. It also
th

Stepwell), Gujarat has an Apsara showcasing 16 different styles of make-up to look more attractive.
15 Qutab Minar, Delhi Late 12 century A red sandstone tower of 72.5 metres height with a base of 14.32 metres reducing to 2.75
th

CE metres diameter at the top. This also houses the famous Mauryan time iron pillar.
16 Sun Temple, Konark, Orissa 13th century CE Built in the form of the chariot of Sūrya with 24 wheels, decorated with symbolic stone
carvings.

Source: Adopted from [Link]

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South Indian
Temples –
Technological Aspects
• Several “great temples” built by Cholas, Pāṇḍyas, and Pallavas in Tamil Nadu and
others in several parts of South India (such as Vijayanagara temples, and Hoysala
temples to name a few) are living examples of engineering and technology at
work
• The sheer size, structural elements, choice of building materials, design choices,
and intricate sculptural works make this temple special
• Working with very intricate stone carvings and sculptures running in thousands
in the tall towers and the main sanctum sanctorum of the temple requires a high
degree of design and execution skills
• Granite stone temples paved the way for the introduction of the technique of
cutting into rock, which ought to have triggered some associated engineering
challenges and innovations
• Quantum of granite used is so substantial that one wonders how the logistics and
supply chain problem was addressed
• How did they bring large quantities of granite from far-off places to the
construction site
• How did they manage to carry the carved dome atop a 208 feet high tower and
place it there safely and firmly (in Big temple in Thanjavur)?
• Existence of musical pillars in some of the temples informs us that ancient Indians The top portion of Bṛhadīśvara temple at Tanjāvūr
had a good understanding of the acoustical properties of stones Source: [Link]
• Knowledge of cutting stones using special tools is inevitable as granite belongs to
the category of the hardest substances to work with
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Khajurāho Temples
• Khajurāho, situated in the Chhatarpur district of Madhya Pradesh
has a homogenous group of temples in the region representing a
unique style of architecture in North India
• Built during the 9th Century CE – 12th Century CE
• Originally 85 temples, but only 25 remain today
• Architectural elements of the Khajurāho temples show distinctive
peculiarities of plan and elevation
• A degree of sophistication that became the de facto style for
central Indian buildings
• The details of architectural designs and modelling of sculptures
point to a well-established iconographic knowledge and the
availability of skilled technicians and sculptors
Intricate sculptures in Kandariyā Mahadeva Temple
• The sculptures in Khajurāho are of great iconographical interest Source: Deva, K. (1959), “Temples of Khajuraho in Central India”, Ancient
India, 15, pp 43 – 65

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 Irrigation & Water
Management: Dams
• Several studies in the past have clearly brought out the presence of sophisticated water management systems in
Dholavira, an important city in the Sindhu Sarasvati civilisation
• The city was surrounded by a series of 16 large reservoirs (7 m deep and 79 m long), with some of them interconnected
together, which nearly accounted for about 10% of the area of the city.
• Recently, a rectangular stepwell was found at Dholavira measuring 73.4 m long, 29.3 m wide, and 10 m deep, making it
three times bigger than the Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro

• A survey was conducted in an ancient Indian irrigation system at Sanchi, and four other known Buddhist sites of Morel-
Khurd, Sonari, Satdhara, and Andher, all established between 300 and 200 BCE
• Heights of the dams ranged from 1 meter to 6 meters and their lengths from 80 to 1400 meters

• Emperor Candragupta Maurya is reported to have constructed the Sudarśana dam in Girnar, Junagadh, Gujarat
• Mauryans had developed a sophisticated concept for rainwater harvesting and irrigation management, known as the
“Ahar–Pyne” system, which is still practiced in the regions of southern Bihar and Chhota Nagpur
• During the Saṅgam Period (300 BCE to 300 CE), in the southern parts of India, rainwater-harvesting structures such as
tanks were constructed for irrigating the paddy fields.
• The Grand Anaicut (Kallanai Dam) in Tamil Nadu is the world’s oldest “still in use” dam and is also credited with being the
Grand Anicut – World’s oldest “still in use” dam fourth oldest dam in the world
Source: [Link] • The Grand Anaicut was constructed by the Chola King Karikalan during the first century CE on the river Cauvery to
provide for irrigation supplies in the Cauvery delta region.
• In 1804, the British raised the height of the dam by 27 inches
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 Irrigation & Water
Management: Stepwells
• Primarily water storage systems that were developed in India, to cope with seasonal
fluctuations in water availability.
• Stepwells depict the finest architectures and integrate culture and religion with social life
in an integrated setting as is evident from the existing stepwells.
• Commonly found in western India (mainly Gujarat and Rajasthan) and other such arid
regions of the Indian subcontinent, extending into Pakistan.
• The earliest archaeological evidence of wells provided with steps is found at Dholavira.
• Mohenjo Daro's great bath also has steps in opposite directions, similar to a stepwell
construction.
• Aśokan Inscriptions mention the construction of stepwells along major Indian roads at
regular distances for the convenience of travellers.
• The Aparājita-pṛccha, a canonical text on art and architecture from Gujarat has details on
the construction and ornamentation of stepwells
Chand Baori, Rajasthan, one of the deepest and largest stepwells in India
Source: By Doron, [Link]

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Dyes and Painting Technology
• In ancient times there is a frequent mention of certain colours. This includes Indigo (Nīla), Turmeric (Haridrā),
Maddar (Mañjiṣṭa) and Resin (Rajana).
• Indigo has been popular since the pre-Christian era and was an article of export to Egypt and other countries from
India.
• In Buddhist literature, the Vinaya texts describe six sources of dyes: roots, trunks, barks, leaves, flowers, and fruits of
trees
• Yaśodhara in his Jayamaṅgala commentary on Vātsyāyana’s Kāmasūtra has listed six components of the art of
painting amongst which mixing of colours (varṇikā-bhaṇga) is one
• According to Viṣṇu-dharmottara-purāṇa, most common colours were white, red, yellow, black and blue. Several
hundred other colours and shades may be obtained by a judicious combination of one or more of these basic colours
• मूलरङ्गा: स्मृताः प� �ेत-पीत-िवलोिहताः ।
• कृ ष्णो नील� राजेन्� शतशोऽन्तरः स्मृतः ॥
• mklaraṅg� : smṛ t� ḥ pañca [veta-p+ta-vilohit� ḥ |
• kṛṣṇo n+la[ca r� jendra [ata[o’ntaraḥ smṛ taḥ || 3.40.16
• In ancient India, a paste of sandalwood used as cosmetics is often coloured with lac and other dyes, smeared over the
body, and applied in different patterns

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 Dyes and Painting Technology
• Collyrium (eye-salve) or añjanā made of dark powdered antimony was very popular
• Vermilion (sindūra), lac (lākśā), and a yellow pigment gorocana were used for marking as tilaka
on the forehead
• Methods of beautifying the body using dyes are mentioned in Nātya-śāstra
• ने�योर�नं कायर्म् अधरस्य च र�नम् । दन्तानां िविवधा रागा: चतुणा� शुक्लता यथा ॥
• netrayorañjanaṃ kāryam adharasya ca rañjanam | dantānāṃ vividhā rāgā: caturṇāṃ śuklatā yathā ||
21.28
• In Rasa-ratnākara, a few recipes are given for the preparation of kuṅkuma (used as tilaka)
• The boiled essence of flowers of the Palāśa tree (also known as the Indian Tulip) should be kept in the Sun
in a wide vessel.
• Finely ground rice powder must be added to this in the proportion of 1:20, making it a fine paste.
• Further, the lime of half the volume should be mixed and stirred well in bright sunshine.
• Out of this, pellets can be prepared which will have a bright red colour like kuṅkuma.
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 Preparing a wall for painting
Viṣṇu-dharmottara-purāṇa (Third kāṇḍa)
• The Ajantā paintings employed extracts of plants and minerals in preparing pigments. First, the wall of the
caves was given a pre-treatment using a special coating
• In chapter 40, it gives a formulation for preparing a coating that could be applied first on the surface (wall)
where painting has to be done.
• The ingredients of the coating include three varieties of brick powders mixed with one-third of clay
• The other ingredients added to this include gum-resin (guggulu), beeswax (madhūcchiṣṭam), honey
(madhu), a type of grass (kundaraka), molasses (guḍam), and safflower (kusumbha) soaked in oil, in
equal proportions
• Further powdered lime three-fourths burnt with bel fruit pulp and lampblack should also be added
• After adding one-fourth part of the sand, the mixture should be soaked in water for a month to make it
lubricous
• With this paste, a smooth and firm coat is applied to the wall
• Preparing a wall in this manner will ensure that the painting does not get destroyed even after hundred
years
Kramrisch, S. (1928). “The Vishnudharmottara – Part III: A treatise on Indian painting and image making”, Calcutta University Press, Calcutta, pp 48 – 51.

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 Preparing a wall for painting
Śivatattva-ratnākara
• Preparing adamantine for application on a wall as a coating in preparation for
painting:
• Fresh buffalo hide is to be boiled with water until it becomes a sticky butter-like paste. This is cut into small
pieces and dried till the pieces become hard. This is the basic formulation for adamantine (known as
Vajralepa) and is useful for preparing the initial coating on the wall to make it smooth and amenable for
painting pictures.
• Sometimes it is required to add some pigments so that can be used as paints.
• The pieces of Vajralepa can be placed in a mud vessel filled with water and heated so that the pieces can melt.
• The molten liquid form of Vajralepa can be added to any colouring pigment to get the desired shade of a
colour.
• Soft white sand and conch powder can be added to this Vajralepa and smeared on the surface of a wall three
times so that it becomes smooth and glossy.
• This is followed by a coating using a mixture of Vajralepa and a moon-white mineral called Naga found
Nilgiris. The wall finally is ready for painting pictures.
Radha, K. (1997) “Dyes, Mordantas and Pigments”, Chapter 4 [4.3] in History of Technology in India Vol. I, Ed. A.K Bag, Indian National Science Academy, New Delhi, p 315.

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 Making Perfumes
Viṣṇu-dharmottara-purāṇa
• The 64th chapter in the second kāṇḍa has 46 verses in which perfumes is discussed
• The chapter discusses the technique of preparing different kinds of incenses, perfumed water for bath and scented oil
• Eight steps process (known as karmāṣṭakam):
• Śodhanam – This involves purification of the ingredients
• Vāsanam – Scenting with the perfumes of flowers
• Virecanam – The process of cleansing
• Bhāvanā – Saturation of powder in fluid
• Pāka – Ripening by preparing a decoction
• Bodhanam – Revival of scents using certain reviving agents
• Dhūpanam – Fumigating with perfumed vapours
• Vedhanam- Further process of revival
• Varāhamihira’s Bṛhatsaṃhitā (5th century CE), Chapter 77, titled Gandha-yukti, addresses the issue of preparation of
perfumes in 37 verses
Sastri, V.S. and Bhat, M.R. (1946), “Varahamihira’s Brihatsamhita”, Soobbiah & Sons, Bangalore, pp 603 – 612 and Vyas, K. T. (1997) “Cosmetics and Perfumes”, Chapter 4 [4.2] in History of
Technology in India Vol. I, Ed. A.K Bag, Indian National Science Academy, New Delhi, pp 291.

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 Surgical Procedures
• Surgical methods, known as Śalya-tantra is an ancient technique known
to Indians right from the pre-Christian era
• The most dangerous foreign object that required immediate intervention is an
arrow, with which the kings and generals were attacked in a battle
• Foreign objects of every kind are generally referred to as Śalya, also means
arrow
• Suśruta is considered the father of Indian surgery
• In Suśruta-saṃhitā, he has provided a clinical approach to some major surgical
operations.
• Further, the other contributions of Suśruta include an emphasis on the training of
surgeons, a meticulous code of personal ethics, and the social conduct of the
medical profession in general
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Instruments mentioned
in Suśruta-saṃhitā
• Suśruta’s treatise makes a mention
of 101 blunt and 20 sharp
instruments
• Varieties of needles (straight, curved, or
round body, blunt and cutting),
• Suture materials,
• Splints, and fracture beds for
immobilisation of fractures at various
sites, (a) Karapatra-śastra; (b) Kuśapatra-śastra; (c) Sūci-śastra; (d) Triūurcaka-śastra; (e) Vetaspatra-śastra

• Fourteen different types of bandages, Some sharp instruments mentioned in Suśruta-saṃhitā

• Lion forceps (Siṃha-mukha-yantra), and Source: Sharma, A.N. (1997) “Surgical Techniques”, Chapter 4 [4.4] in History of
Technology in India Vol. I, Ed. A.K Bag, Indian National Science Academy, New Delhi, pp
finger knife (mudrikā-śastra). 335. Reproduced with permission.

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 Clinical Approach
Suśruta Vs Modern Methods
• Suśruta has given a clear description of paracentesis of the abdomen in
cases of ascites.
• After the complete outflow of the fluid, the abdomen should be firmly tied with a
many-tailed bandage to prevent further accumulation of fluid
• The ancient surgical approach to remove the urinary calculi appears to
be in no way different as worked out in the present era by modern
surgeons
• As per Suśruta-saṃhitā, fumigation of the operation theatre could be
done by Guggulu and other similar indigenous drugs to minimise the
infection in surgical cases.
• Modern surgery follows a similar practice of distempering the operation
theatres. © PHI Learning Private Limited
Unique Approaches of Suśruta
• Certain means of exiting the blood to cure many
diseases
• Cupping, the application of leeches, bloodletting (Śirā-
vedha) in various other forms.
• These were used in the treatment of many major diseases
such as high blood pressure, sciatica, and other nervous
ailments.
• Use of the barks of several trees such as madhuka,
udumbara, aśvattha, palāśa, kakubha, bamboo, sarjā,
and banyan for the purpose of splints
• These barks not only served as an antiseptic in the case of
compound fractures but also helped the immobilisation of
the affected part.
A bamboo splint for treating a fractured hand
Sharma, A.N. (1997) “Surgical Techniques”, Chapter 4 [4.4] in History of Technology in India Vol. I, Ed. A.K Bag, Indian National Science Academy, New Delhi, pp 340.

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 Rhinoplasty
Suśruta-saṃhitā, chapter 16 of Śarīrasthānam
• The portion of the nose to be covered should be first measured with a leaf
• A piece of skin flap of the required size should then be dissected from the cheek
or the forehead and turned back to cover the nose
• The flap of the skin taken from the cheek or forehead must be properly
preserved to ensure proper blood circulation in the repaired area.
• The part of the nose is prepared well by making it raw
• The surgeons should join the two parts quickly but evenly and calmly and keep
the skin properly elevated by inserting two tubes inside the nostrils, so that the
new nose may look comely.

For more details see, Thakral, K.K. (2017). “Suśruta Saṃhitā by Suśruta”, Choukhambha Orientalia, Varanasi. Śarīrasthāna, chapter 16, p. 6194.

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 Shipbuilding and Maritime Trade
Sangam and Buddhist Literature
• Early Tamil literature of the Saṅgam period (before Common Era) and foreign
travellers’ chronicles have details of Indian shipping and maritime trade.
• The Chola kings Rāja Rāja Chola I (985 – 1014 CE) and Rājendra Chola I (1014 – 1042 CE) carried
maritime activities with the countries of the Far East and China.
• Tamil Pāṇḍya embassies were received by Augustus Caesar
• Pura-nānūru, Aha-nānūru, and Madurai-kāñci delineated different types of seagoing ships
• Jātaka stories as well as Buddhist accounts and paintings show that Buddhists were
involved in maritime trade
• Prince Vijaya who was banished by his father sailed from Bengal in a fleet of ships carrying more
than 700 passengers.
• The ship in which the bride of Vijaya came to Ceylon is supposed to have carried nearly 800
persons.
• The ship of the Janaka-Jātaka carried 700 persons besides the Buddha and that of the Valāhassa-
Jātaka carried 500 merchants
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 Ships and Water-routes
Arthaśāstra
• Three classes of water-routes (Book 7):
• ordinary river routes as well as artificial waterways or canals, called kulyā
• routes for coastal traffic carrying on inter-portal communications called kulapatha
• ocean-routes called saṃyānapatha
• Different categories of ships (and boats) (Book 2)
• Saṃyātya-nāva, i.e. ocean-going vessels. It is mentioned that these ships had to pay tolls at the
harbours at which they touched
• Pravahaṇa, which is another name for sea-going vessels
• Śaṇkha-muktā-grāhiṇya-nāva, which were boats used for pearl-fishing
• Mahānāva, which were the larger vessels for use in the large rivers that were navigable
throughout the year
• Kṣudraka-nāva, which were smaller boats for use in small and shallow rivers that overflowed in
the rains
• Hiṃsaka, pirate ships, and boats
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 Indian Shipbuilding
• A French writer, F. B. Solvyns (1811), writes in his Lee Hindous:
• In ancient times the Indians excelled in the art of constructing vessels
• The present Hindus can in this respect still offer models to Europe
• The English, attentive to everything which relates to naval architecture, have
borrowed from the Hindus many improvements which they have adapted with
success to their own shipping
• The Indian vessels unite elegance and utility and are models of patience and fine
workmanship

Source: Mukerji, R. (1977), “Notes on Ancient Hindu Shipping” in R. G. Bhandarkar Commemoration Volume, Bharatiya Publishing House, Delhi, pp 447 – 455

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 Yukti-kalpataru
Different types of ships and their measurements
Ordinary (Sāmānya) Special: Sea-going (Unnatā)
Name Length* Breadth Height Name Length Breadth Height
Kṣudrā (Diminutive) 4.57 1.14 1.14 Dīrghikā (Tall) 9.14 1.14 0.91
Taraṇī (Moving hither and
Madhyamā (Moderate) 6.86 3.43 3.43 tither) 13.71 1.71 1.37
Lolā (Moving hither and
Bhīmā (Formidable) 11.43 5.71 5.71 tither) 18.28 2.29 1.83
Capalā (Moving to and fro) 13.71 6.86 6.86 Gatvarā (Perishable) 22.85 2.86 2.29
Paṭalā (With covering) 18.28 9.14 9.14 Gāminī (Moving on) 27.42 3.43 2.74
Abhayā (Not dangerous) 20.57 10.28 10.28 Tarī (Running swiftly) 31.99 4.00 3.20
Dīrghā (Tall) 25.14 12.57 12.57 Jaṅghālā (Running Swiftly) 36.56 4.57 3.66
Patrapuṭā (Like a folded
leaf) 27.42 13.71 13.71 Plāvinī (Flowing over) 41.13 5.14 4.11
Garbharā (With inner
compartments) 31.99 16.00 16.00 Dhāriṇī (Power of possessing) 45.70 5.71 4.57
Mantharā (Curved) 34.28 17.14 17.14 Veginī (Having velocity) 50.27 6.28 5.03
* All values in metres
Source: Mukerji, R. (1977), “Notes on Ancient Hindu Shipping” in R. G. Bhandarkar Commemoration Volume, Bharatiya Publishing House, Delhi, pp 447 – 455.

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 A summary of 64 kalās
Type of Skills No
Artistic skills: Singing, dancing, painting, theatrics, playing instruments etc. 8
Skills in cleaning & beautifying body: Dressing, decorating, painting the face, applying aromatics, combing 9
hair, setting ornaments etc.
Skills of decoration: Making a covering of flowers for a bed, making the groundwork of jewels, covering the 6
bed, applying an admixture of colors etc.
Cooking related skills 3
Play and Entertainment skills: Playing on music in water, splashing with water, juggling, playing with thread, 8
riddles, gambling, using children's toys etc.
Skills for intellectual pursuits: Conversation, practicing language, composing, designing a literary work, 10
lexicography and meters, reciting books etc.
Engineering and technical skills: Needle works and weaving, spinning, carpentry, engineering, testing silver 14
and jewels, metallurgy, mineralogy, practicing medicine, mechanics etc.
Special uncommon skills: Knowing the mode of fighting of lambs, and birds, knowing conversation between 6
male and female cockatoos, talking with fingers, prediction by heavenly voice etc.

• The list of 64 kalās includes a wide range of engineering and technical skills
• An examination of these skills provides further evidence of the use of S & T in ancient Indian society

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 Status of Indigenous S & T
A paradoxical situation
• The available evidence and the scriptural references point to a culture that deployed S & T in various aspects
of their day-to-day living.
• We have no inkling of these today.
• We have very little awareness of these details.
• We also do not see the practice of any of these concepts in mainstream activities.
• Some of the S & T practices still in use have been branded as rural, tribal, and folk practices. They neither
receive serious attention nor appreciation
• Compelling evidence to conclude that ancient Indians had a good understanding of several aspects of science
and technology
• We are not able to get substantive details in the literature on various aspects of science engineering, and
technology
• Indian society relied substantially on an oral tradition for the preservation, and dissemination of knowledge
across generations.
• The culture of extensive documentation and relying on written material is of fairly recent origin in India
(dating back at most to half a millennium)
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 Decline of Indigenous S & T
Some reasons
• The expertise of the teacher was often a closely guarded secret, available only to the students working with
them on the job.
• Even today there are some traditions in which knowledge is transferred from generation to generation
(such as Astrologers, Vaidyas, and Śilpis)
• A well-developed caste system was closely aligned to the skilled craft being practiced by the people.
• For example, all the metalsmiths and Goldsmiths were of a certain caste and so were the carpenters, the
building mechanics, or the Alchemists
• These practices and know-how were maintained within the family and passed on from generation to
generation
• Large parts of India were subjected to foreign rulers for over 700 years since the beginning of 13th century CE.
• The priorities of what needs to be encouraged and in what manner were left entirely to the ruling class and
this has also contributed substantially to the waning away of indigenous skills, practices, and know-how
• Example of mining ban and production taxes for metal working by the British Raj
• With modern governance and social systems introduced by the British Raj, many skills and practices went off the
mainstream swiftly, thereby making these structures weaker and perhaps irrelevant
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