FORM two

Geography

TEACHing
NOTES.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

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 FORM 2 GEOGRAPHY
INTERNAL LAND FORMING/ENDOGENETIC
PROCESSES
-Processes operating in the interior of the earth resulting in the
formation of

natural physical features or landforms.

They are caused by earth movements.
Examples of these processes are folding, faulting and Vulcanicity.
Formation of land forms by internal land forming processes is
determined by:

Nature and age of earth materials

Type of movement involved
Intensity and scale of movement involved
Crustal Earth Movements
-Displacement of the earth’s crustal rocks.
They are brought about by tectonic forces which originate and
operate in the

interior of the earth e.g. tensional forces (which operate along

horizontal plane

moving away from each other), compressional forces (which

operate along

horizontal plane moving towards each other), shear forces (which

move past

each other with unequal strength) and gravitational forces (which

attracts things

to the earths centre).

Earth movements are of 2 types:

[Link]/lateral/orogenic
movements

[Link]/epeirogenic movements
Horizontal Earth Movements
-Movements which act along a horizontal plane within
crustal rocks.
They are caused by tensional and compressional and
shear forces.
Effects
They cause:

Strain and stretching of crustal rocks due to stretching

caused by
tensional forces which cause formation of cracks or faults.
Squeezing and shortening of crustal by compressional forces rocks
which
cause them which also cause formation of faults.
Crustal rocks to shear by slipping past each other or by
dividing into

layers which is caused by shear forces.

Results of Horizontal Earth Movements
-results in the formation of the following features:
[Link]
[Link]

[Link] valleys
[Link]
[Link] mountains [Link] blocks
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 [Link] mountains

Vertical Earth Movements

-Movements which occur along the earth’s radius or towards the earth’s surface
or towards its centre.

Effects
Causes:
Subsiding/sinking/downwarping or pulling of crustal rocks
downwards.
Uplifting/upwarping or pushing of crustal rocks
upwards

Tilting of crustal rocks or shearing in vertical

direction due to

grater uplift on one side.

Results of Vertical Earth Movements
[Link] cliffs [Link]
[Link] blocks [Link]
[Link] valleys

[Link] scarps/
escarpments
Causes of Earth Movements
(a)Magma movement within the earths crust.
(b)Gravitational force

(c)Convectional currents in the

mantle
(d)Isostatic adjustment

Magma Movement within the Earths

Crust

When magma moves with force pushing

crustal rocks horizontally

or vertically.
When magma moves from reservoir and leaves empty
spaces onto

which crustal rocks are pulled inwards.

Gravitational Force
-When the attractive force of the earth pulls crustal rocks into
empty spaces left

after magma escaping from the reservoir.

Convectional Currents within Mantle

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-When convectional currents in magma in mantle drug crustal rocks by friction.
Horizontal movement of currents cause horizontal movements while
vertical
cause vertical movements.

Isostatic Adjustment

-Rising of continental masses to restore the upset state of

balance between sial

and sima layers.

-Isostacy is the state of balance between sial and sima layers.
It can be disturbed by erosion on continents and melting of continental ice
sheets.
The reduced weight causes continental masses to rise.
( skip 8 lines for diagaram klb bk 2
pg2 )fig 1.3
Theories Explaining the Earths
Movements

A theory is reasoned ideas intended to explain facts or

ideas.
There are 2 theories which explain the earth’s movements
namely the

Continental Drift Theory and the Plate tectonics theory.

i)Theory of Continental Drift
Its proponent was A. Wegener.
It explains the origin of 6 continents.
It states:
The earth was a single sialic land mass called Pangaea surrounded by a
huge ocean called Panthalasa whose floor was a mass of sima.
Pangaea broke into two parts called Laurasia (N. Hemisphere)
which lay

around equator and Gondwanaland (S. Hemisphere) which lay

around

south pole which were separated by a narrow ocean called

Tethys (the

present Mediterranean Sea).

Laurasia broke into Laurentian Shield and Fennoscandia
(Europe, Asia

and N. America) and moved northwards to their

 present positions.
Gondwanaland broke into Africa, Australia, S. America and Antarctica
and India subcontinent.
Africa and India drifted northwards.
Evidences Supporting the Theory
[Link] of western coast of Africa and S. America into a
jigsaw.

[Link] of coal 40 N and 55 N which was formed by

burying of

tropical vegetation.
[Link] displacement of rocks along some faults e.g. along
the Great Glen Fault of Scotland.
[Link] and Buenos Aires folds resemble one another by having east
west trend.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 [Link] sea shores show evidence of having undergone
lateral
displacement an indication that it was
formed by movement of the
earth’s crust.
[Link] of ancient Glaciation to the south of equator in
Africa in

Madagascar and India where there is presence of

ancient glacial

deposits suggesting these areas were once around

south pole.

ii)Plate Tectonics Theory

It states that:
The earths crust is made of blocks called
plates.

7
Large Ones
 [Link] plate 5.N. American
plate
[Link] plate 6.S. American
plate
[Link] plate [Link]fic plate
[Link] plate
Smaller Ones
[Link]
[Link]
[Link] 7. Nazca
4. Cocos [Link]
[Link] plates [Link]
[Link] de Fuca
These plates are two types : tectonic plates:
[Link] plates which form major areas of the ocean floor
including
coastal lowland.
[Link] plates which form the bulk of the continental land
mass.
The plates float on molten mantle layer called Asthenosphere.
The plates move relative to each other due to convectional currents in
the
mantle.
They move away from each other forming extension or constructive
boundary called so because magma fills the space between.

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They move towards each other forming compressional or destructive
boundary called so because materials between are crushed. The
movements of those two types of plates have the following effects:

[Link] two oceanic plates meet

There is subduction and the ocean floor is pulled inwards

forming a

trench e.g. Java Trench .Subduction is the passing of edge

of one plate

beneath the edge of another.

Sediments on the sea floor in the region of subduction are compressed
to
form Fold Mountains.
[Link] an oceanic plate meets a continental plate the edge
of the

oceanic plate slides beneath the continental plate in a

movement
called subduction.
Sediments on the sea floor in the region of
subduction are

compressed to form Fold

Mountains.
Fold Mountains are also formed at the edge of the
continent
 when the sial layer is
compressed.
The edge of the oceanic plate bends into the mantle forming a
trench.

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 [Link] two continental plates collide the sial layer is folded into
mountains.

They move past each other forming transform or conservative

boundary called so because there is neither construction nor
destruction
which occurs where the plates are separated by a major fault.

Significance
of Plate Movements

[Link] sources of earthquakes and

Vulcanicity.
[Link] formation of land forms such as Fold Mountains and
ocean
trenches.
[Link] landscapes formed are a tourist attraction.
[Link] of magma can result in formation of valuable minerals.

FOLDING
-Process in which crustal rocks are distorted by compressional
forces by being
caused to bend upwards and downwards.

It occurs on fairly young sedimentary rocks.

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 Parts of a Fold

(a)Anticlines (upfolds)-parts of the earths surface which

bend upwards

when folding occurs.

(b) Synclines (down folds)-Parts of the earths surface
which bend

downwards when folding occurs.

(c)Crest-upper most part of Anticline.
(d)Trough-lowest part of a syncline

(e)Limp-rock layers sloping on both sides of a fold

(f)Axis-imaginary line drawn vertically through the

centre of the
anticline.
Types of Folds

[Link] Symmetrical
Folds

-Which are symmetrical about the anticline.

-Formed by 2 compressional forces of equal magnitude.
[Link] Folds
-Which are asymmetrical about the anticlines axis or in which
one limp is
steeper than the other.
-Formed by two compressional forces of unequal magnitude in
which one is

stronger than the other.

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 [Link] Folds

-In which anticline of one fold is pushed over the limp of the other.
[Link] Folds

-Which are packed closely together and with limps almost parallel to each other.
-Vertical Isoclinal folds are formed by compressional forces of equal magnitude
while inclined Isoclinal folds are formed by forces of unequal magnitude.
[Link] Folds

-Which lie in a horizontal manner.

-Formed by two compressional forces one of which is very strong.
[Link]/Overthrust Fold
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- In which one limp is pushed over the other limp.
-The forces are very strong and they cause a fracture/fault to develop.
7Anticlinorium and Synclinorium Complex

-Folds characterised by minor upfolds and minor downfolds.

Land is first subjected to weak compressional forces resulting into
minor
folds.
Later the land is subjected to much greater compressional
forces resulting

into new upfolds with minor folds (Anticlinorium) and new

down folds

with minor folds (Synclinorium).

Resultant Features Due To Folding
[Link] Mountains and Their Distribution
-Worlds highest and most impressive mountains and the most
conspicuous

feature of folding.
 Himalayas-Asia Rockies-W.N. America
Everest-Nepal-Tibet border- Atlas-N.W. Africa.
highest point. Appalachian-E.N. America
Andes-Peru in S. America
Alps-South Central Europe

Theories of Origin of Fold Mountains

[Link] Theory

During the earth’s formation surface rocks cooled faster and

wrinkled to form
Fold Mountains.
[Link] Currents Theory

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers

available on
[Link]
 Horizontal convectional currents in the mantle exerted frictional pull on
crustal rocks.
Continental crusts were pulled towards each other.
Sediments between them were squeezed into folds.
[Link] Drift Theory

During break of Gondwanaland India drifted northwards and

collided
with Eurasia.
Sediments between were squeezed to form fold mountains e.g.
Himalayas
and Everest.
[Link] Tectonics Theory

When an oceanic plate meets another or it meets a

continental plate the

sediments under the sea are compressed to

form Fold Mountains.
When two continental plates meet the sial layer is compressed to form
fold mountains
-E.g. Alps was formed when Africa plate pushed against the
rigid European

plate.

[Link]

-A relatively continuous line of steep slopes facing the same

direction.

Formed one compressional force causes folding resulting in one

steep limp of

the anticline which forms the escarpment.

[Link]
Formed when not very strong forces cause folding causing some
parts of the

earths surface to form synclines forming basins.

[Link] and Valleys

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

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When folding occurs anticlines form uplands/ridges/hills while
synclines form
valleys.
[Link] Plains

-Plains which appear to rise and roll.

-Formed when plains are acted upon by weak compressional
forces resulting

into gently sloping anticlines and very wide synclines.

[Link]-montane Plateaus

-A high fairly level land between mountains.

-Formed when rocks at the edges of a region become intensely
folded and the

middle parts resist folding resulting into mountains which enclose

a high fairly
level land.
[Link]-montane basins
-Formed when some parts of inter-montane plateau sink more to form
basins.
Significance of Folding

To Human Activities/Economic significance

 Positive/advantages

[Link] Mountains are a tourist attraction which brings foreign

exchange.
[Link] Mountains are water catchment areas and sources of rivers.
[Link] fold mountains have valuable mineral deposits such
as coal and

petroleum.
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
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 [Link] Mountains act as protective barriers during war.
[Link] fold mountains on the path of rain bearing rainfall
influence rainfall

causing the windward slopes to receive heavier

rainfall.
[Link] can lead to formation of valuable minerals due to
metamorphism.
[Link] brings valuable minerals to the surface making them easily
available.
Negative/disadvantages

[Link] Mountains on the path of rain winds cause the leeward

slopes to
receive less rainfall.
[Link] Mountains discourage settlement due to cold
temperatures and

rugged terrain

[Link] can lead to burying of minerals.

[Link] Mountains are a barrier to road and railway where
there are no

passes and where there are passes they may be covered

by snow.

Orographic fog hinders pilot’s visibility.

To Physical Environment

[Link] can result in submerged coastal zones which

are used as
harbours.
[Link] lead to metamorphism of rocks changing their
original state and

making them more resistant to erosion.

[Link] formed by folding turn into wet land important
for water

purification.
[Link] leads to faulting and magma may escape through faults
leading to

Vulcanicity and earth quakes.

FAULTING
Faulting is the cracking/fracturing of the brittle crustal rocks due to tectonic
 forces.
Faults are fractures or cracks that develop in the crust.
When tensional forces cause crustal rocks to stretch and fracture at the
region of maximum tension.
When compressional causes squeezing of crustal rocks to
fracture at the

areas where they are intensely squeezed.

When vertical movements exert pressure on rocks leading to fracturing.
When shear forces cause crustal rocks to tear.
Parts of a Fault

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 [Link]-part of the land displaced upwards.
[Link]-throw-part of the land displaced
downwards.

[Link]-vertical displacement.
[Link]-horizontal displacement

[Link]-inclination of fault to vertical plane

[Link] line-fault path

[Link] plane-separation of land created by

the fault

Types of
Faults
Normal Faults
Type formed by tensional forces in which one block slides downwards in
relation to the other.
Rocks are subjected to tensional forces

A normal fault develops

One block slides downwards.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

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 Reverse Fault
Type formed by compressional forces in which one block of land
is pushed

upwards in relation to the other.

Rocks are subjected to compressional forces.

A reverse fault develops.

One block is pushed over the other.

Shear/Tear Fault
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 Type formed by shear forces in which adjacent blocks of land slide past one
another. If a shear fault occurs between continents it’s called a Transform fault
e.g. San Andrean fault of California and great glen fault of Scotland.

Thrust Faults

Typeformed when very strong compressional forces cause

almost horizontal

faults to develop and one block of land is pushed over the other.
Anticlinal fault

Typeformed when anticlines are compressed further and cracks form on the
crest.
Features Resulting From Faulting
Fault Scarp/Escarpment

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Steep line of slopes formed by vertical movement of earth along
a fault e.g.
Mau, Nguruman, Nyandarua and Nandi.
-Are exposed parts of a fault plane.
It may be formed due to normal faulting or reverse faulting when
overhanging
blocks are eroded.
Fault Steps

-Landresembling the staircase or steps of a house with a series of

fault scarps at
different levels.
Parallel vertical faults develop.
Land between the faults is unequally displaced
downwards.

A series of fault scarps at different levels is formed.

-E.g. Keiyo escarpment and at Kijabe.

Fault Blocks/Block/Horst Mountains

Blocksof land raised above the surrounding land.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
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 Where tectonic forces cause faulting and land on one side of
the fault get
raised or sink along the fault planes.
Examples of fault blocks are Aberdare/Nyandarua ranges, Mau escarpment and
Nandi Hills.
2.

Where Blocksof land bordered by normal faults which are

almost

parallel to each other sink leaving the

middle block standing.
Examples of horsts are Ruwenzori of W. Uganda and Usambara and Pare
mountains of Tanzania.
Tilt Blocks
-Fault blocks which are inclined on one side.
Occurs when the fault block, horst or fault steps have greater
uplift on

one side and as a result they are not flat at the top but tilted.
The resultant

features are tilted fault blocks, tilted horst and tilt fault steps
which form

ridges and fault guided valleys.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
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 Rift Valley
-Along narrow trough with steep escarpments on
both sides.
Theories of Formation
Tensional Theory
Rocks are subjected to tensional forces.
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
Normal faults which are almost parallel develop.

One block slides downwards forming the rift valley.

Compressional Theory
Rocks are subjected to compressional forces.

Reverse fault which are almost parallel develop.

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 The side blocks are pushed over the middle block.

Overhanging blocks are worn out by denudation to form escarpments

Anticlinal Theory

Suggests the rift valley was formed by Anticlinal arching.

Upward forces pushed sedimentary rock strata upwards.
The rock layers bent into a big arch.

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 A gaping/huge crack developed at the crest of the arch due
to tension
forming the rift valley.
The Great Rift Valley/The Great E.A
Rift Valley

-The world’s biggest rift valley.

It starts in Syria and ends in Mozambique.
It’s divided into 4 parts.
[Link] Rift system-starts from Afar in Ethiopia to the
Kenyan border

around L. Stephanie.
[Link] Rift system-Starts from the northern border of Kenya
with

Ethiopia to Tanzania. It has a small N.E-S.W

branches:

Kano Rift valley in Kenya

L. Eyasi Rift Valley in Tanzania

[Link] Rift valley-Starts at Sudan border to south of L. Rukwa.

Features

which are here are Ruwenzori Mountain and Lakes

Albert, Edward, Kivu,

Tanganyika and Rukwa.

[Link] Rift valley-a continuation of Gregory Rift system to
Zambezi

River in Mozambique. It has a small N.E-S.W branch called

Luangwa

valley.
The Gregory Rift Valley

-Named after a geologist called Gregory J.W who carried out

extensive studies
in this area.
It’s where the Rift Valley features are more pronounced.
Features associated with it
Fault blocks-Aberdare range, Mau, Nandi and Cherangani hills.
Step faults-Kijabe and Tambach
 Tilt blocks-Aberdare range uplifted and tilted eastwards
and Mau

escarpment uplifted and tilted westwards.

Lava flows and volcanic cones e.g. Menengai and Ngorongoro
crater.

Rift Valley lakes formed when unequal sinking created faults

which were

later filled with water. The lakes are deep and

elongated. Examples are

Lakes Naivasha, Nakuru, Elementaita, Baringo,

Bogoria, Ol Bolossat and

Turkana. Most of the lakes are salty with

exception of L. Naivasha which
has fresh water.
Why Most Rift Valley
Lakes Are Salty

(a)Lack of outlets to drain away salts contained

in them.
(b)Lack of enough water to dilute salinity due to little rainfall
and lack of

rivers flowing in them.

(c)High rates of evaporation causing increased accumulation of salts.
(d)Lake’s water being in contact with rocks with mineral
salts which it

directly dissolves.
(e)Washing into the lake of mineral rich soils by surface runoff.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

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 Why L. Naivasha Has
Fresh Water
(a)It has underground drainage to the Indian
Ocean.
(b)There is inflow of fresh water from rivers and rain.
(c)The latest volcanic eruption covered the bed rock with lava.
Major Faulted Areas of the
World

(a)The Great Rift Valley from Syria to

Mozambique.

(b)Northern England and the Great Glen Fault of

Scotland.

(c)The Central Massif of Europe.

(d)The middle Rhine Rift Valley region.
Significance of Faulting
To Human Activities
[Link] valley lakes are important for fishing, irrigation and
domestic use.

[Link] Rift Valley and associated features are a tourist attraction

which earns

foreign exchange.
[Link] springs and geysers formed during faulting can be
harnessed for

geothermal power.
[Link] Mountains are water catchment areas and sources of rivers due to
the
heavy rainfall they receive on the windward side.
[Link] results in the exposure of minerals such as diatomite
in Gilgil and

Fluorspar in Kerio Valley.

[Link] scarps may expose underground water resulting in the
formation of

scarp springs.
[Link] subsidence caused by faulting may cause formation of
depressions

which may form lakes which useful for fishing, transport and
mining e.g. L.
Naivasha.
 Negative
[Link] disrupts transport and communication by disjointing land.
[Link] may lead to loss of life and property by causing land to
sink.

[Link] may cause a river to disappear or change its course and

flow along
the fault line.
[Link] scarp slopes formed by faulting are prone to soil erosion.
[Link] has given rise to semi-desert conditions in some areas
when Block

Mountains on the path of rain winds cause leeward sides to

receive little
rainfall.
VULCANICITY
-Process in which solid, liquid or gaseous materials are forced out of the interior
of the earth into the earth’s crust or onto the earth’s surface.
These materials are magma, lava, gases, dust, ash
and cinder.

Causes of
Vulcanicity
Magma under high temperature and pressure moving through lines of
weakness or faults.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

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 When tectonic plates move away from each other and boundaries give
way to magma.
Underground water coming into contact with hot
materials hence

changing into gaseous form.

There are 2 types of Vulcanicity:
Extrusive Vulcanicity (volcanic): in which materials intrude crustal
rocks and

don’t reach the earth’s surface. Magma is the molten material while
it’s
underground.
Intrusive Vulcanicity (plutonic): in which materials reach the earth’s surface.
Lava is the molten material after it reaches the surface.
There are two types of lava and magma, acidic and basic. Acidic
lava is viscous

and solidifies quickly and doesn’t spread far but accumulates

around the vent.
Basic lava is more fluid or less viscous and takes longer before
cooling and

spreads for great distances before doing so. Other materials

emitted are gases,
ashes, dust and cinder. The solid materials are called pyroclasts. Materials
come out through a hole/vent (vent eruption) or crack/
fissure (fissure

eruption).
Features Resulting From Vulcanicity
-Divided into intrusive and extrusive features or landforms.
Intrusive/Plutonic Features

-Features formed by intrusive Vulcanicity when materials intrude the earth’s

crust.
Sill
-An igneous intrusion which lies along a bending plane of rock
strata.

-Formed when magma forces its way between rock layers

then cools and
solidifies.
-It forms ridge like escarpments when exposed by erosion e.g.
Fouta Djalon

highland of Guinea and 3 sisters of S. Africa.

Dyke

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-A wall-like igneous intrusion which lies across the bedding plane of
rock strata.
-Formed when magma intrudes cracks or faults cutting across
bedding planes of
rocks then cools and solidifies.
-Can be vertical or inclined.
When exposed it forms ridges e.g. Kaap Valley in Transvaal S.
Africa and Jos

Plateau in Nigeria.
Laccolith
-Amushroom-shaped igneous intrusion lying between bending
planes of a

country rock.
-Formed when viscous magma pushes its way through a vent and
accumulates

around the vent before reaching the earth’s surface pushing the
overlying rock

into a dome shape.

-Its so high that land is turned into mountains e.g. El Koub Hill
in Algeria,

Henry Mountains in Utah U.S.A and Fonjay Massif in

Madagascar.
Batholiths
-Largest igneous intrusion formed underground formed when very
hot magma

intrudes bedding planes of rocks and replaces or metamorphoses

it e.g. Chaila

Massif in Gabon, Ikhonga-Murwe in Kakamega and the largest is

in British
Columbia.
Lopolith
-a large saucer shaped igneous intrusion formed when viscous
magma intrudes

into bedding planes of a country rock. They form shallow

depressions on the

earths surface of the earth e.g. Bushveld complex in S. Africa and

Duluth
Gabbro mass in U.S.A.
 Phacolith

-A lens shaped igneous intrusion which forms in the crest or

trough of an

anticline e.g. Corndon Hill in England.

Extrusive/Volcanic Features
-Formed when magma reaches the earth’s surface through vents or
fissures.
Volcanoes
A volcano is a cone shaped hill formed when volcanic materials
flow out and

accumulate around a vent. Volcanoes are classified into three

groups:

[Link] volcano- which is known to have erupted in

recent times e.g. OL

donyo Lengai in Tanzania and Mt. Cameroon, and

Mauna Loa in Hawaii.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

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 [Link] volcano-not known to have erupted in the recent
past but show

signs of volcanic activity such as presence of hot springs,

geysers and

fumaroles e.g. Mt. Kilimanjaro, Longonot and Menengai.

[Link] volcano-which has not shown signs of possible future
eruptions

e.g. Mountains Kenya and Elgon.

Types of Volcanoes
Acidic Lava Domes

-A steep dome shaped volcanic hill made of

acidic lava.

Viscous lava flows out through a

vent.
It accumulates around the vent because it’s viscous.
Eruptions occur later and lava flows out covering the layers
below.

A steep sided dome shaped mound of volcano is formed e.g.

Itasy Massif

of Madagascar, Mt. Kenya and Kilimanjaro.

Characteristics
(a)Its dome-
shaped

(b)Has steep
slopes
(c)Made of acidic lava
(d)Has lava layers

(e)Has steep
slopes
 (f)Has a narrow base
Basic Lava Domes/Shield
Volcanoes

-A low lying volcanic hill made of basic lava.

Basic magma flows out to the surface through
a vent.

The lava flows far before solidifying because its

fluid.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

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 Eruptions occur later and lava spreads over the old lava.
A shield shaped mound of volcano is formed e.g. Canary Islands, Cape
Verde and Sao Tome which are volcanic Islands in the Indian Ocean.
Characteristics
(a)Dome/shield
shaped

(b)Has gentle slopes

(c)Made of basic lava
(d)Has lava layers
(e)Has a broad base
Ash and Cinder
Cones

A volcano built from ash and cinder or small fragments of lava.

Violent vent eruption occurs.
Ash and pyroclasts are emitted and thrown high.
Some materials fall and settle around the vent forming a hill.
Light materials are blown by wind to the leeward side e.g.
Chyulu Hills,

Teleki and Likaiyu near L. Turkana.

Characteristics
(a)Made of pyroclasts

(b)Asymmetrical about the axis

(c)Cone shaped

(d)Has smooth slopes

(e)Has steep windward slope and gentle

leeward slope

Composite /Complex/Stratified Volcanoes

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
A volcano made of alternating layers of lava and pyroclasts
and conelets.
The first eruption throws out pyroclasts.
Then viscous lava flows out and solidifies on them.
Eruption occurs later blowing the rocks sealing the vent.
The pieces of rock settle on earlier solidified lava.
Another mass of lava flows out and spreads over pyroclasts and
solidifies.
The process is repeated causing the volcano to build
upwards

The conelets are formed when magma is unable to

overcome the

plug and finds its way through weak

lines at the sides and then

pyroclasts and lava accumulate around

the side vent e.g. Mountains

Kenya, Longonot, Elgon and Kilimanjaro.

Characteristics
(a)Cone shaped

(b)Stratified (made of alternating layers of lava and

pyroclasts.

(c)It has conelets

(parasitic cones).
(d)It has steep slopes.
(e)Made of acidic lava

Plug Dome/volcano/Spine

-A column of very viscous lava which sticks above the ground.

A column of very viscous magma flows out of the ground.
It cools and hardens rapidly as it rises vertically.
Pieces of rock break from the plug and accumulate on the sides
e.g. Mont

Pelee in West Indies, Hyrax and Fischer’s Tower at

Hells gate in
Naivasha and Devils Tower in U.S.A.
Characteristics
(a)Made of very viscous lava.
(b)It is dome shaped like a mushroom germinating out of the ground.
(c)Has debris on its sides.
(d)Has very steep
sides

(e)Cylindrical in
shape
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 (f)Disintegrates fast due to rocks undergoing rapid
cooling.
Volcanic Plug

-Stump of rock formed when magma which solidified inside a

vent (plug) is

exposed by denudation.
A volcano is first formed.
Lava on the sides of the volcano is eroded fast due to cooling fast.
The lava in the vent which is hard due to slow cooling is
exposed forming

a stump of rock e.g. Peaks of Mt. Kenya, Rangwa

Hill and Tororo Rock.
Characteristics
(a)It resembles a stump of a tree.
(b)Its dome shaped.
(c)Very steep at the top and less steep at the bottom
(d)Made of hard/resistant rock
Lava Plains and Plateaus

Lava plain: fairly level lowland below 500m above sea level
covered by thin

lava layers.
Lava plateau: fairly level highland/upland above 500m above sea
level covered
 by thick layers.
-Formed by fissure eruption.
Magma of low viscosity comes out of the ground through
a fissure.

It flows for a long distance before cooling and solidifying

filling

depressions and valleys forming a plain.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

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Eruption occurs later and lava flows out through lines of weakness on
crustal rock and solidified lava.
The new lava spreads on top of the old lava forming a new
layer.

The process is repeated and a plateau is formed e.g. Mwea,

Nandi and

Laikipia Plains and Yatta and Uasin Gishu

Plateaus.
Craters
-A funnel shaped depression found on top of a volcano.
Modes of Formation
Cooling and
Contraction of Magma

Eruption occurs and a volcano is formed.

Magma in the vent cools and contracts.
It withdraws into the vent leaving a depression at the vents
mouth e.g.

Ngorongoro and Menengai craters.

Rain water or water from melting snow may collect into
craters to form

crater lakes e.g. L. Paradise on Mt. Marsabit, L. Magadi on

Ngorongoro

Crater and L. Chala on Kenyan Tanzanian border.

Explosion

Gases underground expand due to heat from

magma.
They force their way out through a weak line in the crustal rocks.
An explosion occurs leaving a hole in the ground called a ring crater e.g.
Ghama and Dobot craters in Tanzania and Hora craters inEthiopia.
Water from underground or rivers may accumulate into ring
craters to

form lakes called maars e.g. Lakes Katwe and Nyungu in

Uganda.

Falling of a Meteorite
A meteorite falls on the earth’s surface.
 It sinks into the rocks leaving a depression.
Water may collect into the depression forming a lake e.g. L. Bosumtwi in
Ghana.
Calderas/Basal Wreck
-A very large basin-shaped depression on the summit of a volcano.
Modes of Formation

Violent Explosion

Gases and water heated by magma

expand.
They force their way through a vent.
The rocks at the top of the volcano are blown off forming
a large

depression e.g. Nyirarongo Caldera in DRC and Sabiro

Caldera in

Uganda.
Block Subsidence/Cauldron

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 Eruption occurs to form a volcano.
An empty space (cauldron) is left in the magma reservoir in the mantle.
The rocks forming the middle of volcano are pulled inwards by
gravity.

The middle of the volcano collapses forming a large depression

at the top

e.g. Menengai Caldera near Nakuru and

Ngorongoro caldera which is the

largest in E. Africa and 6th largest in the world.

Water from rain or underground may fill calderas to form
lakes e.g. L.

Magadi in the Ngorongoro caldera and L. Ngozi

in Tanzania.

Outward Collapsing

Ash and pyroclasts volcano grows high.

Materials on top exert pressure on those below.
Materials at the base begin to spread outwards.
The top of volcano collapses inwards forming a collapse
caldera e.g.

Napak Caldera in Uganda.

-A vent in a volcano which emits gases.

Fumaroles
The gases come from chemical reactions in crustal rocks when
heated by

magma or when minerals in rocks come into contact with hot

air and steam

underground.
They are of two types:
Mofette: fumarole which emits carbon dioxide.
Solfatara: fumarole which emits gases with sulphurous compounds.
Hot Springs and Geysers

Hot spring is a place where hot water is emitted from the ground
quietly e.g. at

the shores of Lakes Magadi and Bogoria.

A geyser is a jet of water and steam which are violently ejected
from the ground

e.g. at Olkaria and western shores of L. Bogoria.

How They Are
Formed

Percolating water is heated by hot rocks or

magma.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 Some collect into chambers called sumps where it
develops pressure
causing it to be superheated super heated.
The pressure forces the steam outwards towards the
earths surface

through holes and cracks in rocks.

The steam comes out of the ground which reduces pressure
in sumps

causing the water to expand/boil and come to

the surface.
The steam comes out with a whistling sound
accompanied by water

forming a geyser.
The escaping steam heats ground water in surrounding rock.
The heated water may find its way to the surface where it
quietly comes

out of the ground forming a hot spring.

Differences
Hot spring Geyser
-Water comes out quietly. -Water and steam come out
violently.
-only water comes out. -water is accompanied by
-water may just be warm. steam. -water is very hot.
Pools of
Boiling Water

-Small area of still water which appears to

be boiling.
Actual heating of pool water by gases and steam causing the water to
boil.
Gases and steam coming out below the pool of water causing
the pool to

bubble and appear as if it’s boiling.

World Distribution of Volcanoes
(a)Regions of faulting e.g. the Great Rift Valley of E.
Africa.

(b)Mid-Atlantic ocean ridge.

(c)The western coast of America.
(d)Zones of recent mountain building e.g. fold mountains of
S.E Asia.

Significance of Vulcanicity
Positive
(a)Volcanic rocks weather to form fertile agriculturally productive soils e.g.
basalt.
(b)Geysers are sources of geothermal electricity e.g. at Olkaria.
(c)Hot springs water is pumped into houses for heating during winter e.g.
Iceland.
(d)Volcanic features are a tourist attraction e.g. hot springs,
geysers and snow

capped Mt. Kenya.

(e)Igneous rocks e.g. phonolites are crushed to make ballast for
building roads,

bridges, etc.
(f)Crater lakes are a source of fish e.g. L. Katwe in Uganda,
sources of

minerals e.g. L. Magadi and sources of water for

domestic use.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

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 (g)Volcanic mountains are catchment areas, sources of rivers and habitats
for
wildlife.
(h)Pumice a volcanic rock is used as a scrubbing stone.
(i)Vulcanicity is useful for production of gases e.g. carbon dioxide used in soft
drinks manufacture.
Negative

(a)Volcanic eruptions cause of life and destruction of property

e.g. sulphur

dioxide, ash, cinder and lava may bury houses and

farm land.
(b)Volcanic mountains are barrier to transport and communication.
(c)Volcanic mountains on the path of rain winds cause leeward
slopes to

receive little rainfall by preventing rain bearing winds

from reaching there.

(d)Volcanic eruptions cause environmental pollution from dust, ash

and sulphur
dioxide.
EARTH QUAKES

-Sudden and rapid movement of the earths crust.

-areas prone to them are called seismic zones and those not prone are
called
aseismic zones.
It’s caused by shock waves.
There are 3 types of earthquake waves namely:

[Link] waves-which travel fastest and cause

the rock particles to

vibrate in a push and pull manner and can

pass through gases,

liquids and solids.

 [Link] waves-which cause rock particles to
vibrate at right

angles to the direction of wave

movement.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 [Link] longitudinal waves-which cause surface rocks
to shake
sometimes causing buildings to
collapse.
[Link] waves-Which cause surface rocks to
move in

elliptical orbits.

[Link] waves-which cause rock particles to move

in a

horizontal manner at
right angle to the direction of wave.

Earth quake originates from a point known as seismic focus/origin.

The part of the earth vertically above the seismic focus and
where the shock

waves are first experienced is called epicentre.

Causes of Earthquakes
Natural Causes
(a)Tectonic movements e.g. movement of tectonic plates. They
cause tectonic

earthquakes.
(b)Vulcanicity when magma movement displaces rocks suddenly
shaking and

shuttering them.
(c)Gravitative force when crustal rocks collapse into cauldron due to gravity.
(d)Energy release in the mantle when radioactivity takes
place in mantle

releasing explosive energy which sends shock

waves outwards.
(e)Isostatic adjustment when the continental masses rise to
restore the upset

state of balance between sial and sima layers.

 Human Causes
(a)Exploding nuclear bombs underground which causes shock
waves which

spread outwards and are felt in the neighbourhood.

(b)When a train rolls on its rails causing the ground to vibrate.
(c)Explosion of explosives used in mining and quarrying
which cause

vibrations to be felt in the neighbourhood.

(d)When large reservoirs are constructed and the heavy
weight of water

reactivate dormant faults causing tremors.

Measurement of Earthquakes

Seismograph is a pendulum based instrument used to measure

earthquakes.

It records seismic impulses on a graph-like record called

seismogram mounted
on it.
Earthquakes are measured by their intensity and
magnitude.

Intensity
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
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-Measure of how strong/hard the quake shakes the ground.
It’s seen from the effects the earthquake has on people, buildings and other
structures.
It’s measured on the Mercalli Scale which uses a scale running
from Roman i-

xiii e.g.
I- description -imperceptible

V-rather strong-sleepers are awakened and there is swinging

of objects.

VIII-destructive-gaping cracks in walls some brought down.

XII- major catastrophe-every building destroyed.
Magnitude

-Measure of amount of energy given off by an

earthquake.
It’s measured on Ritcher Scale which ranges from 0-8.9.
Intensity values depend on how far a place is from epicentre.
The higher the scale the more severe the earthquake is.
Intensity I-magnitude 2

Intensity VIII-magnitude 6

Intensity XII-magnitude
8.5.
World Distribution of
Earthquakes

(a)Within the zones of major faulting e.g. Rift

Valley.
(b)In areas of Vulcanicity e.g. Oldonyo Lengai in Tanzania.
(c)Along boundaries of tectonic plates e.g. Japan, Philippines, East Indies
and
west coast of north and South America.
Effects of Earthquakes

(a)Can cause loss of life and property when buildings collapse

burying people.

(b)Disrupt transport and communication by vertically and laterally

displacing

land which disconnects pipelines, electricity lines, roads

and railways.
 (c)Causes landslides which also cause loss of life and property and disrupts
communication.
(d)Causes raising and lowering of the sea floor and the coastal
regions.

(e)Cause huge sea waves called Tsunami which may flood the
neighbouring
coastal areas.
(f)Trigger folding, Vulcanicity and fires.
(g)Give off a lot of explosive energy more than an
atomic bomb.

(h)Cause fear and panic.

(i)Hinder settlement as it is restricted to
aseismic areas.

(j)Cause violent motions of the earth’s surface.

MAP WORK
Map - representation of the whole or part of the earth’s surface drawn to scale.
Shows outline of objects on the ground

Drawn as if the drawer was above the

ground
It shows details

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 Most of the features are
indicated by symbols.
Picture: image of a real object.
Gives details in their visible shapes and sizes
Can be inform of free hand, drawing, painting or a photograph
Not drawn to scale
Plan: outline of something drawn to scale.
Also drawn as if a person was directly above the ground
It represents a very small place

The scale is large to show details e.g.

house plan
Gives specific information

Types of Maps

Classified according to the purpose for which each map

is drawn.
Topographical Maps: This shows selected natural physical
features on a small

portion of a country.
Atlas maps: this is a collection of maps in one volume.
Sketch maps: maps which are roughly drawn. A good sketch map
should have

the following characteristics:

[Link] and clear
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]

[Link] direction

Uses of Maps

[Link] maps are used to summarise information for easy

reference.

[Link] for locating other countries.

[Link] for comparing sizes of countries.
[Link] locating climatic regions of different parts of the world.
[Link] information on distribution of geographical
phenomena e.g.

vegetation on the earth’s surface.

 [Link] travellers to find their way.
[Link] to calculate distance of a certain place.
[Link] to locate physical features like landforms.
Marginal Information
Information contained in the area surrounding
the map.

[Link] name e.g. Yimbo.

[Link] title e.g. East Africa 1:50000 (Kenya).
[Link] system numbers

[Link] and longitudes

[Link] direction with grid, true and

magnetic north.
[Link]
[Link]

[Link] and
copyright
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 [Link]
identification

Map series
Sheet number or sheet index
Map Scales

A scale is a ratio of a distance on a map to a corresponding

distance on the

ground.
Types of Scales

Statement scale –expressed in words e.g. 1cm represents 1km,

1cm to 1km.

Representative Fraction (RF)-expressed as a fraction or ratio

e.g. 1/200,000
or 1:200,000.
Linear scale-shown by a line which is subdivided into smaller units.
Conversion of Scales
Statement scale into
RF
1cm rep 1km to RF

Multiply the number of kilometres by 100,000

(1km=100,000cm) i.e.

1×100000=100,000.
Statement scale is 1/100,000 or 1:100,000.
2cm rep 1km

Divide both sides by two to get

1cm rep ½ kilometres.
Multiply ½ by 100,000 to get 50,000.
RF is 1/50,000 or 1:50,000.
RF to Statement Scale
Divide the denominator by 100,000.
Write the scale in statement
form.
Linear Scale to Statement
Scale
Measure a unit distance off a linear scale e.g.
 The distance is 4-3=1km which is represented by 2cm.
Use the methods in (1) and (2) above.
Q. Given that the ground distance is 200km while the distance on map is 20cm
calculate the scale.

Sizes
of Scales
[Link] scales- show a large area of land on a small size of
paper. They

show limited details e.g. 1:250,000,

1:500,000, 1:1,000,000.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 [Link] scales- used to represent a relatively smaller area
on a given
size of paper e.g. 1:50,000, 1:100,000,
1:125,000.
[Link] scales-used to represent a small area of land on a
given piece of

paper. They show a lot of details e.g. 1:2,500,

1:10,000, 1:25000

Arranging Scales in Order

Ascending Order-smallest to
largest

Descending Order-largest to
smallest

(1)1/500,000

(3)1:25,000

(4)1/10,000

(2)1cm rep 500m

Uses of Scales
[Link] distances on maps

[Link] distances accurately-use dividers and ruler, piece

of string or

thread for curved distances or straight edge of

paper.
E.g. calculate actual distance of a line 8.5cm long on a
map using the

following scales.
(i) 2cm rep 1km

(ii) 1:100,000

[Link] of areas-no. of full grid squares+ number of ½grid

squares/2

or use of rectangles (l×b) or triangles (½ b×h).

Direction
-Course upon which something is pointing to.
 Methods of
Showing Direction
Traditional Methods
1. Use of Stars

-E.g. use of groups of stars called plough to find northern direction

by locating

the pole star and use of Southern Cross by using the brightest star
which is over
South Pole to find northern direction.
2. Use of Shadows
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 -E.g. morning, shadow of flag pole cast to your left you are facing north, etc.
3. Land Marks
-Using conspicuous features such as hills, buildings even roads to get direction.
Modern Methods
[Link] Marks
[Link] Direction.
-Use of magnetic compass which has a needle which always
points north.

It has 16 cardinal points and 4 are basic.

Bearing
-Expression of direction in degrees of an angle.
It’s measured from north in a clockwise direction.
Calculation of Bearing

Draw N-S line through observation point.

Join the two points. If it’s a feature the line should end at the centre of
that
feature.
Using a protractor measure the angle between the N-S line
and the line

joining the 2 points in a

clockwise direction.
Bearing is expressed in degrees, minutes and seconds.
1 =60’(min), 1
 min=60” (sec)

The degrees are always expressed in

3 figures e.g. 030

Types of Norths
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 1. True North
-Position on the globe where all longitudes meet or the direction of N. Pole.
2. Grid North
-Point where Eastings meet at the N. Pole.
3. Magnetic North

-Point which the magnetic needle rests when left to

swing freely.
Types of Bearing

1. Grid Bearing

-Bearing calculated from Grid North.

Join the two points on the topographical map using a line.
Measure the angle where the Eastings intersect the line
joining the two

points e.g. 030 .

2. True Bearing

-Bearing calculated from True North. Its calculated when the type
of bearing

isn’t specified.
 -E.g. from our compass diagram true bearing will be
30 -1’=29 59’

3. Magnetic Bearing

-Bearing calculated from Magnetic North.

Position of Magnetic North changes slightly every year.
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 Steps

Years which have elapsed × Annual change. (No need if annual

change is

negligible). E.g. from our compass diagram

annual change =(2009-

1991)×4.8’=18×4.8’’=86.4’’=1 26.4’

Add to the angle between the grid and

magnetic bearing 1.e.
1 26.4’+2 30’=3 56.4’

Add to the Grid bearing (if change is towards E) or Subtract (if

change is

towards W). 30 +3 56.4’=33 56.4’

Location of Places
-Showing of position of a place or feature on a topographical map.
Methods
Use of Place Names
-Locating a feature by using the name of the place it’s at e.g. a river
in Kisumu,

Nakuru, etc or if it isn’t at a named place locate by the nearest

name place e.g. a
meander near Garissa town.
Use of Direction, Bearing
and Distance

This is from a stated position e.g. Locate Nakuru

from Nairobi.
Nakuru is 157km N.W of Nairobi.
Latitudes and
Longitudes

The main longitudes are I.D.L and Greenwich /Prime

Meridian.
The main lines of latitudes:
The equator/Great Circle (0 ) which is the longest.
Tropic of Cancer (23½ N) of equator.
Tropic of Capricorn (23½ ) south of equator.
The Arctic Circle (66½ N).
Antarctic Circle (66 ½ S).
They are marked at the margins. Latitude is stated first (N or S)
and longitude

later (E or W) e.g. X N Y E

Identify a place.
Identify the nearest numbered latitude and longitude.
Estimate to the nearest 1 .
Grid Reference
Grid lines: network of lines on topographical maps.
-Numbered in small and large numbers and the large ones are used.
Eastings: N-S grid lines called so because they are numbered
eastwards.

Northings: W-E grid lines called so because they are numbered

northwards.

Grid reference is given in 4 figures or six figures. In 4 figure the

nearest grid

line is stated while the 6 figure is estimated in fractions by

dividing the space

between grid line into 10 equal parts.

Easting is stated first followed by northing.
In the example below the 4 figure grid references are:
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 A-6856
B-6856
C-6857
6 figure grid references are:
A-675555

B-680560

C-682568

Methods of Representing Relief on

Topographical maps

Relief is the nature of landscape e.g. plain, plateau, valleys,

hills, etc.
Spot Heights

-Points on map whose positions and heights have been determined

by surveyors.

They are shown by a dot and a figure e.g. (.1827).

Advantage-show actual heights

Disadvantage-can’t be used to identify

landforms.
Trigonometrical Stations/Points
-Carefully chosen points carefully chosen and their altitude
determined which --

-Are used as a basis for surveying an area.

They are marked on the ground by concrete pillar or slab.
They are indicated on topographical maps by:

Isohypes/Contours and Form Lines

A contour is a line on a map joining all points of the same height

above sea

level. They are browner in colour and have heights written on

them.
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
Form lines are lines drawn on a map joining places of
approximately the same
height above sea level. They are less brown than contours and not
all have
values written on them.
Both contours and form lines are referred to as contours.

Contour/Vertical interval is the difference in height between any two

successive contours.
Advantages of contours:

They show
actual heights.
Can be used to identify land forms.
Pictorials
-Showing relief by drawing landforms at approximate positions
where they are

found e.g. mountains, hills, valleys, etc.

Disadvantages:
They obscure details behind
them.

Don’t give height above sea

level.
Limited variety of landforms can be accommodated.
Hachures

-Short lines drawn to represent direction of slope.

On steep land they are thick and close together.
On gentle slopes they are thin and wide apart.
Their disadvantage is that they can’t be drawn on flat land.
 Hill Shading

-Showing relief by shading to show shadows where by steepest

slopes which

are list lit have darker shade while hill tops, surfaces of plateaus
and plains and

valley bottoms are well lit have lighter shade.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 Layer Tinting
-Colouring or shading land within a certain range of altitude or
using a single
colour with varying tones where the colour gets darker with increasing altitude.
PHOTOGRAPH WORK
A photograph is an image of an object, person or scene recorded by
a camera on

a light sensitive film or paper.

Types of Photographs

1. Ground Photographs
-Taken from the ground. They are of 2 types:
Ground Horizontals- taken with the camera at the same level as the
object. They are of 2 types.
Ground close ups/particular view photographs-taken
from the

ground with a camera focused

on one particular object.
Ground General View Photographs-taken from the
ground with

camera focused on general

scenery.
Ground Obliques-taken from the ground with a camera
slanting/held

at an angle.
2. Aerial Photographs

-Taken from the air e.g. from aircrafts, balloons or satellites.

They are of 2
types:
Aerial Obliques-taken from the air with camera tilted towards the
ground.
Vertical Aerial Photographs-taken from the air with the
camera directly

above the object or scenery.

Parts of a Photograph
Left back Centre Right
ground background
background
 Left middle Centre middle Left middle
ground ground ground
Left Centre Right
foreground foreground foreground
Uses of Photographs

Used in learning geography because they bring unfamiliar

features in the
classroom enabling the students to understand them better.
Photographs showing vegetation and human activities can be used to
deduce
the climate of an area.
Aerial photographs show vital information on land use.
Photographs showing land forming processes help us to understand those
processes.
Limitations in the Use
of Photographs

Coloured photographs are generally expensive to

produce.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 Black and white photographs don’t show the real colours of
objects or
scenery e.g. it’s difficult to distinguish ripe
coffee berries from green
ones.
Some aerial photographs have objects which are far away and
hence unclear

which may lead to the wrong interpretation.

Vertical aerial photographs are difficult to interpret
without special

instruments like stereoscopes.

Photographs are difficult to interpret if they are brulled because
it’s difficult

to distinguish objects which look similar e.g.

wheat and barley.
Interpretation of Photographs

-Means to explain the meaning of the objects or features on a

photograph. It

involves the following:

Determining the Title

Photographs show human activities, physical features, natural
catastrophes etc

e.g. nomadic pastoralism, drought, flooding, etc. when determining

the title

examine the photograph carefully and apply the knowledge you

have learnt in

geography.
Estimating Time

-In the tropics the shadows are short at noon and longest in the
morning and
afternoon.
If the camera is facing south and the shadow is cast to the
right it’s in the

morning and if cast to the left it’s in the afternoon.

Estimating
 Season

Dry season
Bright clear skies

Dry vegetation

harvesting

Light clothes e.g. shirts and T-shirts since temperature is

high (also an

indication of high
temperature.
Rainy season
Rain clouds
Luxuriant vegetation
Young crops

Flowering plants

Weeding

Heavy clothing e.g. pullovers or jackets since temps are

low (also an

indication of cool
season).
Determining Compass Direction

It it’s in the morning and the shadow of flag pole is cast to

the left the

photographer is facing north and if cast to the right he was

facing south.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
It it’s in the morning and the shadow is facing towards you the
photographer

was facing east and it taken in the afternoon and the shadow is
facing towards

you the photographer was facing west.

Interpretation of Physical Features on Photographs
Relief
Flat land
Rice crop

Irrigation
Combine harvesters
Swamps
Meanders
Oxbow lakes

Inselbergs (isolated hills)

Hilly/Mountainous landscape/Highland
Area

Steep slopes

Terraced landscape

Tea, wheat
crops which grow at high altitude

rapids
Water falls
Interlocking spurs
Drainage
Youthful
Stage

Rapids
Waterfalls
Interlocking
spurs
 Middle Stage
meanders
oxbow lakes
Lower Stage
deltas
distributaries
meanders and oxbow lakes
flood plain
Vegetation
Natural
Indigenous species

Dense undergrowth

Trees grow haphazardly

Different species of
trees

Not of the same height

Planted
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 Exotic species
In rows
Little undergrowth

Same species

Same heights

Tropical Rain Forests

Trees

Broad leaves
Umbrella shaped
Marshes

swamps
Savannah
Grassland
Grass and short trees
(woodland).

Desert Vegetation

Thorny leaves
Baobab and acacia
Scrub-land covered with shrubs and underdeveloped trees (shrubs).

Climate
High Temperatures and low
rainfall

Sugar cane
Grass

Sisal
Scrub and bush land vegetation
Dense forests
Light clothes
 Cool Temperature and High rainfall (Sufficient, Reliable and
well

distributed)
Tea

Coffee

Wheat
Dairy
farming

Soils
Acidic and Volcanic
Soils

Coffee

Tea
Clay Soils
Rice

Black Cotton Soils

Cotton

Rice

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 Loamy Soil

Horticultural crops

Human Activities and

evidence
Settlement
-Group of dwellings where people live.
Rural Settlements
Semi permanent houses

Farming or fishing
activity
Uneven distribution of settlements
Presence of villages
Urban Settlements

Permanent buildings

Storied buildings

Heavy traffic presence

Regular street patterns

 Agriculture/Farming

Subsistence Farming

Temporary and permanent

houses

Small pieces of land

Mixed cropping

Simple implements
Local and exotic breeds of livestock
Crop
farming

Crops

People preparing land or weeding or

Harvesting

Commercial
Crop Farming

cash crops
 machinery
feeder routes
processing
factories

Plantation
Farming

Single crop on extensive piece of land e.g. tea,

coffee, etc.
Many labourers
Nucleated settlement within farms
Livestock Rearing
Nomadic Pastoralism
Cattle grazing in a grassland or semi-arid
region

Daily
Farming

Zero
grazing

Cattle
with big udders

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 Ranching
Paddocks
Wind mills
Mining

Quarry

Large open pits

Large excavators

Lorries carrying loads of

rocks

Industrial Manufacturing

Buildings with large

chimneys

People engaged in a processing activity such as Jua kali

artisans.

Lumbering

People cutting trees using power

saws

People loading timber into lorries

Logs pilled near a saw mill

Forests with stumps

Logs floating on a river

Transport
 Motor transport
Vehicles on roads
Railway Transport

Railway line
Trains

Air Transport

Flat tarmacked piece of

land
Aircraft
Water Transport
Boats
Ships
Ferries
Communication
Telephone lines

Telephone
booths
Post office
Satellite masts
T.V and radio stations
Sketching Diagrams from Photographs
Draw a rectangle the same size as the photograph.
Divide it into squares using faint
lines.

Subdivide the photograph into 9

sections.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 Insert the features in their exact positions using simple lines
being guided
by the squares.
Label the important features e.g. vegetation, land use,
prominent

buildings, transport, and communication.

Give the sketch a suitable title.
Graphs

-2 dimensional drawings which show relationships between 2

types of data

representing two items also called variables. These are

dependent variable

which is affected by the other e.g. temperature (on y axis) and

independent

variable whose change is not affected by the other e.g. altitude

(on x axis).

Steps

Draw x and y axis.

Choose suitable scale to accommodate the highest and
lowest value.

Plot the values accurately using faint dots.

Join the dots using curved line. If it’s a bar graph the dots should
be at the

middle of the top line. Years should also be at the middle. You
should
have also decided on the width of the bars.
In data without continuity e.g. crop production there should
be gaps

between bars and for one with continuity e.g. rainfall bars
should not

have gaps.
Draw vertical lines on either side of the dot then draw horizontal line to
join them with the dot.
Shade uniformly if they are representing only one type of
data and

differently if representing one type of data.

In combined line and bar graph temperature figures are
plotted on the

right hand side of y-axis while rainfall on the

left

Don’t start exactly at zero.

Include temperature and rainfall scales.
Start where the longest bar ends.
What a Well Drawn Graph Should Have
Title
Scale/scales
Labelled and marked x and y axis starting at zero.
Key if required e.g. in comparative bar graph.
Accurately plotted and lines, curves or bars properly drawn.

Simple Line graph

Advantages

Easy to construct

Easy to interpret

Easy to read/estimate exact values.

Shows trend or movement overtime.
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
Disadvantages
Doesn’t give a clear impression on the quantity
of data.
May give false impression on the quantity especially when
there was no

production.
Poor choice of vertical scale may exaggerate fluctuations
in values.

Difficult to find exact values by interpolation.

Simple Bar
Graph/histogram

Advantages

Easy to construct.
Easy to interpret.
Easy to read.
Gives a clear visual impression on the quantity of data.
Disadvantages

Poor choice of vertical scale may cause

exaggeration of bars.
Doesn’t show continuity/ variation of data overtime.
Unsuitable technique when values exist in continuity.
Not possible to obtain intermediate values from the graph.
Combined Line
and bar Graph

Advantages

Easy to construct.
Easy to read.
It shows relationship between two sets of data.
Disadvantages

Difficult to choose suitable scale when values of variables differ

by great

magnitude.
Considerable variation of data represented by the line may
cause the line

the bars thus obscuring the relationship.

Doesn’t show relationship between the same sets of data of
more than one

place.
Temperature and Rainfall for Thika
Month J F M A M J J A S O N D
Temp( c) 24 24 23 22 19 17 17 18 19 20 22 23
Rainfall(mm 109 122 130 76 52 34 28 38 70 108 121 120
)
Analysis and
Interpretation

The month with heaviest rainfall is May.

The month with lowest rainfall is July.
The hottest month was January and February.
The months with lowest temperature were June and
July.

Crop Production in Kenya in the Years

2001 and 2002

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 crop Amount in metric tonnes
2001 2002
Tea 300,000 500,000
Coffee 120,000 80,000
wheat 120,000 150,000
Maize 250,000 400,000

Value of export Crops from Kenya (ksh million)

Crop 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
Tea 24126 32971 33065 35150 34485
Coffee 16856 12817 12029 11707 7460
Horticulture 13752 14938 17641 21216 19846
If the data has large figures e.g. 195262 plot in 1000s=195,
184,988=185.

You can draw comparative/group/multiple line and bar graphs

from the data.
Comparative/Group/Multiple Line Graph

Advantages

Simple to construct

Suitable when comparing trends or

movements

Comparison of items is easy because the graphs are drawn

using common
axis
Its easy to read exact values from
each graph

Disadvantages

Number of items which can be

represented are limited
 Crossing of lines may make interpretation and comparison
difficult and

confusing.
Total amount of variable cant be established at a glance.
Comparative Bar Graph

Advantages

Easy to construct

Easy to read and

interpret

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 Easy to compare similar components within different
bars.
Gives a good impression of totality.
Individual contribution made by each component is
clearly seen.

Differences in quantity of components are clearly seen.

Disadvantages

Doesn’t show trend of components over

time.
Not easy to compare components where bars
are many

Not suitable for many components.

600,000

500,000

400,000 tea

300,000 coffe
e
wheat
200,000
maize
100,000

0
1 2

Divided Bars or Rectangles

Production of Sugarcane in 1000 tonnes of 5 major factories in
Kenya
Factory Production(oo Length in cm
o

tonnes)
Sony 50 0.5
Nzoia 100 1
Chemilil 200 2
Muhoroni 250 2.5
Mumias 400 4
Total 1000 10
 Reported Visitor Arrivals by Continent for the Year 2000
Continent No. of visitors Length of
strip (cm)
Africa 153904 1.5
America 77271 0.8
Asia 58784 0.6
Europe 663906 6.6
Other 82672 0.8
Total 10.3
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
Look for a convenient scale say 1cm rep 100000
visitors

Draw a divided rectangle 10 cm long to represent

the data.

Show your calculations.

-It should have the following:
Title
Different shades
Key
Width of 2cm
Analysis and
Interpretation

-To get the meaning of

Factory leading in sugar

production is Mumias.

The 2nd leading is Muhoroni.

Factory with the lowest production of sugar is Sony.
Calculation of %s.
Advantages

Easy to construct

Easy to compare components because they are arranged in

ascending or

descending order.
Takes less space than when the data is presented using graphs.
Each component proportion to the total can easily be seen at a glance.

Disadvantages

Can’t be used for a large data.

Only one unit of measurement can be used.
Difficult to asses values of individual components.
The visual impression isn’t as good as pie charts.
Exercise
Temperature and Rainfall for Kisumu
1.
Month J F M A M J J A S O N D
Temp( c) 19 20 20 18 20 19 19 18 18 18 18 18
Rainfall(mm) 18 38 66 127 114 84 112 104 69 56 38 31
(a)Draw a bar graph to represent rainfall figures.
(b)Calculate the mean monthly temperature for
the place.

(c)Calculate the mean annual temperature range.

(d)calculate the annual rainfall
totals.
2.
Temp/ Mon Tue Wed Thurs Fri Sat Sun
Day
Max c 28 27 28 26 29 29 26
Min c 18 18 20 16 22 21 19
(a)Calculate the diurnal/daily temperature range for
Tuesday.

(b)Calculate the mean daily temperature for Sunday.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
[Link] at 40 c air can hold 60g/m3 of water
vapour and the

maximum vapour it can hold is 70g/m3. Calculate

the relative

humidity.
4.(a) Calculate the time at Lamu 70 E when time at GWM is noon.
(b) Calculate the longitude of Watamu whose time is 6pm when
time at GWM is 9am.
[Link] from a certain school obtained the following
marks in

their end of term geography

examination.

74, 52, 48, 60, 48, 32, 80,

67 and 85.
Calculate the following:
(a)Median
(b)Mode

(c)
Mean
(d)State their advantages and disadvantages.
6.(a) Calculate the scale given that the ground distance
is 200km

while the distance on the map is

20cm.
(b) A student measured the length of a road on a map from point
A
to B and found it to be 3.6 cm. Use a scale of 1:50000 calculate
the
actual/ground distance in km.
[Link] intend to carry out field study of a forest around their
school.
(a)State two ways in which they’d prepare themselves.
(b)State 2 objectives they’d have formulated for their study.
(c)List two problems they’d have encountered in the
field.

(d)State two follow up activities they would have after

the field

study.
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 CLIMATE
-Average weather conditions of a given place over a long period of time usually
30-35 years.
Factors Influencing Climate
Latitude
It influences temperature whereby low latitudes have high
temperature

and high latitudes have low temperature due to the angle at

which the sun

rays strike the earth and the distance travelled by the suns
rays.
It also influences rainfall whereby places in the equator receive rainfall
in
two seasons when the sun is overhead there while northern and
southern
tropical areas receive rainfall when the position of the sun is overhead
in
those areas.
Inter-Tropical Convergence
Zone

It’s a low pressure belt around equator where trade winds

converge.
It influences rainfall in the following ways:

Places further from equator experience one rainy

season when the sun is

overhead and a long dry season when the sun is in

the S. hemisphere.
Regions near equator have 2 seasons of heavy rainfall
because they

experience passage of ITCZ twice.

 Altitude
It influences temperature whereby at low altitude temperature
is high

while at high altitude its lower due to the thickness of

atmosphere

determining the number of particles to store heat and

distance from space
where terrestrial radiation is lost.
It also influences rainfall whereby mountains on the path of
rain winds

receive Orographic rainfall and the windward slopes receive

heavier

rainfall than leeward slopes.

Distance from the Sea
It influences temperature whereby places in temperate
regions near the

sea experience low temperature during summer onshore

winds blowing

over cold ocean water and taking the cooling influence on

adjacent land
because the water is heated at a slower rate than land.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 Places near the sea also experience higher temperatures
during the winter
or cool season due to sea breezes carrying
warmer air to the land because
water loses heat at a slower rate than land.
Temperatures in the interior of continents tend to be high in
summer and

very low in winter due to lack of marine influence.

It also influences rainfall whereby coastal regions receive a lot of rain
when the winds are onshore and the continental interiors receive less
rain
mainly in summer because onshore winds will have
dropped most of

moisture along the way.

Ocean Currents
It influences temperature whereby coasts which are washed by
warm

ocean currents are warmer while those washed by cold ocean

currents are

cooler due to the onshore winds being either warmed or

cooled and then

taking the warmth or coolness to the land.

It influences rainfall whereby coasts washed by warm ocean
currents

experience heavy rainfall when moist onshore winds are

warmed by the

current and made to hold on to moisture which they release

on reaching
the land.
The coasts washed by cold ocean currents on the other hand
experience

low rainfall as a result of moist winds being cooled and

moisture in them

condensed resulting in rain falling over the ocean thereby

bringing little

or no rain to the coastal areas. This is the cause of western

 margin deserts

e.g. Kalahari and Namib deserts.

Aspect

-Direction of slope in relation to sunlight and the rain bearing winds.

Its effect

on temperature is more pronounced in the northern and southern

hemisphere.

In the N and S hemispheres the slopes facing sun are

warmer while those

facing away are cooler.

The slopes in the direction of rain winds i.e. the windward slopes receive
heavier relief rainfall than the leeward side.
Winds and Air Masses
Wind blowing from a warm region warms the region its passing
over and if

blowing from a cool region cools the region it’s passing over
since wind is a
medium of transfer of heat.
Sea breezes take cooling influence on land during hot
afternoons.

Katabatic winds cause low night temperatures on valleys

and foot of
mountains.
Fohn and Chinook which are descending dry winds take
dryness to the

leeward sides of Alps and Rockies.

Winds influence rainfall in the following ways:

Anabatic winds cause afternoon showers on

mountainous regions.

Moisture laden winds cause heavy rainfall.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 Persistent dry winds cause desert like conditions in the area
they pass
over e.g. Harmattan winds from Sahara which
blow over W. Africa.
Regions around large water bodies experience high rainfall because of
the
effect of land breezes.
Configuration of Coastline

Coastal regions across the path of moisture laden winds receive

higher rainfall

because winds deposit moisture on land e.g. Mombasa while those

lying parallel

to the path of those winds receive less rainfall because moisture is

deposited on

the sea e.g. Lamu.

Forests
Forested areas experience a micro climate whereby:

Temperature is lower due to shades of trees

reducing solar insolation

reaching the ground.

Rainfall is heavier due to high rate of evapotranspiration
and friction

between trees and rain bearing winds.

Human Activities
Man has caused deforestation in the process of creating
room for

settlement and agriculture which has caused drop in

rainfall amounts

leading to semi-arid conditions.

Man has constructed dams across rivers and done afforestation which
has
caused semi-arid regions to become wetland.
Gases especially co2 emitted from burning fossil fuels and

chlorofluorocarbons layer cause global warming through the

green house
 effect and destruction of ozone layer respectively.
The Climatic Regions of Kenya

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 Modified Equatorial Climate

-Experienced along the coast and along the coast from Somali-
Tanzanian border

and L. Victoria basin regions around the lake.

Along the Coast
Characteristics
High temperatures throughout the year mean annual about 27 c.
Small mean annual range of temperature about 4 c.
Hottest months are December and January.
Experiences rainfall throughout the year/ no real dry season.
Double maxima rainfall regime (2 rain seasons) in May and
October.

High humidity due to high temperature causing high rates of

evaporation
and nearness to the sea.
L. Victoria Basin
Characteristics
Temperature is lower than the truly equatorial climate due to
modifying

influence of the lake (mean annual range

between 22-26 c).
There are no real dry months.
Heavy rainfall ranging from 1000-600mm.
Double maxima rainfall regime.
Receives convectional type of rainfall which falls mainly in the
afternoons.
High relative humidity due to high temperature and nearness to the lake
which is a source of moisture.
Modified Tropical Climate
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
-Experienced in central highlands E and W of R. Valley.
Characteristics
Mean annual temperatures averages between 17-24 c.
Lower warmer slopes and cooler higher slopes due to modification by
altitude.
Receives rainfall throughout the year (1000-2000mm).
Receives Orographic rainfall caused by S.E Trade Winds.
Double maxima rainfall regime in eastern highlands and single
maximum

in the W. highlands.
Humidity is moderate.
Tropical Continental/desert Climate

-Experienced in about ½ of Kenya in most of N, N.E, most of E and

S Kenya.
Characteristics
High temperatures throughout the year with mean
between22 and 27 c.

Generally dry with less than 500mm of unreliable rainfall.

Large diurnal range of temperature.
The skies are generally clear.
Low humidity.
Temperature has been modified by relief in some areas e.g. Voi-25 c
and
Garissa -28.5 c.

Tropical Climate

-Experienced in Narok, S. Taita and Kwale

region.
Characteristics
High temperatures (mean annual temp-16.5 c).
Temperature is modified by relief in some areas e.g. Loita,
Taita and

Narok which has made the place suitable for

human habitation.
Generally low rainfall amounts.
Rain falls in one season.
A long dry season lasting up to 6 months.
Tropical Northern Climate

-experienced in a small area in the N. W part of Kenya

bordering Uganda.
Characteristics
High average temperatures.
Temperatures are modified in some places by altitude.
Low mean annual rainfall of about 850mm.
Rain falls mainly in June and September.
Experiences a long dry season of up to 6 months.
Desert Climate
-Experienced in central northern Kenya where there are pure
deserts such as
Chalbi, Karoli and Kaisut deserts.
Characteristics
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
Temperatures are very high throughout the year averaging 30 c due to
cloudless skies.
Very low rainfall of less than 250mm per year.
Characterised by diverging or descending winds which don’t bring any
rain.
Night temperatures are
extremely low.

Humidity is low.
Sandstorms are common occurrences.
World Climatic Regions
Classifications
[Link] climates
[Link] climates
[Link] climates
[Link] cold climates
[Link] climates
[Link]/local climates
Hot/
Tropical Climates

-Experienced within the tropical latitudes.

-Subdivided into:
(a)Equatorial climate

(b)Tropical monsoon
climate

(c)Savannah climate/Sudan
type

(d)Tropical desert climate

(e)Tropical marine climate

Equatorial climate

-Experienced in the following areas:

(a)Amazon basin in S. America.
(b)Along west coast of Africa from guinea to Cote d’ Ivoire.
(c)Southern part of Nigeria through Cameroon, Gabon,
Central African

Republic, Congo to Zaire.

(d)S.E Asia in Malaysia, Indonesia and a stretch between Burma and
Vietnam.
 Characteristics
High temperatures throughout the year (between 24-27 c).
Temperature neither rises nor drops too low due to
thick cloud

cover all year round.

Heavy rainfall throughout the year (mean annual
of about

2000mm).
Double maxima rainfall regime.
Experiences convectional rainfall in low lands and relief
rainfall in

areas of high relief.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 High relative humidity of over 80% due to convergence
of moist

air masses and high

evapotranspiration rates.

Low pressure all year round.

There are no seasons.
Tropical Monsoon Climate

It’s found in the following areas:

(a)S.E Asia in parts of Pakistan, India,

Bangladesh, S. china and

Philippines.
(b)Along the northern coastal region of Australia.
Characteristics
High mean annual temperatures of about 28 c.
Seasonal reversal of winds.
Heavy rainfall when monsoon winds are onshore (600-1300mm)
climate.
Rain falls in a few months and the rest of the year is dry due to
influence of latitude.
Low pressure in summer when winds blow onshore.
High pressure in summer when winds blow offshore.
Cloudy skies in summer and clear skies in winter.
Tropical Marine Climate

It’s found on windward slopes of islands and coastal areas on the

east of

continents under the influence of S.E Trade Winds in the following

areas:

(a)C. America in S. Mexico through Guatemala,

Nikaragua and Panama.
(b)N. coast of S. America.
(c)Caribbean islands of Cuba, Haiti and Jamaica.
(d)Coastlands of E. Africa from Kenya, Tanzania through
Mozambique

and E. Malagasy.

Characteristics
Summer temperatures are very high approximately
30 c.
 High rainfall totals in summer when winds are
onshore (1000-

2000mm).
Orographic and convectional rainfall in summer.
Dry winters due to winds being offshore.
High humidity due to coastal location.
Experiences tropical cyclones towards end of hot
season.

Winters are cool (about 21 c).

Tropical Continental/
Savanna/ Sudan type

-The largest natural climatic region in Africa.

It’s found in the following areas:

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 (a)In Africa it extends from Senegal through E. Africa to the
northern
part of s. Africa.
(b)Western Madagascar.
(c)A broad belt in N. Australia.
(d)N.W and S.E of Amazon Basin called Llanos and Campos.
Characteristics
Higher temperatures of up to 32 in hot season.
Large diurnal range of temperature in dry season.
Convectional rainfall in summer averaging 765mm annually.
High humidity during the hot wet season.
Low humidity in cooler drier
months.

Prevailing winds are mainly trade

winds.
Types of deserts
oErg - Sandy deserts with large amounts of deposited sand.
oHamada - Rocky deserts made of bare surfaces.
oReg - Rocky deserts covered with angular pebbles, gravels and boulders.
oHot continental interior deserts found on the interior of continents on the
leeward sides of high mountains e.g. Sahara and Arabian Desert.
oCoastal deserts of western margins characterised by offshore
trade winds and

cold ocean currents e.g. Atacama of S. America, Namib

in Namibia and
Arizona in U.S.A.
oMid latitude deserts of continental interiors with high summer and low
winter like Gobi in C. Asia.
Ice and snow deserts of polar lands like Greenland and Antarctica desert.
Tropical Desert Climate

-Found on the western coasts of continents washed by cold

ocean currents.
They are the following:
(a)Arabian Desert of the middle East
(b)Sahara, Kalahari and Namib deserts in Africa.
(c)Atacama Desert in S. America.
Mohave and Colorado deserts of U.S.A. and Mexican deserts in N and C
America.
(d)Jordan, Syria, Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Israel and
Afghanistan.

(e)The great Australian desert in the greater western

 part of the
continent.
Characteristics
Characteristics
oHigh temperatures during the day and very low temperatures
during the

night due to high terrestrial radiation.

oLarge diurnal range of temperature.

oClear/ cloudless skies.
oReceives less than 250mm of rainfall annually.
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 oRainfall is localised, short and torrential and accompanied by storms
which cause flash floods.
oRain falls for a short period and the rest of the year or even
several years

are dry.
oHigh wind velocity due to little frictional force.
oSome areas experience temperatures below zero in
winter with ice

forming on the oasis.

oHumidity is low and evaporation rate is high.
oSand storms are very common i.e. sand being blown through the air by
the wind.
Warm Climates
Theyborder tropical climates and they experience moderate
temperatures lower

than of tropical climates.

They are situated in the zone of divergence of trade winds
and westeries

(subtropical high pressure belt).

Subdivided into:
[Link] temperate Western margin/Mediterranean
Climate.

[Link] Temperate Interior/continental Climate.

[Link] temperate Eastern marginal
Climate.

[Link] temperate Deserts.

Warm Temperate Western Margin
-Also known as Mediterranean Climate.
-Found on the western margin or sides of continents in the
following areas.

(a)Southern Europe and N. Africa in the lands

bordering Mediterranean
Sea.
(b)S.W tip of Africa around Cape Town.
(c) Central Chile in S
America.

(d)S.W and S Australia.

Characteristics
Hot summers with temperatures of about 21 c.
 Mild winters with temperatures of about 10 c.
Characterised by hot and cold local winds called Mistral and Sirocco.
There is high sunshine duration and intensity in summer.
Experiences cyclonic rainfall in winter when westeries are onshore.
Rainfall decreases inland.
Summers are dry due to trade winds blowing offshore.
There are distinct seasons i.e. summer, autumn,
winter and spring.

Warm temperate Interior Climate

-Also called Steppe Type.

It’s found in the interior of continents in the following areas
(grasslands):

(a)Steppe Land of U.S.S.R.

(b)Veldt of S Africa.
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 (c)Prairie lands of Canada and U.S.A.
(d)Pampas lands of Argentina.
(e)Downs of Australia.

Characteristics
Warm short temperatures between 18-21 c.
Long winters with extremely low temperatures
due to

continentality which can fall

up to -20 c.
Precipitation is received all the year round.
Most rainfall is received in summer and snow precipitation in
winter.
Rainfall is moderate with annual mean of 500mm.
Summer rainfall is caused by convection and
depressions.

There is high humidity in summer.

Warm temperate Eastern Margin climate
-Also known as China Type.
It’s experienced on the eastern margins of continents in the
following areas.

(a)S.E China and S. Japan.

(b)S.E Australia.
(c)S and S.E states of U.S.A.
(d)S. America in S. Brazil, Uruguay, E. Paraguay and
coast of

Argentina.
Characteristics
Hot summers with a mean annual of about 26 c.
Mild to cool winters due to marine influence and local
winds (4-

13 c).
Receives rainfall throughout the year (about
1000mm).experiences

hurricanes and typhoons.

Convectional rainfall is common in summer.
Rainfall is moderate between 760 and1500mm.
Warm Temperate Deserts
-Also known as Mid-Latitude Desert climate.
It’s experienced in the following areas:
[Link] and Utah states of U.S.A.
[Link] in S. America.
[Link] Desert extensive desert area of southern Mongolia and
northern

China and the largest desert in Asia.

[Link], Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan.
Characteristics
High summer temperatures (27-37 c).
Cold winters as low as -7 c.
Very large diurnal and annual ranges of temperature.
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 Low and unreliable rainfall due to great distance from the
sea about
250 mm annually.
Most rainfall falls in late winter or early spring.
Cool Climates
They differ from warm climates by having definite seasonal variations in
temperature.
Subdivided into:
[Link] Temperate Western Margin

[Link] Temperate Continental Interior

[Link] Temperate Eastern Margin

Cool Temperate Western

Margin Climate
-Also known as British
Type.
It’s under coastal
influence.
-Found in the following
areas:

(a)British Isles (Island)

(b)Central and N.W

Europe
(c)N.W U.S.A. and British Columbia in Canada.
(d)S. Chile

(e)Tasmania in Australia

Characteristics
Warm summers (13-15 c).
Cool winters (2-7 c).
Small temperature range.
Well distributed rainfall throughout the year (760-2000mm).
Cyclonic rainfall in the coastal lands and relief rainfall in mountainous
areas.
High humidity in winters.
Long summer days with irregular
thunderstorms.

Convergence of sub-tropical and polar air

 masses.

Onshore westerly winds are dominant.

Cool Temperate Continental
Interior Climate

-Also called Siberian type.

-Found in the following areas:
(a)Alaska and most of Canada
(b)Eurasia covering Sweden, Finland, Poland, Germany,
across former

U.S.S.R. up to Kamchatka Peninsular in the

east.
Characteristics
Warm summers with temperatures of about 18 c.
Generally short summers.
Extremely cold winter temperatures which go
below 20 c.

Long winters with long nights.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 Precipitation is mainly in form of snow during winter
(annual
precipitation 400-500mm).
Convectional rainfall in summer is accompanied by
thunderstorms.

Cool Temperate Western Margin

Climate
It’s also known as Laurentian Type.
Areas:
(a)N. U.S.A. and S Canada.
(b)S. Argentina.
(c)N & S Korea, N. China, C and N Japan and E. Siberia.
Characteristics
Long warm summers with temperatures of
about 18 c.

Cold winters (-40-0 c).

Precipitation all year round
(600-1000mm).

Snow precipitation in winter.

High humidity in summer.
Cold Climates
-Also known as Polar Desert Climates or Arctic and Antarctic Climates.
-Found beyond Arctic Circle i.e. 66 ½ N and S of equator.
-Classified into Tundra and Polar Climates.
Tundra Climate
Areas:
(a)Coast of N. America bordering Arctic Ocean.
(b)N part of America from Alaska through Canada to Greenland.
(c)From N coast of Scandinavia to the N.E of Russia.
(d)Baffin Island.

Characteristics
Short cool summers with average temperatures of about 10 c.
Long cold winters (-29 - -40 c).
Continuous days in winter and summer for several days.
Low annual precipitation of about 250mm.
Precipitation in form of rain and snow in winter.
Polar Climate
-experienced at the poles in the interior of Iceland, Green land and
Antarctica.
Characteristics
Temperature is permanently below freezing point.
 There is permanent snow cover and ice on the ground
(permafrost).

Snow storms (blizzards) are common.

Continuous winter nights and summer days with exception of equinox
when sun rises above horizon.
Mountain Climates
-Experienced on high mountain ranges of the world.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
Areas:
[Link]. Kenya (5199)

[Link]. Ruwenzori
(5109)

[Link]. Kilimanjaro
(5895)

[Link]. Everest (8848)

[Link] mountains in Africa
[Link] of N. America
[Link] of Europe

[Link] in
Asia
Characteristics
Temperature decreases with increasing altitude.
Temperature ranges from cool to cold.
Experiences Orographic rainfall.
Rainfall increases with altitude up to 3000mm and starts to
decrease

because air is cold and hence has poor capacity to hold

moisture.
Windward slopes are wetter than leeward slopes.
Atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing altitude.
Local winds are common and blow up the slope during the day
and down

slope at night.
In temperate regions slopes facing the equator are warmer
than those

facing the poles.

Atlas mountains in Africa
Rockies of N. America
Alps of Europe

Himalayas in
Asia
Local/Micro Climates
Climate experienced within a small area which is slightly different
compared to

the general climate of the area.

It occurs on the immediate surroundings and within some phenomenon on
the
earth’s surface.
Micro-climates can be found in the following areas:
(a)Within and around a forest
Experience low temperatures due to trees preventing solar
insolation from

reaching the ground.

Experiences high rainfall due to high rates of evapotranspiration.
(a)Urban areas
Higher temperatures due to green house effect (situation
where

atmospheric gases absorb heat that is given off by the

earth (terrestrial

radiation) before its sent back to space causing the

temperature of the

lower atmosphere to increase.

(b)Around man made lakes

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 Experience high convectional rainfall due to high moisture
content.

Around natural lakes experiences land breezes which cause

early morning

showers and sea breezes which lower

temperatures during the hot season.
Aridity and Desertification

Aridity-state of land being deficient of moisture leading to

little or no

vegetation.
Desertification-process in which desert like conditions slowly
and steadily

encroach on formerly productive agricultural land.

Causes of Aridity and Desertification
[Link] and unreliable rainfall below 250mm per annum
causing little

or no vegetation and absence of animal and biological

life causing

soil forming processes to be incomplete.

[Link] temperatures which cause high rates of evaporation
which

exceed evaporation or low temperatures which reduces

air capacity

to hold moisture causing a place to receive little or no

rain..
[Link] a place is washed by ocean currents causing
moist onshore

winds to cool and then drop moisture over the sea and
reach the

land as dry winds e.g. Kalahari when onshore westeries

cross the

cold Benguela Current.

[Link] relief barriers such as hills or mountains cause some areas
to lie on the rain shadow hence rain
winds drop most of their
 moisture on the windward side and they
drop on the leeward side,

are warmed and hold onto moisture

causing dry conditions e.g.

Kalahari and Namib on the rain shadow

of Drakensberg mountains.

[Link] of some places very far from the sea causing

them to be

far removed from wet onshore winds

e.g. Gobi Desert.
[Link] hot dry winds blow over a region causing drying
effect on

land e.g. Harmattan over West Africa.

[Link] cool air descends causing no rain because cool
air has to

rise before condensation takes place.

Human Activities
[Link] people clear forests which causes runoff
to exceed

infiltration which interferes

with the water cycle.
[Link] large number of animals which exceed the
carrying

capacity of land they eat vegetation

leaving the land bear exposing
the land to soil erosion.
10. Poor agricultural practices such as overcultivation,
monoculture

and slashing and burning which lead

to soil erosion.
[Link] which releases green house gases
such as co2 to

the atmosphere which absorb more heat making the

earths

temperature to rise.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 12. Reclamation of water logged areas which lowers the
water table

causing arid conditions to set in plants when plants

can’t access

ground water.
[Link] irrigation methods when evaporation takes place
and salt from

below are brought to the surface and are deposited on

the top soil

making the soil salty and hence unable to support plants.

Effects of Aridity
and Desertification

[Link] soils which support little or no

vegetation.
[Link] agricultural production due to insufficient rainfall leading to
famine.
[Link] of water for domestic and industrial use which
may also

lead to shutting down of my sons.

[Link] of people from areas affected by aridity
and

desertification leading to
population pressure and eventually
conflicts.
[Link] of vegetation which exposes land to soil erosion.
[Link] lead to extinction of some plants and animal
species causing

loss of biodiversity.
Solutions to Aridity and
Desertification

[Link] and reafforestation because trees

protect soil from

erosion, increase run off and release

moisture to the atmosphere

leading to increased rainfall.

[Link] soil conservation measures such as
 terracing, contour

ploughing, planting cover crops etc.

[Link] a number of animals which is proportional to the
carrying

capacity of land.
[Link] dry lands.
[Link] of energy saving stoves to reduce demand for wood fuel
which will reduce deforestation.
[Link] of alternative sources of energy which don’t
pollute the

environment e.g. solar and water.

[Link] drought resistant crops in the arid areas.
[Link] industrialisation by setting laws governing pollution.
Climate Change
-Establishment of a new climatic state.
-Continuous changes in climatic states such as temperature and
precipitation
over time.
Causes of Climate Change
Natural Causes
[Link] in the Earths Orbital Characteristics
-Changing or earths orbital characteristics within 1000 years from
elliptical

(aphelion) to nearly circular (perihelion) when the earth is nearest

to the sun and

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
receives maximum solar energy and back to elliptical when the
earth is farthest
from the sun and receives least solar energy.
[Link] in the Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide

-When natural rise in temperature cause carbon dioxide held up

in cold ocean

waters to be released to the atmosphere after oceans warmed.

[Link] Eruptions
When large quantities of volcanic ash and dust thrown
out of the

ground block some of the solar insolation from reaching

the earths

surface causing temperatures on the earths surface to

drop for a

short period.
When sulphur dioxide given off during volcanic
eruptions reacts

with water vapour forming a bright layer within

stratosphere

reducing the amount of solar radiation reaching the

surface by

reflecting some of it back which also lowers

temperatures on the
surface.
[Link] in Solar Output
-changes in the amount of solar energy given off by the sun
whereby at times its

less causing drop of temperature on the earths surface and at

others its gives off

more causing rise in temperature on the surface.

Human Causes
[Link] of fossil fuels in industries, transportation, electricity
generation

etc. which contributes 65% of additional co2 in the

atmosphere which is
the main green house gas.
[Link] of vegetation e.g. in shifting cultivation and forest
fires which

also adds co2 in the atmosphere.

[Link] large tracts of forests foe agriculture, settlement
etc. which

reduces the main deposal system for co2 from the

atmosphere by

photosynthesis.
[Link] developments which add gases like methane, nitrous
oxide and

those containing chlorine and chlorofluorocarbons which

damages ozone

layer which filters a greater percentage of ultra violet

radiation given off

by the sun which causes the average temperatures on the

earth to rise.
Consequences of Climate Change
[Link] warming due to green house effect by gases
added in to the

atmosphere and destruction of ozone layer.

[Link] rainfall as a result of high temperatures causing
high rates of

evaporation causing wet areas to become wetter

and dry areas to become
drier.
[Link] on agriculture by causing crop growing areas to shift to
cooler

altitudes and latitudes e.g. wheat growing areas of Canada

shifting to the

poles and causing dropping or failure of crop yields in area

where

temperatures have increased.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 [Link] shortage when climate becomes drier causing
less water to
infiltrate underground and hence less water
to feed rivers.
[Link] of coastal areas causing flooding when Antarctic
and Arctic

glaciers melt and water is added to the oceans.

[Link] waves due to increased temperature which leads to
death of people.

[Link] and disappearance of ice caps on mountains e.g. Mt.

Ruwenzori.
[Link] growth of plants due to increased amounts of co2
causing

increased rate of photosynthesis which may lead to

increased yields of

major crops, poor soils due to soils having to sustain high

rates of plant

growth.
[Link] levels of ultra violet radiation which causes human diseases
such as skin cancer, lowering crop production by slowing
photosynthesis

and germination, lowering fish population by damaging

plankton which

fish eats and degradation of paint and plastics.

Solution to Climate Change
Afforestation and reafforestation.
Use of energy saving stoves to reduce the rate of deforestation.
Use of alternative sources of energy which are
environmentally friendly

e.g. solar and water instead of fossil fuels.

Proper maintenance of vehicle to reduce emissions from their exhausts.
Use of public transport to reduce the amount of fossil fuel used
and hence

the amount of co2 added into the atmosphere.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 VEGETATION
-Plant cover on the earths surface.
Types of Vegetation

[Link] Vegetation

-Which grows by natural means of seed dispersal without

interference and

modification by man.
[Link]- Natural/Derived Vegetation

-Natural vegetation which is in the process of recovering from

interference by
man.
[Link]/Cultivated Vegetation

-Vegetation planted by people e.g. forests of exotic trees, trees in

Agroforestry

and plants used as hedges e.g. cypress.

Factors Influencing Types and Distribution of
Vegetation

Topographical Factors
[Link]
Coniferous trees are found at high altitudes because they are adapted
to
cool conditions.
There is no vegetation on mountain tops because there
are very low

temperatures which inhibit plant growth.

[Link]
Gentle slopes which have deep and well drained soils are best
suited for

plant growth than steep slopes which have thin soils due to
severe erosion

and less soil water to sustain plant growth due to high runoff.
 Flat areas have poor drainage hence are swampy and can
only support

swamp plants.
[Link]

There are a wide range of plants on the slope facing the sun and in
the direction

of rain bearing winds as they are warm and wetter. Grass lands are
dominant on

the leeward side because they are drier.

[Link]

There is a large variety of plants on well drained soils while water

logged soils

have swamp plants such as reeds and papyrus.

Climatic Factors
[Link]

Plants in warm areas are large in number and grow faster e.g.
in the

tropical lands. Also there are deciduous trees

which shed leaves to reduce

the rate of transpiration.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 In areas with low temperatures there is slow growth of plants and
coniferous forests are found there.
[Link]

There are a large number of plants in areas with high

precipitation and

these areas are dominated by forests which are

broad leaved to increase

the rate of transpiration.

Areas with moderate rainfall are dominated by grasslands and
those with

little rainfall have scanty vegetation of scrub and

desert types.
[Link]

There is large number of plants in areas experiencing long

sunshine
duration.
There is little undergrowth in tropical rain forests because
the canopy

prevents sunlight from reaching the ground.

[Link]
There is heavy rainfall in areas where warm moist blow to and
hence a

large number of plants which may be broad leaved to increase

the surface

area for transpiration.

Edaphic/Soil Factors
Fertile soils have a larger number of plants while infertile
soils have

scanty vegetation.
Soil pollution e.g. oil spillage cause drying up of plants.
Deep soils have deep rooted plants such as trees while
shallow rooted

soils have shallow rooted plants such as

grasses and shrubs.
 Biotic/Biological Factors
[Link] Organisms

Bacteria, earth warms and burrowing animals improve

soil fertility

resulting into more vegetation growth.

Insect and birds pollinate plants enhancing their propagation.
Bacteria and insects cause plant diseases of plants resulting
in death of

some e.g. aphids which affected cypress in late

80s.
Large herds of wild animals can destroy vegetation through
overgrazing

and can turn grasslands into deserts.

[Link] Activities
Clearing of natural vegetation for settlement, agriculture etc. can lead to
desertification.
Bush fires such as burning grasslands for the grass to sprout
can cause

extinction of some plant species.

Overstocking can lead to overgrazing turning grasslands into deserts.
Rehabilitation of deforested areas can stop the spread of deserts.
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 Vegetation in Kenya

[Link]
The area under forest is less than 7%.
The bulk is found in Central Highlands
(a)Plateau Forests
It used to cover extensive areas around L. Victoria but today there
are few

patches around the lake in Maragoli, Kakamega, Kaimosi, Malava,

Turbo and
Tinderet forests.
They are tropical rain forests with tall trees standing among
shorter trees

intertwined with creepers.

(b)Lowland Forests
-Found along the Kenyan coast.
The main types are:

Mangrove forests which grow in shallow waters and

Tropical rain forests in Shimba hills in Kwale District and

Arabuko
Sokoke in Kilifi.

(c)Highland/Mountain Forests

-Found on the slopes of Mt. Kenya, Aberdare forests, Iveti, Mbooni,

Kilala and
Marsabit forests.
Indigenous hardwoods are olive, Meru oak, mvule, Elgon teak
and camphor

while indigenous softwoods are podocarpus and African pencil

cedar and
bamboo.
They have been planted with exotic hard wood trees e.g.
eucalyptus and silver

oak and exotic softwoods such as pines, cypress, fir and wattle.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 2. Savanna
-Most widespread vegetation covering about 65% of the total area.
(a)Wooded/Tree Grassland
-Found along the coastal strip and on the plateau bordering
highlands east of rift

Valley.
-Consists of grass of 1m mixed with thorny acacias.
Where rain decreases trees become fewer and shorter and the grassland becomes
more open.
There are many large trees along water courses due to
abundant moisture

(riverine or gallerie forests).

The trees shed leaves during the dry season to reduce the
loss of water by

transpiration.
(b) Bushland and Thicket
-Covers about 48% of savannah.
-Found between coastal land and Machakos and extends into
Kitui, Mwingi,

Garissa, Wajir and Mandera districts.

-Consists of a mixture of thorny acacias and shorter thorny
shrubs between

forming thorn bush with gaps between bushes which are bare or
covered by

scattered varieties of grasses.

Plants are adapted by:
Having thin leaves and hard cuticle to reduce transpiration rate.
Baobab has large trunk to store water for use during long dry period.
Shedding of leaves to conserve water.

(c)
Highland Grassland
-Found on the undulating slopes of grasslands.
-Grasses are such as red oat, wire, Manyatta and Kikuyu grass where
forests
have been cleared.
-Clover grows along kikuyu grass where rainfall is over 1000mm.
3. Semi-Desert and
Desert Vegetation
-Covers about 21% of Kenya.
It’s found on the parts of N.E and N Kenya including Marsabit and Turkana
districts.
It receives insufficient rainfall of less than 380mm annually.
It has mainly scrub type of vegetation (covered with
underdeveloped trees or

shrubs). A shrub is a plant lower than a tree with a small woody

stem branching

near the ground.

The shrubs are up to 1m and grasses are up to 3m and in between
there is bare

ground.
Tree species are acacia and comiphora.
Real deserts hardly have any vegetation.
Adaptations plants (Xerophytes)
Some have thick leaves to store water.
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 Long tap roots to access water from rocks below.
Needle like leaves to conserve water.
Shedding of leaves to conserve water (deciduous).
4. Heath and Moorland
-Vegetation found towards the mountain tops.
At lower altitudes there is groundsel, lobelia and heather.
Where there is poor drainage there is mountain swamp
vegetation

referred to as bogs.
At high altitudes there is tussock grasses, flowering plants and
alchemilla

shrubs. This vegetation is adapted to cold windy

conditions towards the
summit.
5. Swamp Vegetation

-Vegetation found in areas with flat relief in wet areas along river
courses and

areas experiencing periodic flooding e.g. along the course of R.

Tana, Lorian

swamp in Isiolo, Wajir and Garissa and the mangrove belt along he
coast.
Vegetation found there are marshes, grasses with smooth
surfaces and long

blades and papyrus which is dominant.

Vegetation Zones of the World
A. Forests
A forest is a continuous growth of trees and undergrowths covering large
tracts
of land.
1. Tropical Rain Forests
-Known as Selvas in S. America.
It’s found in the following
areas:

[Link]
Basin
[Link] Basin
[Link] sides of India, Burma and
Vietnam.
 [Link] land of Queensland Australia.
Characteristics
Closely set trees with three distinct canopies.
There is less undergrowth on the forest floor due to light being
obstructed

by canopies.
Trees take long time to grow.
Trees have large trunks with buttress roots (radiating wall like roots).
Trees have broad leaves to increase the surface area for efficient
transpiration due to high precipitation.
There is varied number of plants species over a small portion.
Trees are tall, have smooth stems and straight trunks.
Some trees are evergreen shedding a few leaves at a time while others
shed leaves and are left bare.
Some trees are very heavy and don’t float on water.
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 Trees take very long time to mature between 70-100years.
Types of trees present are mahogany, ebony, ironwood, rose
wood, camphor

and Sapele.
Tree creepets and parasites are found around tall main trees.
Uses of tropical rain
Forests

(a)Trees are valuable sources of timber for furniture,

building and
construction.
(b)Oil palms are for production of palm oil.
(c)Cacao crops for production of cocoa beans used to
make cocoa

used to make chocolates and

beverages.
(d)Chicle from the bark of Zabote tree is used to make
chewing gum.

(e)Ivory nuts are used for making buttons.

(f)Fibres from torquilla palm are used for making hats,
mats, baskets

and thatching materials.

(g)Cinchona tree’s bark contains quinine used in malarial treatment.
2. Mangrove Forests

-Found in low lying muddy coasts of tropical seas with shallow

salty waters.
Areas
[Link] the east coast of Africa.
[Link] the estuary of Amazon River in S. America.
Characteristics
Dominated by mangrove trees and 30 other species of trees.
Mangrove trees have special roots which are partly aerial
to aid

breathing. Some grow horizontally and then vertically

downwards

into mud while some grow horizontally in mud and bend

upwards

to aid breathing and others have net work of roots

resembling stilts.
 Uses of
mangrove Forests

[Link] trees provide tannin used for

tanning leather.
[Link] poles are used for building and construction because they
are
very strong.
[Link] trees are also used for firewood.
[Link] forests are habitats for marine life used for tourist attraction.

3. Tropical Monsoon Forests

Location
1.S.W and S coast of Mexico
[Link] of India, Bangladesh, Burma, Vietnam and Indonesia
[Link] lands of Australia
Characteristics
Most trees shed leaves during dry season and grow during hot
wet season.

Smaller number of tree species than tropical rain forests.

Tall species of trees rising up to 30m.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 Trees don’t grow together.
Trees have more branches because of light penetrating at
lower levels.

Denser undergrowth than tropical rain forests.

Particular species of trees dominate an area (pure/definite stands) e.g.
-Leak in Burma
-Sal in India
-Eucalyptus in Queensland Australia
-Bamboo in S.E Asia
Dominant tree species are leak, bamboo, acacia, camphor,
ebony, Sapele

and Pyinkaido.
Uses of tropical Monsoon
Forests

(a)Teak in Burma and Thailand is used for building houses

and boats
because it’s hard and resistant to termites.
(b)Bamboo and rattan creeper are used for making
furniture, baskets

and weaving.
(c)Young tender shoots of bamboo are consumed as vegetables.
4. Mediterranean Forests
Areas
1.S. Europe and N. Africa areas bordering
Mediterranean Sea.

[Link] Cape Town on S.W end of Africa.

[Link] coast of California.
[Link] Perth in S.W Australia.
Characteristics
Forests are open woodlands.
Many trees are deciduous.
Some trees are evergreen e.g. oak

There is woody scrub vegetation in areas which are dry and

with poor

soils which is called marquis in France,

Chaparral in California and

Machia in Italy.
 Many plants are sweet smelling (aromatic) e.g. rosemary,
lavender,

oleander, broom and myrtle.

Many trees are xerophytes e.g.
-Trees have long tap roots to reach the water
deep below

during long dry spells.

-Waxy leaves to reduce transpiration

-Storing water in their thick leaves or

stems

-Small spiny leaves

Types of trees are olive, sweet chestnut, beech, cedar, cypress,

sequoia,

eucalyptus
Uses
(a)Cork oak is used to make corks for bottling wine.
(b)Olive tree fruits are used for cooking and extraction of olive oil.
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 (c)Timber from sweet chest nut, beech, cedar, cypress and
pine is used
for building houses and making furniture.
(d)Shrubs and grasses are used as pasture for goats.
5. Temperate Evergreen Forests
-Found in areas experiencing warm temperate eastern margin or China Climate.
Areas
[Link] Natal coast in S.
Africa

2.S. china and S. Japan

3.S.E Australia
4.S.E and S. states of U.S.A.
Characteristics
Evergreen because of abundant rainfall throughout the year.
Most trees have broad leaves to increase the surface are for efficient
transpiration.
Manyevergreen trees are hardwoods.
Uses
(a)Hard woods such as oak and iron wood are used for furniture and
building materials.
(b)Soft woods such as cypress and pines are used for furniture.
(c)Wattle trunks are used in the coal mines of natal.
(d)Bamboo is used for making furniture and building in China
and Japan.

(e)Walnuts provide nuts used for making chocolate.

(f)Ivory nuts are used for making buttons.
(g)Young shoots of bamboo are eaten as vegetables in china and
Japan.

6. Temperate Deciduous
Forests

-Found in areas experiencing cool temperate western

marginal climate.
Location
1.C. and W. Europe.
[Link] of E. states of U.S.A.
[Link] in S. America.
Characteristics
Trees are deciduous and shed leaves in autumn and become green in
summer.
Individual species of trees are scattered and their density per unit area
is
 small.
Trees are smaller in size.
Trees are broad leaved.
Most of the trees are hardwoods
There is rich undergrowth because of being fairly open.
Trees grow in pure stands in some regions and at others they are mixed.
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 Trees are easier to exploit than tropical hardwoods.
Uses
(a)Hardwoods such as oak and birch are used for timber, wood fuel and
charcoal.
(b)Chestnut and walnut nuts are edible.
(c)Oak tree fruits are used for feeding pigs.
(d)Tung tree yields oil for making paint and furnish.
(e)Maple sap is used for making maple syrup.
Trees include eucalyptus (blue gum), olive, birch, walnut, elm and ash.
Coniferous Forests
It’s dominant in cool climates. It’s known as Taiga and Boreal in Russia.
Location
1.W. coast of Canada.
[Link] across Russia to the Pacific coast.
Characteristics/of soft woods in Canada
Their seeds are cone shaped.
Most trees are softwoods and are light in weight.
Trees mature faster than hardwoods of tropical regions.
Trees have big proportion of stem compared to leaves.
Most tree species are evergreen with few shedding leaves e.g. larch and
fir.
Tree species occur in big pure stands.
Very little undergrowth due to acidic humus from leaf fall.
Trees have straight trunks.
Trees mature after a long period of time (50-70 years) due
to the cold

conditions especially in winter.

Species of trees found here are pines, Fir, spruce, larch and Hemlock.

Adaptations

Needle-like leaves to reduce

transpiration.
Leaves with tough waxy skin to protect them from winter cold.
Tree crowns are cone shaped and flexible crowns to allow
snow to slide

off to prevent it from accumulating on the

branches.
Trees are evergreen to have maximum utilisation of sunlight during the
short summers.
Flexible tree trunks to allow swaying so as to allow swaying so
as not to
 break during strong winter winds.
Widely spread root system for maximum utilisation of moisture
from top

soil because sub soil is permanently frozen.

Used
Soft woods such as spruce, fir, pine and larch are used for
construction, wood

pulp used in paper manufacture.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 7. Mixed Forests
-Found at the zone of transition between temperate deciduous and
coniferous
forests.
Location
[Link] and Alberta provinces of
Canada

[Link] regions in Europe

[Link] lying Mediterranean regions

Characteristics
A mixture of broadleaved deciduous and coniferous trees.
Uses
Cedar and hazel are used for fencing posts.
Grazing activities are carried out where forests are open.
Softwoods such as spruce, fir and pine are used to make wood
pulp used for

paper manufacture.
Hardwoods such as oak and birch are valuable sources of timber, wood fuel and
charcoal.
Maple tree syrup is used for making maple syrup.
B. Grasslands
-Found in climatic regions where a seasonal pattern occurs with
a prolonged

drought of about 5-7 months.

Tropical
Grasslands/ Savanna

-Found in areas experiencing tropical continental

climate.
Areas
1.N and S of Congo Basin.
[Link] Sahel and equatorial forests in E. Africa plateau.
3.N.E of Australian Desert.
[Link] highlands
It’s divided into:
(a)Open grasslands where grass is dominant and
(b)Woodlands in areas which receive more
rainfall.

Characteristics
Grasslands with widely spaced trees such as acacias.
Grasses die in dry season and sprout quickly when it rains.
 Grasses are tall (up to 3m with stiff blades and elephant
grass is tallest

reaching up to 4m.
Trees are of medium size up to 13m

Tree crowns are umbrella shaped to provide shade around roots

to reduce

evaporation.
Most trees are deciduous and shed leaves during dry season.
Trees have small leaves and thick barks to reduce transpiration.
Trees have long tap roots to reach the water deep below
during long dry

spells.
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 Uses
(a)Grass is for grazing and commercial ranching though
it’s of low

nutritional value due to lack of

phosphorous.
(b)Cereals e.g. wheat farming because the soil is rich in
humus resulting

from the grass cover.

(c)Vegetation acts as soil cover to reduce soil erosion.
(d)Homes of wild animals which attract tourists e.g. E. and C. African
savannas.
(e)Trees are habitats for bees which provide honey.
(f)Some shrubs and herbs are used for medicine.
(g)Trees such as acacia provide fuel wood and charcoal.
Temperate Grasslands

-Found in continental interiors of temperate grasslands where

rainfall isn’t
sufficient to sustain forests.
Location
The Prairies
Areas
-Canadian provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba and neighbouring
states of U.S.A.
Characteristics
Continuous tuft grass
Grasses are nutritious.
Grass is short
Grass is interspersed with bulbons and leguminous plants.
Grass is mixed in some areas with species such as stipa, buffalo and
gamma
grasses.
Tall grasses in areas with rainfall of over
500mm.

The
Steppes
-Found in Eurasia- temperate interiors of Europe and Asia.
Characteristics
True Steppes-rich carpet of grass and some flowering plants.
Desert steppes-Coarse grass growing in tufts

-Grass doesn’t form a

continuous cove on the ground.
-Short grass which grows very close to the ground.
 The Pampas
-Found in Argentina.
Characteristics
Feather-like grass

Grass forms individual tussocks with patches of

bare soil.
Forests are present in some areas due to increased
moisture.

Xerophytic or drought resistant plants are present in

some areas.
The Veldt

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
-Found in S. Africa.

Characteristics
Grasses are extensively spread.
There is little or no mixture of trees or shrubs.
There is a uniform cover of grass on high plateaus.
The Downs
-Found in Australia and New Zealand.
Characteristics
Tall grass mixed with trees.
Semi desert areas have patches of dominant grass.
Mixture of temperate and tropical grass species.
Grass is nutritious and nutritious for livestock.
Natural grasses of Argentina have been replaced by Alfalfa
and in New

Zealand British meadow grasses now dominate.

Uses of Temperate Grasslands

(a)For grain cultivation e.g. wheat which requires as low as

325mm of
rainfall.
(b)For cultivation of other crops e.g. oil seeds, Soya beans,
vegetables and

millet and sorghum widely grown in the Veldt.

(c)For livestock farming e.g. cattle, sheep, goats and horses.
There are

scientifically managed ranches called

Estancias in Argentina.
Desert
Vegetation

Tropical Desert
Vegetation

-Found in tropical deserts.

Characteristics
Vegetation is present except in bare rock and sand covered
areas.

There are more plants on oasis e.g. date palms and a variety
of shrubs.
 Some plants are succulent to have high water storage
capacity.
Some have spines to protect them from animals.
Some have thorn-like leaves to reduce rate of transpiration.
Some have long roots to enable them to tap water from deeper parts of
rocks.
Some shed leaves during dry season and grow new leaves
during wet

periods to reduce water loss.

Some are salt tolerant (halophytic) by having many water
storing cells to

counter soil salinity or alkalinity.

Temperate and Arctic Desert
Vegetation

-Found in warm temperate deserts and arctic

climates.
Characteristics
Grasses and woody plants.
Woody plants which are Xerophytic and halophytic.
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 Shrubs have shallow roots due to permafrost.
Plants flower and produce fruits within short wet season.
There is scarce vegetation in Tundra.
Plants present in arctic deserts are such as lichens, mosses
and flowering

plants such as anemones and marsh marigold.

Uses of Desert
Vegetation

(a)Bilberries in temperate deserts bear

edible fruits.
(b)Small trees are source of fuel foe Eskimos who live in arctic region.
(c)Vegetation in tropical deserts is important in arresting
sand dunes to

prevent them from burying oasis and

settlements.
(d)In tropical deserts fringes vegetation is valuable food for animals.
(e)Date palm is cultivated for its fruit.
Mountain
Vegetation

-Vegetation found towards the top of the

mountain.
Uses of Mountain
Vegetation

(a)Grasslands are used for grazing.

(b)Alpine meadows in temperate regions provide summer grazing
pastures.

(c)Mountain forests provide timber, building materials, fuel wood

and charcoal.

(d)Mountain forests are habitats for wild animals e.g. elephants.

(e)Mountain vegetation makes mountains to be water catchment areas.
(f)Mountain forests help to purify air by absorbing carbon
dioxide and

providing oxygen.
(g)Mountain vegetation is used for research.
 Significance of
Vegetation

(a)Forests add beauty to country’s landscape.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 (b)Vegetation protects soil from erosion by wind and rainwater.
(c)Vegetation partly decays forming humus making the soil fertile.
(d)Some plants roots, barks and leaves are used for medicine.
(e)Forests modify the climate of the surrounding area by increasing
rainfall and

reducing temperatures.
(f)Some plants such as bamboo shoots and wild fruits are
consumed as food.

(g)Some fibrous plants such as sisal and jute are used for making
ropes, sacks,
mats, etc.
(h)Latex from rubber tree is used for manufacture of rubber used in tire
manufacture.

FORESTRY
Forestry is the science of developing and managing forests including cultivating
them.
Type of Forests
[Link] forests-which grow by natural means of seed
dispersal.
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 [Link]-natural/derived/cultivated forests-which is in the
process of
recovering from interference by man.
[Link]/cultivated forests-which have been planted by man.
[Link] forests-which are native to a region or which have
grown in a

region from the beginning.

[Link] forests-which have trees which have been introduced to a place
from other countries.
[Link] types have been discussed in the chapter of vegetation.
Factors Influencing Types and
Distribution of Forests

Temperature

High temperature causes fast growth of trees while low

temperature

causes slow growth.

Rain forests are found at low altitudes which are warmer while
coniferous
forests are found at high altitudes which are cooler.
Aspect

Dense forests are found on windward slopes of mountains

because they

are wetter than leeward slopes and they start at

a lower level than on the

leeward slopes.
In temperate region slopes facing equator have dense forests
because they

are warmer while those facing the poles have coniferous

forests which are

adapted to low temperatures.

Precipitation

There are dense forest where there is heavy precipitation

while there is

less forest cover consisting of stunted trees in

areas with little
 precipitation.
Coniferous forest have cone-shaped crowns to allow snow to slide off so
as not to accumulate on the branches and cause them to break off.
Soil
Deep soils support huge tropical trees while shallow soils
support

coniferous trees which have shallow and wide spread root

system to be

able to maximally utilise water on the top soil since the sub
soil is

permanently frozen.
Poor or infertile soils have stunted trees.
Human Activities
Deforestation and shifting cultivation- man has cleared forests
to create

room for agriculture settlement etc. which has

reduced forest cover on the
earth’s surface.
Afforestation and Agroforestry-man has planted trees in areas
where they

never existed establishing forests there.

Reafforestation-man has replanted forests which he has
cleared with

indigenous and exotic trees causing natural forests to

become semi-

natural/secondary or derived forests.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 Importance of Forests to Kenya

[Link] are water catchment areas which supports

agriculture and H.E.P.

generation.
[Link] provide us with wood fuel e.g. firewood, charcoal and saw dust.
[Link] prevent soil erosion by their roots binding the soil
together,

reducing run off thereby reducing incidents of

flooding and dam siltation.
[Link] are habitats of wild animals which are a tourist attraction
which
brings foreign exchange used to import goods and
services and fund

development projects.
[Link] are a disposal system for carbon dioxide which they
use in

photosynthesis and release oxygen thereby purifying air

and reducing

global warming.
[Link] increase soil fertility when leaves fall and rot forming humus.
[Link] regulate the climate of an area by creating a micro
climate

causing heavy and frequent rain by

evapotranspiration and lowering
temperatures.
[Link] are a source of timber for construction and furniture
making.

[Link] beautify the environment by flora (plants) and fauna

(animals).
[Link] forest’s trees are a source of medicine.
[Link] of forests has led to the development of infrastructure as
roads
have been constructed to make forests accessible.
[Link] provide employment to people e.g. forest guards,
forest officers,

lumberjacks, carpenters and timber merchants.

Importance of Forest Products
[Link] are a source of food e.g. fruits, honey, mushrooms
and bamboo

tender leaves which are used for vegetables.

[Link] provide wood used for manufacture of paper, soft boards, ply
wood etc.
[Link] in forests are hunted for food, skins and horns.
[Link] of trees and forest undergrowth are used as
livestock fodder.

[Link] provide wood which is used in cottage industries

for making

carvings and wooden utensils which are sold

locally and exported.
[Link] flora and fauna are a rich reservoir for research.
Problems Facing Forestry in Kenya

[Link] by people by clearing them to create room for

agriculture

and settlement, grazing etc. which puts some

plants and animal species in

danger of extinction.
[Link] especially of young trees by herbivorous wild
animals such

as elephants due to rapid increase in the

population.
[Link] of huge tracts of forests by fires caused by
poachers, honey

harvesters etc. especially during the dry season.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 [Link] and diseases outbreak which can result in destruction of
large tracts

of land with valuable tree species e.g. there was an outbreak

of aphids in

1980s which destroyed cypress.

[Link] whereby the trees are harvested at a higher
rate than

which they are being replaced naturally and also

harvesting of immature
trees.
[Link] of forests e.g. by converting some parts of forests
into private

land, government land like Nyayo Tea Zones and public

utilities like

Agricultural Show Grounds which has resulted into reduction

of the area
under forests.
[Link] management of forests e.g. clear cutting which may lead
to

harvesting of immature trees in future, government officials

carrying out

illegal logging and government in the past having not been

strict in forest

conservation of forests which led to destruction of large areas

of forests.
Management and Conservation of Forests

Conservation of forests is protection of forests against

interference and

destruction by man while forest conservation is effective planning

and control
of forests and forest resources.
Conservation Measures
[Link] of forest reserves to protect indigenous forests
from extinction

e.g. Mt. Kenya forest, Shimba Hills and Arabuko

Sokoke.
[Link] of forest guard posts in the forests to protect forests
against illegal

logging (tree felling).

[Link] Nyayo Tea Zones to act as protective belts to prevent
people from

trespassing into the forests. They are also a source of

employment and

foreign exchange.
[Link] and reafforestation.
[Link] (intercropping of various crops with
trees) which:

Supplies wood resources

Provides animal fodder
Provide food e.g. fruits e.g. mangoes and avocadoes for good
health and nutrition
Acts as wind breakers and
Shade for crops.
Management Measures

[Link] to determine which tree species are suitable for

which area and

how to combat pests and diseases outbreak.

[Link] out public campaigns through mass media on the importance
of
forests.
[Link] of alternative sources of energy e.g. sun, wind, biogas
and water to

reduce the rate of tree felling.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
[Link] of energy saving stoves to reduce the rate of overexploitation of
wood fuel.
[Link] on cutting practices by selective falling of
trees and

replanting more trees than those cut.

[Link] of pests and diseases which affect trees.
Importance of Forest Management and
Conservation

[Link] a source of utility products e.g. firewood for fuel and food
from fruits
and nuts.
[Link] ecological reasons in that they help in the following ways:
To preserve flora and fauna
It’s a water catchment area
Moderating the flow of water reducing soil erosion
and floods

which also prevents siltation of

dams.
[Link] posterity i.e. so that the future generation will have forest
resources
available for their use.
[Link] reasons because forest products are used as raw
materials in the

industries such as furniture, paper making, etc.

5. Forests are important for scientific research such as on
herbal medicine

and genetic mapping of the species of plants and

animals which haven’t
been identified.
Softwood Forests in Kenya and Canada

Factors Favouring the Development of Softwood

Forests
Kenya

[Link] climate of Kenya highlands which enables coniferous

forests to

thrive e.g. Mt. Kenya and Aberdares.

[Link] rainfall received in Kenya highlands and low
evaporation rates
 which supports forest growth.
[Link] and steepness of some parts of Kenya
highlands making

them unsuitable for settlement thereby

leaving forests to thrive.
[Link] demand for timber and wood products locally and
outside the

country which encourages tree farming.

Canada
[Link] and cold climate which favours growth of coniferous
forests.

[Link] low average temperatures in the interior which favours

the growth
of coniferous forests.
[Link] and steepness such as of British Columbia which
discourages

agriculture and settlement leaving forests to thrive.

[Link] low population density leaving a lot of land available for forests.
[Link] rainfall on the windward slopes of mountain ranges of
British

Columbia and low evaporation in the east giving

sufficient moisture to
sustain forests.
Mode of Exploitation
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 Kenya
Workers are transported daily to logging sites in Kenya while in Canada
settlement is set for workers within forests.
Power saws are used in both countries to fell trees but axes are used to
a
limited extent in Kenya.
In Kenya transportation of logs is by tractors and lorries while in
Canada

rivers are widely used to transport logs by floating.

In both countries logging is systematic and it is done in blocks.
Factors Favouring Exploitation of
Softwoods

Kenya

[Link]’t experience winter so logging can go on throughout the

year.

[Link] wood forests in Kenya are easier to exploit because trees

are planted

in rows unlike in Kenya where they are natural and

trees grow

haphazardly.
[Link] Kenya forests are accessible throughout the year unlike
in Canada

where forests in the north are inaccessible during severe

winter and

ruggedness.
[Link] Kenya logging can go on throughout the year because there is no
winter.
[Link] of water from R. Nzoia for pulp and paper
manufacture at

Webuye.
[Link] market due to high demand for wood products locally and
outside
in COMESA.
Canada
[Link] winters in British Columbia which makes it possible to
transport

logs throughout the year.

[Link] of water from many rivers providing plenty of
water for

paper and pulp manufacture.

[Link] H.E.P. for factories from many rivers in Canada.
[Link] and efficient land and water transport system easing
transport of

logs to factories and to markets.

[Link] location of major producing areas making exportation
of timber

to U.S.A. and Japan easy.

[Link] demand for forest products in the neighbouring U.S.A.
and locally

due to high purchasing power.

[Link] of natural coniferous forests in pure stands (one
tree species

covering a large area) making exploitation easy.

[Link] of undergrowth which makes exploitation easy
(due to dead

leaves resulting in acidic humus.

Planted soft Woods in Kenya
Planted in clear rows.
Clear cutting
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 Mature at the same time.
Products
In Kenya and Canada products are poles sawn timber, pulp, paper,
block board,

ply wood, clip board etc.

Economic Significance of Softwood Forests in
both Countries

[Link] employment to people e.g. lumberjacks, tree

farmers and in
timber related industries.
[Link] led to development of timber/wood related industries
e.g. furniture,

paper manufacture etc.

3.A foreign exchange earner when in Canada timber is exported
to U.S.A.

and when products in Kenya are exported to

COMESA.
[Link] some foreign exchange when the country produce
wood products

to cater for their needs on which they’d otherwise spend

foreign

exchange.
[Link] development when roads are
constructed to ease

transportation of logs to industries and products to

markets.
[Link] income to tree farmers.
Problems in Kenya and Canada

[Link] fires which destroy large tracts of land where in

Canada the

greatest number of fires are caused by lighting

while in Kenya they are

caused by illegal loggers, poachers, etc.

[Link] and diseases e.g. aphids which destroyed cypress in 1980s.
[Link] leading to soil erosion as trees takes long
time to mature
 and provide sufficient cover to the soil after
planting.
[Link]’s trees take long time to mature (50-60 years due
to severe

winters which slow their growth. In Kenya

they take 12-35 years.
[Link] Canada there is problem of inaccessibility of forests in the
northern

part in winter and due to rugged terrain while in Kenya they

are planted

and easily accessible.

Comparison of softwood forests in Kenya and Canada
Similarities
Soft wood forests in both countries experience the problems of
pests and

diseases, fires, soil erosion and overexploitation.

Softwood forest products are similar e.g. sawn timber, wood
pulp, paper,

poles, etc.
Softwood forests in both countries grow in places with
heavy rainfall,

cool temperatures, heavy rainfall and rugged

terrain.
Forest products earn foreign exchange in both countries.
Tree species are similar e.g. there is pine in both countries.
Differences
Species of trees differ e.g. in Kenya there is Kenya cedar and
podo while

in Canada there is Douglas fir and white pine.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 Canada’s soft woods are mainly natural while Kenya’s are
mostly
planted.
Kenya’s softwood forests are found in highlands while
Canada’s are

found in lowlands due to cool temperatures.

Canada’s softwood forests cover large tracts of land than Kenya’s.
In Kenya softwood forests are propagated by afforestation
while in

Canada it’s by leaving some trees uncut so that they produce

seeds to be

dispersed naturally.
Canada’s softwood forests take longer to mature than
Kenya’s due to

severe winter temperatures.

Kenya’s softwood forests are planted in rows and easily
exploitable

unlike Canada’s which grow naturally and

haphazardly.
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 FORM two

Geography

TEACHing
NOTES.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 FORM 2 GEOGRAPHY
INTERNAL LAND FORMING/ENDOGENETIC
PROCESSES
-Processes operating in the interior of the earth resulting in the
formation of

natural physical features or landforms.

They are caused by earth movements.
Examples of these processes are folding, faulting and Vulcanicity.
Formation of land forms by internal land forming processes is
determined by:

Nature and age of earth materials

Type of movement involved
Intensity and scale of movement involved
Crustal Earth Movements
-Displacement of the earth’s crustal rocks.
They are brought about by tectonic forces which originate and
operate in the

interior of the earth e.g. tensional forces (which operate along

horizontal plane

moving away from each other), compressional forces (which

operate along

horizontal plane moving towards each other), shear forces (which

move past

each other with unequal strength) and gravitational forces (which

attracts things

to the earths centre).

Earth movements are of 2 types:

[Link]/lateral/orogenic
movements

[Link]/epeirogenic movements
Horizontal Earth Movements
-Movements which act along a horizontal plane within
crustal rocks.
They are caused by tensional and compressional and
shear forces.
Effects
They cause:

Strain and stretching of crustal rocks due to stretching

caused by
tensional forces which cause formation of cracks or faults.
Squeezing and shortening of crustal by compressional forces rocks
which
cause them which also cause formation of faults.
Crustal rocks to shear by slipping past each other or by
dividing into

layers which is caused by shear forces.

Results of Horizontal Earth Movements
-results in the formation of the following features:
[Link]
[Link]

[Link] valleys
[Link]
[Link] mountains [Link] blocks
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 [Link] mountains

Vertical Earth Movements

-Movements which occur along the earth’s radius or towards the earth’s surface
or towards its centre.

Effects
Causes:
Subsiding/sinking/downwarping or pulling of crustal rocks
downwards.
Uplifting/upwarping or pushing of crustal rocks
upwards

Tilting of crustal rocks or shearing in vertical

direction due to

grater uplift on one side.

Results of Vertical Earth Movements
[Link] cliffs [Link]
[Link] blocks [Link]
[Link] valleys

[Link] scarps/
escarpments
Causes of Earth Movements
(a)Magma movement within the earths crust.
(b)Gravitational force

(c)Convectional currents in the

mantle
(d)Isostatic adjustment

Magma Movement within the Earths

Crust

When magma moves with force pushing

crustal rocks horizontally

or vertically.
When magma moves from reservoir and leaves empty
spaces onto

which crustal rocks are pulled inwards.

Gravitational Force
-When the attractive force of the earth pulls crustal rocks into
empty spaces left

after magma escaping from the reservoir.

Convectional Currents within Mantle

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
-When convectional currents in magma in mantle drug crustal rocks by friction.
Horizontal movement of currents cause horizontal movements while
vertical
cause vertical movements.

Isostatic Adjustment

-Rising of continental masses to restore the upset state of

balance between sial

and sima layers.

-Isostacy is the state of balance between sial and sima layers.
It can be disturbed by erosion on continents and melting of continental ice
sheets.
The reduced weight causes continental masses to rise.
( skip 8 lines for diagaram klb bk 2
pg2 )fig 1.3
Theories Explaining the Earths
Movements

A theory is reasoned ideas intended to explain facts or

ideas.
There are 2 theories which explain the earth’s movements
namely the

Continental Drift Theory and the Plate tectonics theory.

i)Theory of Continental Drift
Its proponent was A. Wegener.
It explains the origin of 6 continents.
It states:
The earth was a single sialic land mass called Pangaea surrounded by a
huge ocean called Panthalasa whose floor was a mass of sima.
Pangaea broke into two parts called Laurasia (N. Hemisphere)
which lay

around equator and Gondwanaland (S. Hemisphere) which lay

around

south pole which were separated by a narrow ocean called

Tethys (the

present Mediterranean Sea).

Laurasia broke into Laurentian Shield and Fennoscandia
(Europe, Asia

and N. America) and moved northwards to their

 present positions.
Gondwanaland broke into Africa, Australia, S. America and Antarctica
and India subcontinent.
Africa and India drifted northwards.
Evidences Supporting the Theory
[Link] of western coast of Africa and S. America into a
jigsaw.

[Link] of coal 40 N and 55 N which was formed by

burying of

tropical vegetation.
[Link] displacement of rocks along some faults e.g. along
the Great Glen Fault of Scotland.
[Link] and Buenos Aires folds resemble one another by having east
west trend.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 [Link] sea shores show evidence of having undergone
lateral
displacement an indication that it was
formed by movement of the
earth’s crust.
[Link] of ancient Glaciation to the south of equator in
Africa in

Madagascar and India where there is presence of

ancient glacial

deposits suggesting these areas were once around

south pole.

ii)Plate Tectonics Theory

It states that:
The earths crust is made of blocks called
plates.

7
Large Ones
 [Link] plate 5.N. American
plate
[Link] plate 6.S. American
plate
[Link] plate [Link]fic plate
[Link] plate
Smaller Ones
[Link]
[Link]
[Link] 7. Nazca
4. Cocos [Link]
[Link] plates [Link]
[Link] de Fuca
These plates are two types : tectonic plates:
[Link] plates which form major areas of the ocean floor
including
coastal lowland.
[Link] plates which form the bulk of the continental land
mass.
The plates float on molten mantle layer called Asthenosphere.
The plates move relative to each other due to convectional currents in
the
mantle.
They move away from each other forming extension or constructive
boundary called so because magma fills the space between.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
They move towards each other forming compressional or destructive
boundary called so because materials between are crushed. The
movements of those two types of plates have the following effects:

[Link] two oceanic plates meet

There is subduction and the ocean floor is pulled inwards

forming a

trench e.g. Java Trench .Subduction is the passing of edge

of one plate

beneath the edge of another.

Sediments on the sea floor in the region of subduction are compressed
to
form Fold Mountains.
[Link] an oceanic plate meets a continental plate the edge
of the

oceanic plate slides beneath the continental plate in a

movement
called subduction.
Sediments on the sea floor in the region of
subduction are

compressed to form Fold

Mountains.
Fold Mountains are also formed at the edge of the
continent
 when the sial layer is
compressed.
The edge of the oceanic plate bends into the mantle forming a
trench.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 [Link] two continental plates collide the sial layer is folded into
mountains.

They move past each other forming transform or conservative

boundary called so because there is neither construction nor
destruction
which occurs where the plates are separated by a major fault.

Significance
of Plate Movements

[Link] sources of earthquakes and

Vulcanicity.
[Link] formation of land forms such as Fold Mountains and
ocean
trenches.
[Link] landscapes formed are a tourist attraction.
[Link] of magma can result in formation of valuable minerals.

FOLDING
-Process in which crustal rocks are distorted by compressional
forces by being
caused to bend upwards and downwards.

It occurs on fairly young sedimentary rocks.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 Parts of a Fold

(a)Anticlines (upfolds)-parts of the earths surface which

bend upwards

when folding occurs.

(b) Synclines (down folds)-Parts of the earths surface
which bend

downwards when folding occurs.

(c)Crest-upper most part of Anticline.
(d)Trough-lowest part of a syncline

(e)Limp-rock layers sloping on both sides of a fold

(f)Axis-imaginary line drawn vertically through the

centre of the
anticline.
Types of Folds

[Link] Symmetrical
Folds

-Which are symmetrical about the anticline.

-Formed by 2 compressional forces of equal magnitude.
[Link] Folds
-Which are asymmetrical about the anticlines axis or in which
one limp is
steeper than the other.
-Formed by two compressional forces of unequal magnitude in
which one is

stronger than the other.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 [Link] Folds

-In which anticline of one fold is pushed over the limp of the other.
[Link] Folds

-Which are packed closely together and with limps almost parallel to each other.
-Vertical Isoclinal folds are formed by compressional forces of equal magnitude
while inclined Isoclinal folds are formed by forces of unequal magnitude.
[Link] Folds

-Which lie in a horizontal manner.

-Formed by two compressional forces one of which is very strong.
[Link]/Overthrust Fold
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
- In which one limp is pushed over the other limp.
-The forces are very strong and they cause a fracture/fault to develop.
7Anticlinorium and Synclinorium Complex

-Folds characterised by minor upfolds and minor downfolds.

Land is first subjected to weak compressional forces resulting into
minor
folds.
Later the land is subjected to much greater compressional
forces resulting

into new upfolds with minor folds (Anticlinorium) and new

down folds

with minor folds (Synclinorium).

Resultant Features Due To Folding
[Link] Mountains and Their Distribution
-Worlds highest and most impressive mountains and the most
conspicuous

feature of folding.
 Himalayas-Asia Rockies-W.N. America
Everest-Nepal-Tibet border- Atlas-N.W. Africa.
highest point. Appalachian-E.N. America
Andes-Peru in S. America
Alps-South Central Europe

Theories of Origin of Fold Mountains

[Link] Theory

During the earth’s formation surface rocks cooled faster and

wrinkled to form
Fold Mountains.
[Link] Currents Theory

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers

available on
[Link]
 Horizontal convectional currents in the mantle exerted frictional pull on
crustal rocks.
Continental crusts were pulled towards each other.
Sediments between them were squeezed into folds.
[Link] Drift Theory

During break of Gondwanaland India drifted northwards and

collided
with Eurasia.
Sediments between were squeezed to form fold mountains e.g.
Himalayas
and Everest.
[Link] Tectonics Theory

When an oceanic plate meets another or it meets a

continental plate the

sediments under the sea are compressed to

form Fold Mountains.
When two continental plates meet the sial layer is compressed to form
fold mountains
-E.g. Alps was formed when Africa plate pushed against the
rigid European

plate.

[Link]

-A relatively continuous line of steep slopes facing the same

direction.

Formed one compressional force causes folding resulting in one

steep limp of

the anticline which forms the escarpment.

[Link]
Formed when not very strong forces cause folding causing some
parts of the

earths surface to form synclines forming basins.

[Link] and Valleys

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
When folding occurs anticlines form uplands/ridges/hills while
synclines form
valleys.
[Link] Plains

-Plains which appear to rise and roll.

-Formed when plains are acted upon by weak compressional
forces resulting

into gently sloping anticlines and very wide synclines.

[Link]-montane Plateaus

-A high fairly level land between mountains.

-Formed when rocks at the edges of a region become intensely
folded and the

middle parts resist folding resulting into mountains which enclose

a high fairly
level land.
[Link]-montane basins
-Formed when some parts of inter-montane plateau sink more to form
basins.
Significance of Folding

To Human Activities/Economic significance

 Positive/advantages

[Link] Mountains are a tourist attraction which brings foreign

exchange.
[Link] Mountains are water catchment areas and sources of rivers.
[Link] fold mountains have valuable mineral deposits such
as coal and

petroleum.
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 [Link] Mountains act as protective barriers during war.
[Link] fold mountains on the path of rain bearing rainfall
influence rainfall

causing the windward slopes to receive heavier

rainfall.
[Link] can lead to formation of valuable minerals due to
metamorphism.
[Link] brings valuable minerals to the surface making them easily
available.
Negative/disadvantages

[Link] Mountains on the path of rain winds cause the leeward

slopes to
receive less rainfall.
[Link] Mountains discourage settlement due to cold
temperatures and

rugged terrain

[Link] can lead to burying of minerals.

[Link] Mountains are a barrier to road and railway where
there are no

passes and where there are passes they may be covered

by snow.

Orographic fog hinders pilot’s visibility.

To Physical Environment

[Link] can result in submerged coastal zones which

are used as
harbours.
[Link] lead to metamorphism of rocks changing their
original state and

making them more resistant to erosion.

[Link] formed by folding turn into wet land important
for water

purification.
[Link] leads to faulting and magma may escape through faults
leading to

Vulcanicity and earth quakes.

FAULTING
Faulting is the cracking/fracturing of the brittle crustal rocks due to tectonic
 forces.
Faults are fractures or cracks that develop in the crust.
When tensional forces cause crustal rocks to stretch and fracture at the
region of maximum tension.
When compressional causes squeezing of crustal rocks to
fracture at the

areas where they are intensely squeezed.

When vertical movements exert pressure on rocks leading to fracturing.
When shear forces cause crustal rocks to tear.
Parts of a Fault

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 [Link]-part of the land displaced upwards.
[Link]-throw-part of the land displaced
downwards.

[Link]-vertical displacement.
[Link]-horizontal displacement

[Link]-inclination of fault to vertical plane

[Link] line-fault path

[Link] plane-separation of land created by

the fault

Types of
Faults
Normal Faults
Type formed by tensional forces in which one block slides downwards in
relation to the other.
Rocks are subjected to tensional forces

A normal fault develops

One block slides downwards.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 Reverse Fault
Type formed by compressional forces in which one block of land
is pushed

upwards in relation to the other.

Rocks are subjected to compressional forces.

A reverse fault develops.

One block is pushed over the other.

Shear/Tear Fault
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 Type formed by shear forces in which adjacent blocks of land slide past one
another. If a shear fault occurs between continents it’s called a Transform fault
e.g. San Andrean fault of California and great glen fault of Scotland.

Thrust Faults

Typeformed when very strong compressional forces cause

almost horizontal

faults to develop and one block of land is pushed over the other.
Anticlinal fault

Typeformed when anticlines are compressed further and cracks form on the
crest.
Features Resulting From Faulting
Fault Scarp/Escarpment

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
Steep line of slopes formed by vertical movement of earth along
a fault e.g.
Mau, Nguruman, Nyandarua and Nandi.
-Are exposed parts of a fault plane.
It may be formed due to normal faulting or reverse faulting when
overhanging
blocks are eroded.
Fault Steps

-Landresembling the staircase or steps of a house with a series of

fault scarps at
different levels.
Parallel vertical faults develop.
Land between the faults is unequally displaced
downwards.

A series of fault scarps at different levels is formed.

-E.g. Keiyo escarpment and at Kijabe.

Fault Blocks/Block/Horst Mountains

Blocksof land raised above the surrounding land.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 Where tectonic forces cause faulting and land on one side of
the fault get
raised or sink along the fault planes.
Examples of fault blocks are Aberdare/Nyandarua ranges, Mau escarpment and
Nandi Hills.
2.

Where Blocksof land bordered by normal faults which are

almost

parallel to each other sink leaving the

middle block standing.
Examples of horsts are Ruwenzori of W. Uganda and Usambara and Pare
mountains of Tanzania.
Tilt Blocks
-Fault blocks which are inclined on one side.
Occurs when the fault block, horst or fault steps have greater
uplift on

one side and as a result they are not flat at the top but tilted.
The resultant

features are tilted fault blocks, tilted horst and tilt fault steps
which form

ridges and fault guided valleys.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 Rift Valley
-Along narrow trough with steep escarpments on
both sides.
Theories of Formation
Tensional Theory
Rocks are subjected to tensional forces.
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
Normal faults which are almost parallel develop.

One block slides downwards forming the rift valley.

Compressional Theory
Rocks are subjected to compressional forces.

Reverse fault which are almost parallel develop.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 The side blocks are pushed over the middle block.

Overhanging blocks are worn out by denudation to form escarpments

Anticlinal Theory

Suggests the rift valley was formed by Anticlinal arching.

Upward forces pushed sedimentary rock strata upwards.
The rock layers bent into a big arch.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 A gaping/huge crack developed at the crest of the arch due
to tension
forming the rift valley.
The Great Rift Valley/The Great E.A
Rift Valley

-The world’s biggest rift valley.

It starts in Syria and ends in Mozambique.
It’s divided into 4 parts.
[Link] Rift system-starts from Afar in Ethiopia to the
Kenyan border

around L. Stephanie.
[Link] Rift system-Starts from the northern border of Kenya
with

Ethiopia to Tanzania. It has a small N.E-S.W

branches:

Kano Rift valley in Kenya

L. Eyasi Rift Valley in Tanzania

[Link] Rift valley-Starts at Sudan border to south of L. Rukwa.

Features

which are here are Ruwenzori Mountain and Lakes

Albert, Edward, Kivu,

Tanganyika and Rukwa.

[Link] Rift valley-a continuation of Gregory Rift system to
Zambezi

River in Mozambique. It has a small N.E-S.W branch called

Luangwa

valley.
The Gregory Rift Valley

-Named after a geologist called Gregory J.W who carried out

extensive studies
in this area.
It’s where the Rift Valley features are more pronounced.
Features associated with it
Fault blocks-Aberdare range, Mau, Nandi and Cherangani hills.
Step faults-Kijabe and Tambach
 Tilt blocks-Aberdare range uplifted and tilted eastwards
and Mau

escarpment uplifted and tilted westwards.

Lava flows and volcanic cones e.g. Menengai and Ngorongoro
crater.

Rift Valley lakes formed when unequal sinking created faults

which were

later filled with water. The lakes are deep and

elongated. Examples are

Lakes Naivasha, Nakuru, Elementaita, Baringo,

Bogoria, Ol Bolossat and

Turkana. Most of the lakes are salty with

exception of L. Naivasha which
has fresh water.
Why Most Rift Valley
Lakes Are Salty

(a)Lack of outlets to drain away salts contained

in them.
(b)Lack of enough water to dilute salinity due to little rainfall
and lack of

rivers flowing in them.

(c)High rates of evaporation causing increased accumulation of salts.
(d)Lake’s water being in contact with rocks with mineral
salts which it

directly dissolves.
(e)Washing into the lake of mineral rich soils by surface runoff.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 Why L. Naivasha Has
Fresh Water
(a)It has underground drainage to the Indian
Ocean.
(b)There is inflow of fresh water from rivers and rain.
(c)The latest volcanic eruption covered the bed rock with lava.
Major Faulted Areas of the
World

(a)The Great Rift Valley from Syria to

Mozambique.

(b)Northern England and the Great Glen Fault of

Scotland.

(c)The Central Massif of Europe.

(d)The middle Rhine Rift Valley region.
Significance of Faulting
To Human Activities
[Link] valley lakes are important for fishing, irrigation and
domestic use.

[Link] Rift Valley and associated features are a tourist attraction

which earns

foreign exchange.
[Link] springs and geysers formed during faulting can be
harnessed for

geothermal power.
[Link] Mountains are water catchment areas and sources of rivers due to
the
heavy rainfall they receive on the windward side.
[Link] results in the exposure of minerals such as diatomite
in Gilgil and

Fluorspar in Kerio Valley.

[Link] scarps may expose underground water resulting in the
formation of

scarp springs.
[Link] subsidence caused by faulting may cause formation of
depressions

which may form lakes which useful for fishing, transport and
mining e.g. L.
Naivasha.
 Negative
[Link] disrupts transport and communication by disjointing land.
[Link] may lead to loss of life and property by causing land to
sink.

[Link] may cause a river to disappear or change its course and

flow along
the fault line.
[Link] scarp slopes formed by faulting are prone to soil erosion.
[Link] has given rise to semi-desert conditions in some areas
when Block

Mountains on the path of rain winds cause leeward sides to

receive little
rainfall.
VULCANICITY
-Process in which solid, liquid or gaseous materials are forced out of the interior
of the earth into the earth’s crust or onto the earth’s surface.
These materials are magma, lava, gases, dust, ash
and cinder.

Causes of
Vulcanicity
Magma under high temperature and pressure moving through lines of
weakness or faults.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 When tectonic plates move away from each other and boundaries give
way to magma.
Underground water coming into contact with hot
materials hence

changing into gaseous form.

There are 2 types of Vulcanicity:
Extrusive Vulcanicity (volcanic): in which materials intrude crustal
rocks and

don’t reach the earth’s surface. Magma is the molten material while
it’s
underground.
Intrusive Vulcanicity (plutonic): in which materials reach the earth’s surface.
Lava is the molten material after it reaches the surface.
There are two types of lava and magma, acidic and basic. Acidic
lava is viscous

and solidifies quickly and doesn’t spread far but accumulates

around the vent.
Basic lava is more fluid or less viscous and takes longer before
cooling and

spreads for great distances before doing so. Other materials

emitted are gases,
ashes, dust and cinder. The solid materials are called pyroclasts. Materials
come out through a hole/vent (vent eruption) or crack/
fissure (fissure

eruption).
Features Resulting From Vulcanicity
-Divided into intrusive and extrusive features or landforms.
Intrusive/Plutonic Features

-Features formed by intrusive Vulcanicity when materials intrude the earth’s

crust.
Sill
-An igneous intrusion which lies along a bending plane of rock
strata.

-Formed when magma forces its way between rock layers

then cools and
solidifies.
-It forms ridge like escarpments when exposed by erosion e.g.
Fouta Djalon

highland of Guinea and 3 sisters of S. Africa.

Dyke

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
-A wall-like igneous intrusion which lies across the bedding plane of
rock strata.
-Formed when magma intrudes cracks or faults cutting across
bedding planes of
rocks then cools and solidifies.
-Can be vertical or inclined.
When exposed it forms ridges e.g. Kaap Valley in Transvaal S.
Africa and Jos

Plateau in Nigeria.
Laccolith
-Amushroom-shaped igneous intrusion lying between bending
planes of a

country rock.
-Formed when viscous magma pushes its way through a vent and
accumulates

around the vent before reaching the earth’s surface pushing the
overlying rock

into a dome shape.

-Its so high that land is turned into mountains e.g. El Koub Hill
in Algeria,

Henry Mountains in Utah U.S.A and Fonjay Massif in

Madagascar.
Batholiths
-Largest igneous intrusion formed underground formed when very
hot magma

intrudes bedding planes of rocks and replaces or metamorphoses

it e.g. Chaila

Massif in Gabon, Ikhonga-Murwe in Kakamega and the largest is

in British
Columbia.
Lopolith
-a large saucer shaped igneous intrusion formed when viscous
magma intrudes

into bedding planes of a country rock. They form shallow

depressions on the

earths surface of the earth e.g. Bushveld complex in S. Africa and

Duluth
Gabbro mass in U.S.A.
 Phacolith

-A lens shaped igneous intrusion which forms in the crest or

trough of an

anticline e.g. Corndon Hill in England.

Extrusive/Volcanic Features
-Formed when magma reaches the earth’s surface through vents or
fissures.
Volcanoes
A volcano is a cone shaped hill formed when volcanic materials
flow out and

accumulate around a vent. Volcanoes are classified into three

groups:

[Link] volcano- which is known to have erupted in

recent times e.g. OL

donyo Lengai in Tanzania and Mt. Cameroon, and

Mauna Loa in Hawaii.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 [Link] volcano-not known to have erupted in the recent
past but show

signs of volcanic activity such as presence of hot springs,

geysers and

fumaroles e.g. Mt. Kilimanjaro, Longonot and Menengai.

[Link] volcano-which has not shown signs of possible future
eruptions

e.g. Mountains Kenya and Elgon.

Types of Volcanoes
Acidic Lava Domes

-A steep dome shaped volcanic hill made of

acidic lava.

Viscous lava flows out through a

vent.
It accumulates around the vent because it’s viscous.
Eruptions occur later and lava flows out covering the layers
below.

A steep sided dome shaped mound of volcano is formed e.g.

Itasy Massif

of Madagascar, Mt. Kenya and Kilimanjaro.

Characteristics
(a)Its dome-
shaped

(b)Has steep
slopes
(c)Made of acidic lava
(d)Has lava layers

(e)Has steep
slopes
 (f)Has a narrow base
Basic Lava Domes/Shield
Volcanoes

-A low lying volcanic hill made of basic lava.

Basic magma flows out to the surface through
a vent.

The lava flows far before solidifying because its

fluid.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 Eruptions occur later and lava spreads over the old lava.
A shield shaped mound of volcano is formed e.g. Canary Islands, Cape
Verde and Sao Tome which are volcanic Islands in the Indian Ocean.
Characteristics
(a)Dome/shield
shaped

(b)Has gentle slopes

(c)Made of basic lava
(d)Has lava layers
(e)Has a broad base
Ash and Cinder
Cones

A volcano built from ash and cinder or small fragments of lava.

Violent vent eruption occurs.
Ash and pyroclasts are emitted and thrown high.
Some materials fall and settle around the vent forming a hill.
Light materials are blown by wind to the leeward side e.g.
Chyulu Hills,

Teleki and Likaiyu near L. Turkana.

Characteristics
(a)Made of pyroclasts

(b)Asymmetrical about the axis

(c)Cone shaped

(d)Has smooth slopes

(e)Has steep windward slope and gentle

leeward slope

Composite /Complex/Stratified Volcanoes

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
A volcano made of alternating layers of lava and pyroclasts
and conelets.
The first eruption throws out pyroclasts.
Then viscous lava flows out and solidifies on them.
Eruption occurs later blowing the rocks sealing the vent.
The pieces of rock settle on earlier solidified lava.
Another mass of lava flows out and spreads over pyroclasts and
solidifies.
The process is repeated causing the volcano to build
upwards

The conelets are formed when magma is unable to

overcome the

plug and finds its way through weak

lines at the sides and then

pyroclasts and lava accumulate around

the side vent e.g. Mountains

Kenya, Longonot, Elgon and Kilimanjaro.

Characteristics
(a)Cone shaped

(b)Stratified (made of alternating layers of lava and

pyroclasts.

(c)It has conelets

(parasitic cones).
(d)It has steep slopes.
(e)Made of acidic lava

Plug Dome/volcano/Spine

-A column of very viscous lava which sticks above the ground.

A column of very viscous magma flows out of the ground.
It cools and hardens rapidly as it rises vertically.
Pieces of rock break from the plug and accumulate on the sides
e.g. Mont

Pelee in West Indies, Hyrax and Fischer’s Tower at

Hells gate in
Naivasha and Devils Tower in U.S.A.
Characteristics
(a)Made of very viscous lava.
(b)It is dome shaped like a mushroom germinating out of the ground.
(c)Has debris on its sides.
(d)Has very steep
sides

(e)Cylindrical in
shape
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 (f)Disintegrates fast due to rocks undergoing rapid
cooling.
Volcanic Plug

-Stump of rock formed when magma which solidified inside a

vent (plug) is

exposed by denudation.
A volcano is first formed.
Lava on the sides of the volcano is eroded fast due to cooling fast.
The lava in the vent which is hard due to slow cooling is
exposed forming

a stump of rock e.g. Peaks of Mt. Kenya, Rangwa

Hill and Tororo Rock.
Characteristics
(a)It resembles a stump of a tree.
(b)Its dome shaped.
(c)Very steep at the top and less steep at the bottom
(d)Made of hard/resistant rock
Lava Plains and Plateaus

Lava plain: fairly level lowland below 500m above sea level
covered by thin

lava layers.
Lava plateau: fairly level highland/upland above 500m above sea
level covered
 by thick layers.
-Formed by fissure eruption.
Magma of low viscosity comes out of the ground through
a fissure.

It flows for a long distance before cooling and solidifying

filling

depressions and valleys forming a plain.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
Eruption occurs later and lava flows out through lines of weakness on
crustal rock and solidified lava.
The new lava spreads on top of the old lava forming a new
layer.

The process is repeated and a plateau is formed e.g. Mwea,

Nandi and

Laikipia Plains and Yatta and Uasin Gishu

Plateaus.
Craters
-A funnel shaped depression found on top of a volcano.
Modes of Formation
Cooling and
Contraction of Magma

Eruption occurs and a volcano is formed.

Magma in the vent cools and contracts.
It withdraws into the vent leaving a depression at the vents
mouth e.g.

Ngorongoro and Menengai craters.

Rain water or water from melting snow may collect into
craters to form

crater lakes e.g. L. Paradise on Mt. Marsabit, L. Magadi on

Ngorongoro

Crater and L. Chala on Kenyan Tanzanian border.

Explosion

Gases underground expand due to heat from

magma.
They force their way out through a weak line in the crustal rocks.
An explosion occurs leaving a hole in the ground called a ring crater e.g.
Ghama and Dobot craters in Tanzania and Hora craters inEthiopia.
Water from underground or rivers may accumulate into ring
craters to

form lakes called maars e.g. Lakes Katwe and Nyungu in

Uganda.

Falling of a Meteorite
A meteorite falls on the earth’s surface.
 It sinks into the rocks leaving a depression.
Water may collect into the depression forming a lake e.g. L. Bosumtwi in
Ghana.
Calderas/Basal Wreck
-A very large basin-shaped depression on the summit of a volcano.
Modes of Formation

Violent Explosion

Gases and water heated by magma

expand.
They force their way through a vent.
The rocks at the top of the volcano are blown off forming
a large

depression e.g. Nyirarongo Caldera in DRC and Sabiro

Caldera in

Uganda.
Block Subsidence/Cauldron

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

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 Eruption occurs to form a volcano.
An empty space (cauldron) is left in the magma reservoir in the mantle.
The rocks forming the middle of volcano are pulled inwards by
gravity.

The middle of the volcano collapses forming a large depression

at the top

e.g. Menengai Caldera near Nakuru and

Ngorongoro caldera which is the

largest in E. Africa and 6th largest in the world.

Water from rain or underground may fill calderas to form
lakes e.g. L.

Magadi in the Ngorongoro caldera and L. Ngozi

in Tanzania.

Outward Collapsing

Ash and pyroclasts volcano grows high.

Materials on top exert pressure on those below.
Materials at the base begin to spread outwards.
The top of volcano collapses inwards forming a collapse
caldera e.g.

Napak Caldera in Uganda.

-A vent in a volcano which emits gases.

Fumaroles
The gases come from chemical reactions in crustal rocks when
heated by

magma or when minerals in rocks come into contact with hot

air and steam

underground.
They are of two types:
Mofette: fumarole which emits carbon dioxide.
Solfatara: fumarole which emits gases with sulphurous compounds.
Hot Springs and Geysers

Hot spring is a place where hot water is emitted from the ground
quietly e.g. at

the shores of Lakes Magadi and Bogoria.

A geyser is a jet of water and steam which are violently ejected
from the ground

e.g. at Olkaria and western shores of L. Bogoria.

How They Are
Formed

Percolating water is heated by hot rocks or

magma.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

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 Some collect into chambers called sumps where it
develops pressure
causing it to be superheated super heated.
The pressure forces the steam outwards towards the
earths surface

through holes and cracks in rocks.

The steam comes out of the ground which reduces pressure
in sumps

causing the water to expand/boil and come to

the surface.
The steam comes out with a whistling sound
accompanied by water

forming a geyser.
The escaping steam heats ground water in surrounding rock.
The heated water may find its way to the surface where it
quietly comes

out of the ground forming a hot spring.

Differences
Hot spring Geyser
-Water comes out quietly. -Water and steam come out
violently.
-only water comes out. -water is accompanied by
-water may just be warm. steam. -water is very hot.
Pools of
Boiling Water

-Small area of still water which appears to

be boiling.
Actual heating of pool water by gases and steam causing the water to
boil.
Gases and steam coming out below the pool of water causing
the pool to

bubble and appear as if it’s boiling.

World Distribution of Volcanoes
(a)Regions of faulting e.g. the Great Rift Valley of E.
Africa.

(b)Mid-Atlantic ocean ridge.

(c)The western coast of America.
(d)Zones of recent mountain building e.g. fold mountains of
S.E Asia.

Significance of Vulcanicity
Positive
(a)Volcanic rocks weather to form fertile agriculturally productive soils e.g.
basalt.
(b)Geysers are sources of geothermal electricity e.g. at Olkaria.
(c)Hot springs water is pumped into houses for heating during winter e.g.
Iceland.
(d)Volcanic features are a tourist attraction e.g. hot springs,
geysers and snow

capped Mt. Kenya.

(e)Igneous rocks e.g. phonolites are crushed to make ballast for
building roads,

bridges, etc.
(f)Crater lakes are a source of fish e.g. L. Katwe in Uganda,
sources of

minerals e.g. L. Magadi and sources of water for

domestic use.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

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 (g)Volcanic mountains are catchment areas, sources of rivers and habitats
for
wildlife.
(h)Pumice a volcanic rock is used as a scrubbing stone.
(i)Vulcanicity is useful for production of gases e.g. carbon dioxide used in soft
drinks manufacture.
Negative

(a)Volcanic eruptions cause of life and destruction of property

e.g. sulphur

dioxide, ash, cinder and lava may bury houses and

farm land.
(b)Volcanic mountains are barrier to transport and communication.
(c)Volcanic mountains on the path of rain winds cause leeward
slopes to

receive little rainfall by preventing rain bearing winds

from reaching there.

(d)Volcanic eruptions cause environmental pollution from dust, ash

and sulphur
dioxide.
EARTH QUAKES

-Sudden and rapid movement of the earths crust.

-areas prone to them are called seismic zones and those not prone are
called
aseismic zones.
It’s caused by shock waves.
There are 3 types of earthquake waves namely:

[Link] waves-which travel fastest and cause

the rock particles to

vibrate in a push and pull manner and can

pass through gases,

liquids and solids.

 [Link] waves-which cause rock particles to
vibrate at right

angles to the direction of wave

movement.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 [Link] longitudinal waves-which cause surface rocks
to shake
sometimes causing buildings to
collapse.
[Link] waves-Which cause surface rocks to
move in

elliptical orbits.

[Link] waves-which cause rock particles to move

in a

horizontal manner at
right angle to the direction of wave.

Earth quake originates from a point known as seismic focus/origin.

The part of the earth vertically above the seismic focus and
where the shock

waves are first experienced is called epicentre.

Causes of Earthquakes
Natural Causes
(a)Tectonic movements e.g. movement of tectonic plates. They
cause tectonic

earthquakes.
(b)Vulcanicity when magma movement displaces rocks suddenly
shaking and

shuttering them.
(c)Gravitative force when crustal rocks collapse into cauldron due to gravity.
(d)Energy release in the mantle when radioactivity takes
place in mantle

releasing explosive energy which sends shock

waves outwards.
(e)Isostatic adjustment when the continental masses rise to
restore the upset

state of balance between sial and sima layers.

 Human Causes
(a)Exploding nuclear bombs underground which causes shock
waves which

spread outwards and are felt in the neighbourhood.

(b)When a train rolls on its rails causing the ground to vibrate.
(c)Explosion of explosives used in mining and quarrying
which cause

vibrations to be felt in the neighbourhood.

(d)When large reservoirs are constructed and the heavy
weight of water

reactivate dormant faults causing tremors.

Measurement of Earthquakes

Seismograph is a pendulum based instrument used to measure

earthquakes.

It records seismic impulses on a graph-like record called

seismogram mounted
on it.
Earthquakes are measured by their intensity and
magnitude.

Intensity
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
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-Measure of how strong/hard the quake shakes the ground.
It’s seen from the effects the earthquake has on people, buildings and other
structures.
It’s measured on the Mercalli Scale which uses a scale running
from Roman i-

xiii e.g.
I- description -imperceptible

V-rather strong-sleepers are awakened and there is swinging

of objects.

VIII-destructive-gaping cracks in walls some brought down.

XII- major catastrophe-every building destroyed.
Magnitude

-Measure of amount of energy given off by an

earthquake.
It’s measured on Ritcher Scale which ranges from 0-8.9.
Intensity values depend on how far a place is from epicentre.
The higher the scale the more severe the earthquake is.
Intensity I-magnitude 2

Intensity VIII-magnitude 6

Intensity XII-magnitude
8.5.
World Distribution of
Earthquakes

(a)Within the zones of major faulting e.g. Rift

Valley.
(b)In areas of Vulcanicity e.g. Oldonyo Lengai in Tanzania.
(c)Along boundaries of tectonic plates e.g. Japan, Philippines, East Indies
and
west coast of north and South America.
Effects of Earthquakes

(a)Can cause loss of life and property when buildings collapse

burying people.

(b)Disrupt transport and communication by vertically and laterally

displacing

land which disconnects pipelines, electricity lines, roads

and railways.
 (c)Causes landslides which also cause loss of life and property and disrupts
communication.
(d)Causes raising and lowering of the sea floor and the coastal
regions.

(e)Cause huge sea waves called Tsunami which may flood the
neighbouring
coastal areas.
(f)Trigger folding, Vulcanicity and fires.
(g)Give off a lot of explosive energy more than an
atomic bomb.

(h)Cause fear and panic.

(i)Hinder settlement as it is restricted to
aseismic areas.

(j)Cause violent motions of the earth’s surface.

MAP WORK
Map - representation of the whole or part of the earth’s surface drawn to scale.
Shows outline of objects on the ground

Drawn as if the drawer was above the

ground
It shows details

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 Most of the features are
indicated by symbols.
Picture: image of a real object.
Gives details in their visible shapes and sizes
Can be inform of free hand, drawing, painting or a photograph
Not drawn to scale
Plan: outline of something drawn to scale.
Also drawn as if a person was directly above the ground
It represents a very small place

The scale is large to show details e.g.

house plan
Gives specific information

Types of Maps

Classified according to the purpose for which each map

is drawn.
Topographical Maps: This shows selected natural physical
features on a small

portion of a country.
Atlas maps: this is a collection of maps in one volume.
Sketch maps: maps which are roughly drawn. A good sketch map
should have

the following characteristics:

[Link] and clear
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]

[Link] direction

Uses of Maps

[Link] maps are used to summarise information for easy

reference.

[Link] for locating other countries.

[Link] for comparing sizes of countries.
[Link] locating climatic regions of different parts of the world.
[Link] information on distribution of geographical
phenomena e.g.

vegetation on the earth’s surface.

 [Link] travellers to find their way.
[Link] to calculate distance of a certain place.
[Link] to locate physical features like landforms.
Marginal Information
Information contained in the area surrounding
the map.

[Link] name e.g. Yimbo.

[Link] title e.g. East Africa 1:50000 (Kenya).
[Link] system numbers

[Link] and longitudes

[Link] direction with grid, true and

magnetic north.
[Link]
[Link]

[Link] and
copyright
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 [Link]
identification

Map series
Sheet number or sheet index
Map Scales

A scale is a ratio of a distance on a map to a corresponding

distance on the

ground.
Types of Scales

Statement scale –expressed in words e.g. 1cm represents 1km,

1cm to 1km.

Representative Fraction (RF)-expressed as a fraction or ratio

e.g. 1/200,000
or 1:200,000.
Linear scale-shown by a line which is subdivided into smaller units.
Conversion of Scales
Statement scale into
RF
1cm rep 1km to RF

Multiply the number of kilometres by 100,000

(1km=100,000cm) i.e.

1×100000=100,000.
Statement scale is 1/100,000 or 1:100,000.
2cm rep 1km

Divide both sides by two to get

1cm rep ½ kilometres.
Multiply ½ by 100,000 to get 50,000.
RF is 1/50,000 or 1:50,000.
RF to Statement Scale
Divide the denominator by 100,000.
Write the scale in statement
form.
Linear Scale to Statement
Scale
Measure a unit distance off a linear scale e.g.
 The distance is 4-3=1km which is represented by 2cm.
Use the methods in (1) and (2) above.
Q. Given that the ground distance is 200km while the distance on map is 20cm
calculate the scale.

Sizes
of Scales
[Link] scales- show a large area of land on a small size of
paper. They

show limited details e.g. 1:250,000,

1:500,000, 1:1,000,000.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 [Link] scales- used to represent a relatively smaller area
on a given
size of paper e.g. 1:50,000, 1:100,000,
1:125,000.
[Link] scales-used to represent a small area of land on a
given piece of

paper. They show a lot of details e.g. 1:2,500,

1:10,000, 1:25000

Arranging Scales in Order

Ascending Order-smallest to
largest

Descending Order-largest to
smallest

(1)1/500,000

(3)1:25,000

(4)1/10,000

(2)1cm rep 500m

Uses of Scales
[Link] distances on maps

[Link] distances accurately-use dividers and ruler, piece

of string or

thread for curved distances or straight edge of

paper.
E.g. calculate actual distance of a line 8.5cm long on a
map using the

following scales.
(i) 2cm rep 1km

(ii) 1:100,000

[Link] of areas-no. of full grid squares+ number of ½grid

squares/2

or use of rectangles (l×b) or triangles (½ b×h).

Direction
-Course upon which something is pointing to.
 Methods of
Showing Direction
Traditional Methods
1. Use of Stars

-E.g. use of groups of stars called plough to find northern direction

by locating

the pole star and use of Southern Cross by using the brightest star
which is over
South Pole to find northern direction.
2. Use of Shadows
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 -E.g. morning, shadow of flag pole cast to your left you are facing north, etc.
3. Land Marks
-Using conspicuous features such as hills, buildings even roads to get direction.
Modern Methods
[Link] Marks
[Link] Direction.
-Use of magnetic compass which has a needle which always
points north.

It has 16 cardinal points and 4 are basic.

Bearing
-Expression of direction in degrees of an angle.
It’s measured from north in a clockwise direction.
Calculation of Bearing

Draw N-S line through observation point.

Join the two points. If it’s a feature the line should end at the centre of
that
feature.
Using a protractor measure the angle between the N-S line
and the line

joining the 2 points in a

clockwise direction.
Bearing is expressed in degrees, minutes and seconds.
1 =60’(min), 1
 min=60” (sec)

The degrees are always expressed in

3 figures e.g. 030

Types of Norths
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 1. True North
-Position on the globe where all longitudes meet or the direction of N. Pole.
2. Grid North
-Point where Eastings meet at the N. Pole.
3. Magnetic North

-Point which the magnetic needle rests when left to

swing freely.
Types of Bearing

1. Grid Bearing

-Bearing calculated from Grid North.

Join the two points on the topographical map using a line.
Measure the angle where the Eastings intersect the line
joining the two

points e.g. 030 .

2. True Bearing

-Bearing calculated from True North. Its calculated when the type
of bearing

isn’t specified.
 -E.g. from our compass diagram true bearing will be
30 -1’=29 59’

3. Magnetic Bearing

-Bearing calculated from Magnetic North.

Position of Magnetic North changes slightly every year.
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 Steps

Years which have elapsed × Annual change. (No need if annual

change is

negligible). E.g. from our compass diagram

annual change =(2009-

1991)×4.8’=18×4.8’’=86.4’’=1 26.4’

Add to the angle between the grid and

magnetic bearing 1.e.
1 26.4’+2 30’=3 56.4’

Add to the Grid bearing (if change is towards E) or Subtract (if

change is

towards W). 30 +3 56.4’=33 56.4’

Location of Places
-Showing of position of a place or feature on a topographical map.
Methods
Use of Place Names
-Locating a feature by using the name of the place it’s at e.g. a river
in Kisumu,

Nakuru, etc or if it isn’t at a named place locate by the nearest

name place e.g. a
meander near Garissa town.
Use of Direction, Bearing
and Distance

This is from a stated position e.g. Locate Nakuru

from Nairobi.
Nakuru is 157km N.W of Nairobi.
Latitudes and
Longitudes

The main longitudes are I.D.L and Greenwich /Prime

Meridian.
The main lines of latitudes:
The equator/Great Circle (0 ) which is the longest.
Tropic of Cancer (23½ N) of equator.
Tropic of Capricorn (23½ ) south of equator.
The Arctic Circle (66½ N).
Antarctic Circle (66 ½ S).
They are marked at the margins. Latitude is stated first (N or S)
and longitude

later (E or W) e.g. X N Y E

Identify a place.
Identify the nearest numbered latitude and longitude.
Estimate to the nearest 1 .
Grid Reference
Grid lines: network of lines on topographical maps.
-Numbered in small and large numbers and the large ones are used.
Eastings: N-S grid lines called so because they are numbered
eastwards.

Northings: W-E grid lines called so because they are numbered

northwards.

Grid reference is given in 4 figures or six figures. In 4 figure the

nearest grid

line is stated while the 6 figure is estimated in fractions by

dividing the space

between grid line into 10 equal parts.

Easting is stated first followed by northing.
In the example below the 4 figure grid references are:
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 A-6856
B-6856
C-6857
6 figure grid references are:
A-675555

B-680560

C-682568

Methods of Representing Relief on

Topographical maps

Relief is the nature of landscape e.g. plain, plateau, valleys,

hills, etc.
Spot Heights

-Points on map whose positions and heights have been determined

by surveyors.

They are shown by a dot and a figure e.g. (.1827).

Advantage-show actual heights

Disadvantage-can’t be used to identify

landforms.
Trigonometrical Stations/Points
-Carefully chosen points carefully chosen and their altitude
determined which --

-Are used as a basis for surveying an area.

They are marked on the ground by concrete pillar or slab.
They are indicated on topographical maps by:

Isohypes/Contours and Form Lines

A contour is a line on a map joining all points of the same height

above sea

level. They are browner in colour and have heights written on

them.
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
Form lines are lines drawn on a map joining places of
approximately the same
height above sea level. They are less brown than contours and not
all have
values written on them.
Both contours and form lines are referred to as contours.

Contour/Vertical interval is the difference in height between any two

successive contours.
Advantages of contours:

They show
actual heights.
Can be used to identify land forms.
Pictorials
-Showing relief by drawing landforms at approximate positions
where they are

found e.g. mountains, hills, valleys, etc.

Disadvantages:
They obscure details behind
them.

Don’t give height above sea

level.
Limited variety of landforms can be accommodated.
Hachures

-Short lines drawn to represent direction of slope.

On steep land they are thick and close together.
On gentle slopes they are thin and wide apart.
Their disadvantage is that they can’t be drawn on flat land.
 Hill Shading

-Showing relief by shading to show shadows where by steepest

slopes which

are list lit have darker shade while hill tops, surfaces of plateaus
and plains and

valley bottoms are well lit have lighter shade.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 Layer Tinting
-Colouring or shading land within a certain range of altitude or
using a single
colour with varying tones where the colour gets darker with increasing altitude.
PHOTOGRAPH WORK
A photograph is an image of an object, person or scene recorded by
a camera on

a light sensitive film or paper.

Types of Photographs

1. Ground Photographs
-Taken from the ground. They are of 2 types:
Ground Horizontals- taken with the camera at the same level as the
object. They are of 2 types.
Ground close ups/particular view photographs-taken
from the

ground with a camera focused

on one particular object.
Ground General View Photographs-taken from the
ground with

camera focused on general

scenery.
Ground Obliques-taken from the ground with a camera
slanting/held

at an angle.
2. Aerial Photographs

-Taken from the air e.g. from aircrafts, balloons or satellites.

They are of 2
types:
Aerial Obliques-taken from the air with camera tilted towards the
ground.
Vertical Aerial Photographs-taken from the air with the
camera directly

above the object or scenery.

Parts of a Photograph
Left back Centre Right
ground background
background
 Left middle Centre middle Left middle
ground ground ground
Left Centre Right
foreground foreground foreground
Uses of Photographs

Used in learning geography because they bring unfamiliar

features in the
classroom enabling the students to understand them better.
Photographs showing vegetation and human activities can be used to
deduce
the climate of an area.
Aerial photographs show vital information on land use.
Photographs showing land forming processes help us to understand those
processes.
Limitations in the Use
of Photographs

Coloured photographs are generally expensive to

produce.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 Black and white photographs don’t show the real colours of
objects or
scenery e.g. it’s difficult to distinguish ripe
coffee berries from green
ones.
Some aerial photographs have objects which are far away and
hence unclear

which may lead to the wrong interpretation.

Vertical aerial photographs are difficult to interpret
without special

instruments like stereoscopes.

Photographs are difficult to interpret if they are brulled because
it’s difficult

to distinguish objects which look similar e.g.

wheat and barley.
Interpretation of Photographs

-Means to explain the meaning of the objects or features on a

photograph. It

involves the following:

Determining the Title

Photographs show human activities, physical features, natural
catastrophes etc

e.g. nomadic pastoralism, drought, flooding, etc. when determining

the title

examine the photograph carefully and apply the knowledge you

have learnt in

geography.
Estimating Time

-In the tropics the shadows are short at noon and longest in the
morning and
afternoon.
If the camera is facing south and the shadow is cast to the
right it’s in the

morning and if cast to the left it’s in the afternoon.

Estimating
 Season

Dry season
Bright clear skies

Dry vegetation

harvesting

Light clothes e.g. shirts and T-shirts since temperature is

high (also an

indication of high
temperature.
Rainy season
Rain clouds
Luxuriant vegetation
Young crops

Flowering plants

Weeding

Heavy clothing e.g. pullovers or jackets since temps are

low (also an

indication of cool
season).
Determining Compass Direction

It it’s in the morning and the shadow of flag pole is cast to

the left the

photographer is facing north and if cast to the right he was

facing south.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
It it’s in the morning and the shadow is facing towards you the
photographer

was facing east and it taken in the afternoon and the shadow is
facing towards

you the photographer was facing west.

Interpretation of Physical Features on Photographs
Relief
Flat land
Rice crop

Irrigation
Combine harvesters
Swamps
Meanders
Oxbow lakes

Inselbergs (isolated hills)

Hilly/Mountainous landscape/Highland
Area

Steep slopes

Terraced landscape

Tea, wheat
crops which grow at high altitude

rapids
Water falls
Interlocking spurs
Drainage
Youthful
Stage

Rapids
Waterfalls
Interlocking
spurs
 Middle Stage
meanders
oxbow lakes
Lower Stage
deltas
distributaries
meanders and oxbow lakes
flood plain
Vegetation
Natural
Indigenous species

Dense undergrowth

Trees grow haphazardly

Different species of
trees

Not of the same height

Planted
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
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 Exotic species
In rows
Little undergrowth

Same species

Same heights

Tropical Rain Forests

Trees

Broad leaves
Umbrella shaped
Marshes

swamps
Savannah
Grassland
Grass and short trees
(woodland).

Desert Vegetation

Thorny leaves
Baobab and acacia
Scrub-land covered with shrubs and underdeveloped trees (shrubs).

Climate
High Temperatures and low
rainfall

Sugar cane
Grass

Sisal
Scrub and bush land vegetation
Dense forests
Light clothes
 Cool Temperature and High rainfall (Sufficient, Reliable and
well

distributed)
Tea

Coffee

Wheat
Dairy
farming

Soils
Acidic and Volcanic
Soils

Coffee

Tea
Clay Soils
Rice

Black Cotton Soils

Cotton

Rice

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 Loamy Soil

Horticultural crops

Human Activities and

evidence
Settlement
-Group of dwellings where people live.
Rural Settlements
Semi permanent houses

Farming or fishing
activity
Uneven distribution of settlements
Presence of villages
Urban Settlements

Permanent buildings

Storied buildings

Heavy traffic presence

Regular street patterns

 Agriculture/Farming

Subsistence Farming

Temporary and permanent

houses

Small pieces of land

Mixed cropping

Simple implements
Local and exotic breeds of livestock
Crop
farming

Crops

People preparing land or weeding or

Harvesting

Commercial
Crop Farming

cash crops
 machinery
feeder routes
processing
factories

Plantation
Farming

Single crop on extensive piece of land e.g. tea,

coffee, etc.
Many labourers
Nucleated settlement within farms
Livestock Rearing
Nomadic Pastoralism
Cattle grazing in a grassland or semi-arid
region

Daily
Farming

Zero
grazing

Cattle
with big udders

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

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 Ranching
Paddocks
Wind mills
Mining

Quarry

Large open pits

Large excavators

Lorries carrying loads of

rocks

Industrial Manufacturing

Buildings with large

chimneys

People engaged in a processing activity such as Jua kali

artisans.

Lumbering

People cutting trees using power

saws

People loading timber into lorries

Logs pilled near a saw mill

Forests with stumps

Logs floating on a river

Transport
 Motor transport
Vehicles on roads
Railway Transport

Railway line
Trains

Air Transport

Flat tarmacked piece of

land
Aircraft
Water Transport
Boats
Ships
Ferries
Communication
Telephone lines

Telephone
booths
Post office
Satellite masts
T.V and radio stations
Sketching Diagrams from Photographs
Draw a rectangle the same size as the photograph.
Divide it into squares using faint
lines.

Subdivide the photograph into 9

sections.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 Insert the features in their exact positions using simple lines
being guided
by the squares.
Label the important features e.g. vegetation, land use,
prominent

buildings, transport, and communication.

Give the sketch a suitable title.
Graphs

-2 dimensional drawings which show relationships between 2

types of data

representing two items also called variables. These are

dependent variable

which is affected by the other e.g. temperature (on y axis) and

independent

variable whose change is not affected by the other e.g. altitude

(on x axis).

Steps

Draw x and y axis.

Choose suitable scale to accommodate the highest and
lowest value.

Plot the values accurately using faint dots.

Join the dots using curved line. If it’s a bar graph the dots should
be at the

middle of the top line. Years should also be at the middle. You
should
have also decided on the width of the bars.
In data without continuity e.g. crop production there should
be gaps

between bars and for one with continuity e.g. rainfall bars
should not

have gaps.
Draw vertical lines on either side of the dot then draw horizontal line to
join them with the dot.
Shade uniformly if they are representing only one type of
data and

differently if representing one type of data.

In combined line and bar graph temperature figures are
plotted on the

right hand side of y-axis while rainfall on the

left

Don’t start exactly at zero.

Include temperature and rainfall scales.
Start where the longest bar ends.
What a Well Drawn Graph Should Have
Title
Scale/scales
Labelled and marked x and y axis starting at zero.
Key if required e.g. in comparative bar graph.
Accurately plotted and lines, curves or bars properly drawn.

Simple Line graph

Advantages

Easy to construct

Easy to interpret

Easy to read/estimate exact values.

Shows trend or movement overtime.
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
Disadvantages
Doesn’t give a clear impression on the quantity
of data.
May give false impression on the quantity especially when
there was no

production.
Poor choice of vertical scale may exaggerate fluctuations
in values.

Difficult to find exact values by interpolation.

Simple Bar
Graph/histogram

Advantages

Easy to construct.
Easy to interpret.
Easy to read.
Gives a clear visual impression on the quantity of data.
Disadvantages

Poor choice of vertical scale may cause

exaggeration of bars.
Doesn’t show continuity/ variation of data overtime.
Unsuitable technique when values exist in continuity.
Not possible to obtain intermediate values from the graph.
Combined Line
and bar Graph

Advantages

Easy to construct.
Easy to read.
It shows relationship between two sets of data.
Disadvantages

Difficult to choose suitable scale when values of variables differ

by great

magnitude.
Considerable variation of data represented by the line may
cause the line

the bars thus obscuring the relationship.

Doesn’t show relationship between the same sets of data of
more than one

place.
Temperature and Rainfall for Thika
Month J F M A M J J A S O N D
Temp( c) 24 24 23 22 19 17 17 18 19 20 22 23
Rainfall(mm 109 122 130 76 52 34 28 38 70 108 121 120
)
Analysis and
Interpretation

The month with heaviest rainfall is May.

The month with lowest rainfall is July.
The hottest month was January and February.
The months with lowest temperature were June and
July.

Crop Production in Kenya in the Years

2001 and 2002

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 crop Amount in metric tonnes
2001 2002
Tea 300,000 500,000
Coffee 120,000 80,000
wheat 120,000 150,000
Maize 250,000 400,000

Value of export Crops from Kenya (ksh million)

Crop 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
Tea 24126 32971 33065 35150 34485
Coffee 16856 12817 12029 11707 7460
Horticulture 13752 14938 17641 21216 19846
If the data has large figures e.g. 195262 plot in 1000s=195,
184,988=185.

You can draw comparative/group/multiple line and bar graphs

from the data.
Comparative/Group/Multiple Line Graph

Advantages

Simple to construct

Suitable when comparing trends or

movements

Comparison of items is easy because the graphs are drawn

using common
axis
Its easy to read exact values from
each graph

Disadvantages

Number of items which can be

represented are limited
 Crossing of lines may make interpretation and comparison
difficult and

confusing.
Total amount of variable cant be established at a glance.
Comparative Bar Graph

Advantages

Easy to construct

Easy to read and

interpret

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 Easy to compare similar components within different
bars.
Gives a good impression of totality.
Individual contribution made by each component is
clearly seen.

Differences in quantity of components are clearly seen.

Disadvantages

Doesn’t show trend of components over

time.
Not easy to compare components where bars
are many

Not suitable for many components.

600,000

500,000

400,000 tea

300,000 coffe
e
wheat
200,000
maize
100,000

0
1 2

Divided Bars or Rectangles

Production of Sugarcane in 1000 tonnes of 5 major factories in
Kenya
Factory Production(oo Length in cm
o

tonnes)
Sony 50 0.5
Nzoia 100 1
Chemilil 200 2
Muhoroni 250 2.5
Mumias 400 4
Total 1000 10
 Reported Visitor Arrivals by Continent for the Year 2000
Continent No. of visitors Length of
strip (cm)
Africa 153904 1.5
America 77271 0.8
Asia 58784 0.6
Europe 663906 6.6
Other 82672 0.8
Total 10.3
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
Look for a convenient scale say 1cm rep 100000
visitors

Draw a divided rectangle 10 cm long to represent

the data.

Show your calculations.

-It should have the following:
Title
Different shades
Key
Width of 2cm
Analysis and
Interpretation

-To get the meaning of

Factory leading in sugar

production is Mumias.

The 2nd leading is Muhoroni.

Factory with the lowest production of sugar is Sony.
Calculation of %s.
Advantages

Easy to construct

Easy to compare components because they are arranged in

ascending or

descending order.
Takes less space than when the data is presented using graphs.
Each component proportion to the total can easily be seen at a glance.

Disadvantages

Can’t be used for a large data.

Only one unit of measurement can be used.
Difficult to asses values of individual components.
The visual impression isn’t as good as pie charts.
Exercise
Temperature and Rainfall for Kisumu
1.
Month J F M A M J J A S O N D
Temp( c) 19 20 20 18 20 19 19 18 18 18 18 18
Rainfall(mm) 18 38 66 127 114 84 112 104 69 56 38 31
(a)Draw a bar graph to represent rainfall figures.
(b)Calculate the mean monthly temperature for
the place.

(c)Calculate the mean annual temperature range.

(d)calculate the annual rainfall
totals.
2.
Temp/ Mon Tue Wed Thurs Fri Sat Sun
Day
Max c 28 27 28 26 29 29 26
Min c 18 18 20 16 22 21 19
(a)Calculate the diurnal/daily temperature range for
Tuesday.

(b)Calculate the mean daily temperature for Sunday.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
[Link] at 40 c air can hold 60g/m3 of water
vapour and the

maximum vapour it can hold is 70g/m3. Calculate

the relative

humidity.
4.(a) Calculate the time at Lamu 70 E when time at GWM is noon.
(b) Calculate the longitude of Watamu whose time is 6pm when
time at GWM is 9am.
[Link] from a certain school obtained the following
marks in

their end of term geography

examination.

74, 52, 48, 60, 48, 32, 80,

67 and 85.
Calculate the following:
(a)Median
(b)Mode

(c)
Mean
(d)State their advantages and disadvantages.
6.(a) Calculate the scale given that the ground distance
is 200km

while the distance on the map is

20cm.
(b) A student measured the length of a road on a map from point
A
to B and found it to be 3.6 cm. Use a scale of 1:50000 calculate
the
actual/ground distance in km.
[Link] intend to carry out field study of a forest around their
school.
(a)State two ways in which they’d prepare themselves.
(b)State 2 objectives they’d have formulated for their study.
(c)List two problems they’d have encountered in the
field.

(d)State two follow up activities they would have after

the field

study.
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 CLIMATE
-Average weather conditions of a given place over a long period of time usually
30-35 years.
Factors Influencing Climate
Latitude
It influences temperature whereby low latitudes have high
temperature

and high latitudes have low temperature due to the angle at

which the sun

rays strike the earth and the distance travelled by the suns
rays.
It also influences rainfall whereby places in the equator receive rainfall
in
two seasons when the sun is overhead there while northern and
southern
tropical areas receive rainfall when the position of the sun is overhead
in
those areas.
Inter-Tropical Convergence
Zone

It’s a low pressure belt around equator where trade winds

converge.
It influences rainfall in the following ways:

Places further from equator experience one rainy

season when the sun is

overhead and a long dry season when the sun is in

the S. hemisphere.
Regions near equator have 2 seasons of heavy rainfall
because they

experience passage of ITCZ twice.

 Altitude
It influences temperature whereby at low altitude temperature
is high

while at high altitude its lower due to the thickness of

atmosphere

determining the number of particles to store heat and

distance from space
where terrestrial radiation is lost.
It also influences rainfall whereby mountains on the path of
rain winds

receive Orographic rainfall and the windward slopes receive

heavier

rainfall than leeward slopes.

Distance from the Sea
It influences temperature whereby places in temperate
regions near the

sea experience low temperature during summer onshore

winds blowing

over cold ocean water and taking the cooling influence on

adjacent land
because the water is heated at a slower rate than land.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 Places near the sea also experience higher temperatures
during the winter
or cool season due to sea breezes carrying
warmer air to the land because
water loses heat at a slower rate than land.
Temperatures in the interior of continents tend to be high in
summer and

very low in winter due to lack of marine influence.

It also influences rainfall whereby coastal regions receive a lot of rain
when the winds are onshore and the continental interiors receive less
rain
mainly in summer because onshore winds will have
dropped most of

moisture along the way.

Ocean Currents
It influences temperature whereby coasts which are washed by
warm

ocean currents are warmer while those washed by cold ocean

currents are

cooler due to the onshore winds being either warmed or

cooled and then

taking the warmth or coolness to the land.

It influences rainfall whereby coasts washed by warm ocean
currents

experience heavy rainfall when moist onshore winds are

warmed by the

current and made to hold on to moisture which they release

on reaching
the land.
The coasts washed by cold ocean currents on the other hand
experience

low rainfall as a result of moist winds being cooled and

moisture in them

condensed resulting in rain falling over the ocean thereby

bringing little

or no rain to the coastal areas. This is the cause of western

 margin deserts

e.g. Kalahari and Namib deserts.

Aspect

-Direction of slope in relation to sunlight and the rain bearing winds.

Its effect

on temperature is more pronounced in the northern and southern

hemisphere.

In the N and S hemispheres the slopes facing sun are

warmer while those

facing away are cooler.

The slopes in the direction of rain winds i.e. the windward slopes receive
heavier relief rainfall than the leeward side.
Winds and Air Masses
Wind blowing from a warm region warms the region its passing
over and if

blowing from a cool region cools the region it’s passing over
since wind is a
medium of transfer of heat.
Sea breezes take cooling influence on land during hot
afternoons.

Katabatic winds cause low night temperatures on valleys

and foot of
mountains.
Fohn and Chinook which are descending dry winds take
dryness to the

leeward sides of Alps and Rockies.

Winds influence rainfall in the following ways:

Anabatic winds cause afternoon showers on

mountainous regions.

Moisture laden winds cause heavy rainfall.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 Persistent dry winds cause desert like conditions in the area
they pass
over e.g. Harmattan winds from Sahara which
blow over W. Africa.
Regions around large water bodies experience high rainfall because of
the
effect of land breezes.
Configuration of Coastline

Coastal regions across the path of moisture laden winds receive

higher rainfall

because winds deposit moisture on land e.g. Mombasa while those

lying parallel

to the path of those winds receive less rainfall because moisture is

deposited on

the sea e.g. Lamu.

Forests
Forested areas experience a micro climate whereby:

Temperature is lower due to shades of trees

reducing solar insolation

reaching the ground.

Rainfall is heavier due to high rate of evapotranspiration
and friction

between trees and rain bearing winds.

Human Activities
Man has caused deforestation in the process of creating
room for

settlement and agriculture which has caused drop in

rainfall amounts

leading to semi-arid conditions.

Man has constructed dams across rivers and done afforestation which
has
caused semi-arid regions to become wetland.
Gases especially co2 emitted from burning fossil fuels and

chlorofluorocarbons layer cause global warming through the

green house
 effect and destruction of ozone layer respectively.
The Climatic Regions of Kenya

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 Modified Equatorial Climate

-Experienced along the coast and along the coast from Somali-
Tanzanian border

and L. Victoria basin regions around the lake.

Along the Coast
Characteristics
High temperatures throughout the year mean annual about 27 c.
Small mean annual range of temperature about 4 c.
Hottest months are December and January.
Experiences rainfall throughout the year/ no real dry season.
Double maxima rainfall regime (2 rain seasons) in May and
October.

High humidity due to high temperature causing high rates of

evaporation
and nearness to the sea.
L. Victoria Basin
Characteristics
Temperature is lower than the truly equatorial climate due to
modifying

influence of the lake (mean annual range

between 22-26 c).
There are no real dry months.
Heavy rainfall ranging from 1000-600mm.
Double maxima rainfall regime.
Receives convectional type of rainfall which falls mainly in the
afternoons.
High relative humidity due to high temperature and nearness to the lake
which is a source of moisture.
Modified Tropical Climate
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
-Experienced in central highlands E and W of R. Valley.
Characteristics
Mean annual temperatures averages between 17-24 c.
Lower warmer slopes and cooler higher slopes due to modification by
altitude.
Receives rainfall throughout the year (1000-2000mm).
Receives Orographic rainfall caused by S.E Trade Winds.
Double maxima rainfall regime in eastern highlands and single
maximum

in the W. highlands.
Humidity is moderate.
Tropical Continental/desert Climate

-Experienced in about ½ of Kenya in most of N, N.E, most of E and

S Kenya.
Characteristics
High temperatures throughout the year with mean
between22 and 27 c.

Generally dry with less than 500mm of unreliable rainfall.

Large diurnal range of temperature.
The skies are generally clear.
Low humidity.
Temperature has been modified by relief in some areas e.g. Voi-25 c
and
Garissa -28.5 c.

Tropical Climate

-Experienced in Narok, S. Taita and Kwale

region.
Characteristics
High temperatures (mean annual temp-16.5 c).
Temperature is modified by relief in some areas e.g. Loita,
Taita and

Narok which has made the place suitable for

human habitation.
Generally low rainfall amounts.
Rain falls in one season.
A long dry season lasting up to 6 months.
Tropical Northern Climate

-experienced in a small area in the N. W part of Kenya

bordering Uganda.
Characteristics
High average temperatures.
Temperatures are modified in some places by altitude.
Low mean annual rainfall of about 850mm.
Rain falls mainly in June and September.
Experiences a long dry season of up to 6 months.
Desert Climate
-Experienced in central northern Kenya where there are pure
deserts such as
Chalbi, Karoli and Kaisut deserts.
Characteristics
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
Temperatures are very high throughout the year averaging 30 c due to
cloudless skies.
Very low rainfall of less than 250mm per year.
Characterised by diverging or descending winds which don’t bring any
rain.
Night temperatures are
extremely low.

Humidity is low.
Sandstorms are common occurrences.
World Climatic Regions
Classifications
[Link] climates
[Link] climates
[Link] climates
[Link] cold climates
[Link] climates
[Link]/local climates
Hot/
Tropical Climates

-Experienced within the tropical latitudes.

-Subdivided into:
(a)Equatorial climate

(b)Tropical monsoon
climate

(c)Savannah climate/Sudan
type

(d)Tropical desert climate

(e)Tropical marine climate

Equatorial climate

-Experienced in the following areas:

(a)Amazon basin in S. America.
(b)Along west coast of Africa from guinea to Cote d’ Ivoire.
(c)Southern part of Nigeria through Cameroon, Gabon,
Central African

Republic, Congo to Zaire.

(d)S.E Asia in Malaysia, Indonesia and a stretch between Burma and
Vietnam.
 Characteristics
High temperatures throughout the year (between 24-27 c).
Temperature neither rises nor drops too low due to
thick cloud

cover all year round.

Heavy rainfall throughout the year (mean annual
of about

2000mm).
Double maxima rainfall regime.
Experiences convectional rainfall in low lands and relief
rainfall in

areas of high relief.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 High relative humidity of over 80% due to convergence
of moist

air masses and high

evapotranspiration rates.

Low pressure all year round.

There are no seasons.
Tropical Monsoon Climate

It’s found in the following areas:

(a)S.E Asia in parts of Pakistan, India,

Bangladesh, S. china and

Philippines.
(b)Along the northern coastal region of Australia.
Characteristics
High mean annual temperatures of about 28 c.
Seasonal reversal of winds.
Heavy rainfall when monsoon winds are onshore (600-1300mm)
climate.
Rain falls in a few months and the rest of the year is dry due to
influence of latitude.
Low pressure in summer when winds blow onshore.
High pressure in summer when winds blow offshore.
Cloudy skies in summer and clear skies in winter.
Tropical Marine Climate

It’s found on windward slopes of islands and coastal areas on the

east of

continents under the influence of S.E Trade Winds in the following

areas:

(a)C. America in S. Mexico through Guatemala,

Nikaragua and Panama.
(b)N. coast of S. America.
(c)Caribbean islands of Cuba, Haiti and Jamaica.
(d)Coastlands of E. Africa from Kenya, Tanzania through
Mozambique

and E. Malagasy.

Characteristics
Summer temperatures are very high approximately
30 c.
 High rainfall totals in summer when winds are
onshore (1000-

2000mm).
Orographic and convectional rainfall in summer.
Dry winters due to winds being offshore.
High humidity due to coastal location.
Experiences tropical cyclones towards end of hot
season.

Winters are cool (about 21 c).

Tropical Continental/
Savanna/ Sudan type

-The largest natural climatic region in Africa.

It’s found in the following areas:

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 (a)In Africa it extends from Senegal through E. Africa to the
northern
part of s. Africa.
(b)Western Madagascar.
(c)A broad belt in N. Australia.
(d)N.W and S.E of Amazon Basin called Llanos and Campos.
Characteristics
Higher temperatures of up to 32 in hot season.
Large diurnal range of temperature in dry season.
Convectional rainfall in summer averaging 765mm annually.
High humidity during the hot wet season.
Low humidity in cooler drier
months.

Prevailing winds are mainly trade

winds.
Types of deserts
oErg - Sandy deserts with large amounts of deposited sand.
oHamada - Rocky deserts made of bare surfaces.
oReg - Rocky deserts covered with angular pebbles, gravels and boulders.
oHot continental interior deserts found on the interior of continents on the
leeward sides of high mountains e.g. Sahara and Arabian Desert.
oCoastal deserts of western margins characterised by offshore
trade winds and

cold ocean currents e.g. Atacama of S. America, Namib

in Namibia and
Arizona in U.S.A.
oMid latitude deserts of continental interiors with high summer and low
winter like Gobi in C. Asia.
Ice and snow deserts of polar lands like Greenland and Antarctica desert.
Tropical Desert Climate

-Found on the western coasts of continents washed by cold

ocean currents.
They are the following:
(a)Arabian Desert of the middle East
(b)Sahara, Kalahari and Namib deserts in Africa.
(c)Atacama Desert in S. America.
Mohave and Colorado deserts of U.S.A. and Mexican deserts in N and C
America.
(d)Jordan, Syria, Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Israel and
Afghanistan.

(e)The great Australian desert in the greater western

 part of the
continent.
Characteristics
Characteristics
oHigh temperatures during the day and very low temperatures
during the

night due to high terrestrial radiation.

oLarge diurnal range of temperature.

oClear/ cloudless skies.
oReceives less than 250mm of rainfall annually.
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 oRainfall is localised, short and torrential and accompanied by storms
which cause flash floods.
oRain falls for a short period and the rest of the year or even
several years

are dry.
oHigh wind velocity due to little frictional force.
oSome areas experience temperatures below zero in
winter with ice

forming on the oasis.

oHumidity is low and evaporation rate is high.
oSand storms are very common i.e. sand being blown through the air by
the wind.
Warm Climates
Theyborder tropical climates and they experience moderate
temperatures lower

than of tropical climates.

They are situated in the zone of divergence of trade winds
and westeries

(subtropical high pressure belt).

Subdivided into:
[Link] temperate Western margin/Mediterranean
Climate.

[Link] Temperate Interior/continental Climate.

[Link] temperate Eastern marginal
Climate.

[Link] temperate Deserts.

Warm Temperate Western Margin
-Also known as Mediterranean Climate.
-Found on the western margin or sides of continents in the
following areas.

(a)Southern Europe and N. Africa in the lands

bordering Mediterranean
Sea.
(b)S.W tip of Africa around Cape Town.
(c) Central Chile in S
America.

(d)S.W and S Australia.

Characteristics
Hot summers with temperatures of about 21 c.
 Mild winters with temperatures of about 10 c.
Characterised by hot and cold local winds called Mistral and Sirocco.
There is high sunshine duration and intensity in summer.
Experiences cyclonic rainfall in winter when westeries are onshore.
Rainfall decreases inland.
Summers are dry due to trade winds blowing offshore.
There are distinct seasons i.e. summer, autumn,
winter and spring.

Warm temperate Interior Climate

-Also called Steppe Type.

It’s found in the interior of continents in the following areas
(grasslands):

(a)Steppe Land of U.S.S.R.

(b)Veldt of S Africa.
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 (c)Prairie lands of Canada and U.S.A.
(d)Pampas lands of Argentina.
(e)Downs of Australia.

Characteristics
Warm short temperatures between 18-21 c.
Long winters with extremely low temperatures
due to

continentality which can fall

up to -20 c.
Precipitation is received all the year round.
Most rainfall is received in summer and snow precipitation in
winter.
Rainfall is moderate with annual mean of 500mm.
Summer rainfall is caused by convection and
depressions.

There is high humidity in summer.

Warm temperate Eastern Margin climate
-Also known as China Type.
It’s experienced on the eastern margins of continents in the
following areas.

(a)S.E China and S. Japan.

(b)S.E Australia.
(c)S and S.E states of U.S.A.
(d)S. America in S. Brazil, Uruguay, E. Paraguay and
coast of

Argentina.
Characteristics
Hot summers with a mean annual of about 26 c.
Mild to cool winters due to marine influence and local
winds (4-

13 c).
Receives rainfall throughout the year (about
1000mm).experiences

hurricanes and typhoons.

Convectional rainfall is common in summer.
Rainfall is moderate between 760 and1500mm.
Warm Temperate Deserts
-Also known as Mid-Latitude Desert climate.
It’s experienced in the following areas:
[Link] and Utah states of U.S.A.
[Link] in S. America.
[Link] Desert extensive desert area of southern Mongolia and
northern

China and the largest desert in Asia.

[Link], Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan.
Characteristics
High summer temperatures (27-37 c).
Cold winters as low as -7 c.
Very large diurnal and annual ranges of temperature.
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 Low and unreliable rainfall due to great distance from the
sea about
250 mm annually.
Most rainfall falls in late winter or early spring.
Cool Climates
They differ from warm climates by having definite seasonal variations in
temperature.
Subdivided into:
[Link] Temperate Western Margin

[Link] Temperate Continental Interior

[Link] Temperate Eastern Margin

Cool Temperate Western

Margin Climate
-Also known as British
Type.
It’s under coastal
influence.
-Found in the following
areas:

(a)British Isles (Island)

(b)Central and N.W

Europe
(c)N.W U.S.A. and British Columbia in Canada.
(d)S. Chile

(e)Tasmania in Australia

Characteristics
Warm summers (13-15 c).
Cool winters (2-7 c).
Small temperature range.
Well distributed rainfall throughout the year (760-2000mm).
Cyclonic rainfall in the coastal lands and relief rainfall in mountainous
areas.
High humidity in winters.
Long summer days with irregular
thunderstorms.

Convergence of sub-tropical and polar air

 masses.

Onshore westerly winds are dominant.

Cool Temperate Continental
Interior Climate

-Also called Siberian type.

-Found in the following areas:
(a)Alaska and most of Canada
(b)Eurasia covering Sweden, Finland, Poland, Germany,
across former

U.S.S.R. up to Kamchatka Peninsular in the

east.
Characteristics
Warm summers with temperatures of about 18 c.
Generally short summers.
Extremely cold winter temperatures which go
below 20 c.

Long winters with long nights.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 Precipitation is mainly in form of snow during winter
(annual
precipitation 400-500mm).
Convectional rainfall in summer is accompanied by
thunderstorms.

Cool Temperate Western Margin

Climate
It’s also known as Laurentian Type.
Areas:
(a)N. U.S.A. and S Canada.
(b)S. Argentina.
(c)N & S Korea, N. China, C and N Japan and E. Siberia.
Characteristics
Long warm summers with temperatures of
about 18 c.

Cold winters (-40-0 c).

Precipitation all year round
(600-1000mm).

Snow precipitation in winter.

High humidity in summer.
Cold Climates
-Also known as Polar Desert Climates or Arctic and Antarctic Climates.
-Found beyond Arctic Circle i.e. 66 ½ N and S of equator.
-Classified into Tundra and Polar Climates.
Tundra Climate
Areas:
(a)Coast of N. America bordering Arctic Ocean.
(b)N part of America from Alaska through Canada to Greenland.
(c)From N coast of Scandinavia to the N.E of Russia.
(d)Baffin Island.

Characteristics
Short cool summers with average temperatures of about 10 c.
Long cold winters (-29 - -40 c).
Continuous days in winter and summer for several days.
Low annual precipitation of about 250mm.
Precipitation in form of rain and snow in winter.
Polar Climate
-experienced at the poles in the interior of Iceland, Green land and
Antarctica.
Characteristics
Temperature is permanently below freezing point.
 There is permanent snow cover and ice on the ground
(permafrost).

Snow storms (blizzards) are common.

Continuous winter nights and summer days with exception of equinox
when sun rises above horizon.
Mountain Climates
-Experienced on high mountain ranges of the world.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
Areas:
[Link]. Kenya (5199)

[Link]. Ruwenzori
(5109)

[Link]. Kilimanjaro
(5895)

[Link]. Everest (8848)

[Link] mountains in Africa
[Link] of N. America
[Link] of Europe

[Link] in
Asia
Characteristics
Temperature decreases with increasing altitude.
Temperature ranges from cool to cold.
Experiences Orographic rainfall.
Rainfall increases with altitude up to 3000mm and starts to
decrease

because air is cold and hence has poor capacity to hold

moisture.
Windward slopes are wetter than leeward slopes.
Atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing altitude.
Local winds are common and blow up the slope during the day
and down

slope at night.
In temperate regions slopes facing the equator are warmer
than those

facing the poles.

Atlas mountains in Africa
Rockies of N. America
Alps of Europe

Himalayas in
Asia
Local/Micro Climates
Climate experienced within a small area which is slightly different
compared to

the general climate of the area.

It occurs on the immediate surroundings and within some phenomenon on
the
earth’s surface.
Micro-climates can be found in the following areas:
(a)Within and around a forest
Experience low temperatures due to trees preventing solar
insolation from

reaching the ground.

Experiences high rainfall due to high rates of evapotranspiration.
(a)Urban areas
Higher temperatures due to green house effect (situation
where

atmospheric gases absorb heat that is given off by the

earth (terrestrial

radiation) before its sent back to space causing the

temperature of the

lower atmosphere to increase.

(b)Around man made lakes

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 Experience high convectional rainfall due to high moisture
content.

Around natural lakes experiences land breezes which cause

early morning

showers and sea breezes which lower

temperatures during the hot season.
Aridity and Desertification

Aridity-state of land being deficient of moisture leading to

little or no

vegetation.
Desertification-process in which desert like conditions slowly
and steadily

encroach on formerly productive agricultural land.

Causes of Aridity and Desertification
[Link] and unreliable rainfall below 250mm per annum
causing little

or no vegetation and absence of animal and biological

life causing

soil forming processes to be incomplete.

[Link] temperatures which cause high rates of evaporation
which

exceed evaporation or low temperatures which reduces

air capacity

to hold moisture causing a place to receive little or no

rain..
[Link] a place is washed by ocean currents causing
moist onshore

winds to cool and then drop moisture over the sea and
reach the

land as dry winds e.g. Kalahari when onshore westeries

cross the

cold Benguela Current.

[Link] relief barriers such as hills or mountains cause some areas
to lie on the rain shadow hence rain
winds drop most of their
 moisture on the windward side and they
drop on the leeward side,

are warmed and hold onto moisture

causing dry conditions e.g.

Kalahari and Namib on the rain shadow

of Drakensberg mountains.

[Link] of some places very far from the sea causing

them to be

far removed from wet onshore winds

e.g. Gobi Desert.
[Link] hot dry winds blow over a region causing drying
effect on

land e.g. Harmattan over West Africa.

[Link] cool air descends causing no rain because cool
air has to

rise before condensation takes place.

Human Activities
[Link] people clear forests which causes runoff
to exceed

infiltration which interferes

with the water cycle.
[Link] large number of animals which exceed the
carrying

capacity of land they eat vegetation

leaving the land bear exposing
the land to soil erosion.
10. Poor agricultural practices such as overcultivation,
monoculture

and slashing and burning which lead

to soil erosion.
[Link] which releases green house gases
such as co2 to

the atmosphere which absorb more heat making the

earths

temperature to rise.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 12. Reclamation of water logged areas which lowers the
water table

causing arid conditions to set in plants when plants

can’t access

ground water.
[Link] irrigation methods when evaporation takes place
and salt from

below are brought to the surface and are deposited on

the top soil

making the soil salty and hence unable to support plants.

Effects of Aridity
and Desertification

[Link] soils which support little or no

vegetation.
[Link] agricultural production due to insufficient rainfall leading to
famine.
[Link] of water for domestic and industrial use which
may also

lead to shutting down of my sons.

[Link] of people from areas affected by aridity
and

desertification leading to
population pressure and eventually
conflicts.
[Link] of vegetation which exposes land to soil erosion.
[Link] lead to extinction of some plants and animal
species causing

loss of biodiversity.
Solutions to Aridity and
Desertification

[Link] and reafforestation because trees

protect soil from

erosion, increase run off and release

moisture to the atmosphere

leading to increased rainfall.

[Link] soil conservation measures such as
 terracing, contour

ploughing, planting cover crops etc.

[Link] a number of animals which is proportional to the
carrying

capacity of land.
[Link] dry lands.
[Link] of energy saving stoves to reduce demand for wood fuel
which will reduce deforestation.
[Link] of alternative sources of energy which don’t
pollute the

environment e.g. solar and water.

[Link] drought resistant crops in the arid areas.
[Link] industrialisation by setting laws governing pollution.
Climate Change
-Establishment of a new climatic state.
-Continuous changes in climatic states such as temperature and
precipitation
over time.
Causes of Climate Change
Natural Causes
[Link] in the Earths Orbital Characteristics
-Changing or earths orbital characteristics within 1000 years from
elliptical

(aphelion) to nearly circular (perihelion) when the earth is nearest

to the sun and

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
receives maximum solar energy and back to elliptical when the
earth is farthest
from the sun and receives least solar energy.
[Link] in the Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide

-When natural rise in temperature cause carbon dioxide held up

in cold ocean

waters to be released to the atmosphere after oceans warmed.

[Link] Eruptions
When large quantities of volcanic ash and dust thrown
out of the

ground block some of the solar insolation from reaching

the earths

surface causing temperatures on the earths surface to

drop for a

short period.
When sulphur dioxide given off during volcanic
eruptions reacts

with water vapour forming a bright layer within

stratosphere

reducing the amount of solar radiation reaching the

surface by

reflecting some of it back which also lowers

temperatures on the
surface.
[Link] in Solar Output
-changes in the amount of solar energy given off by the sun
whereby at times its

less causing drop of temperature on the earths surface and at

others its gives off

more causing rise in temperature on the surface.

Human Causes
[Link] of fossil fuels in industries, transportation, electricity
generation

etc. which contributes 65% of additional co2 in the

atmosphere which is
the main green house gas.
[Link] of vegetation e.g. in shifting cultivation and forest
fires which

also adds co2 in the atmosphere.

[Link] large tracts of forests foe agriculture, settlement
etc. which

reduces the main deposal system for co2 from the

atmosphere by

photosynthesis.
[Link] developments which add gases like methane, nitrous
oxide and

those containing chlorine and chlorofluorocarbons which

damages ozone

layer which filters a greater percentage of ultra violet

radiation given off

by the sun which causes the average temperatures on the

earth to rise.
Consequences of Climate Change
[Link] warming due to green house effect by gases
added in to the

atmosphere and destruction of ozone layer.

[Link] rainfall as a result of high temperatures causing
high rates of

evaporation causing wet areas to become wetter

and dry areas to become
drier.
[Link] on agriculture by causing crop growing areas to shift to
cooler

altitudes and latitudes e.g. wheat growing areas of Canada

shifting to the

poles and causing dropping or failure of crop yields in area

where

temperatures have increased.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 [Link] shortage when climate becomes drier causing
less water to
infiltrate underground and hence less water
to feed rivers.
[Link] of coastal areas causing flooding when Antarctic
and Arctic

glaciers melt and water is added to the oceans.

[Link] waves due to increased temperature which leads to
death of people.

[Link] and disappearance of ice caps on mountains e.g. Mt.

Ruwenzori.
[Link] growth of plants due to increased amounts of co2
causing

increased rate of photosynthesis which may lead to

increased yields of

major crops, poor soils due to soils having to sustain high

rates of plant

growth.
[Link] levels of ultra violet radiation which causes human diseases
such as skin cancer, lowering crop production by slowing
photosynthesis

and germination, lowering fish population by damaging

plankton which

fish eats and degradation of paint and plastics.

Solution to Climate Change
Afforestation and reafforestation.
Use of energy saving stoves to reduce the rate of deforestation.
Use of alternative sources of energy which are
environmentally friendly

e.g. solar and water instead of fossil fuels.

Proper maintenance of vehicle to reduce emissions from their exhausts.
Use of public transport to reduce the amount of fossil fuel used
and hence

the amount of co2 added into the atmosphere.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 VEGETATION
-Plant cover on the earths surface.
Types of Vegetation

[Link] Vegetation

-Which grows by natural means of seed dispersal without

interference and

modification by man.
[Link]- Natural/Derived Vegetation

-Natural vegetation which is in the process of recovering from

interference by
man.
[Link]/Cultivated Vegetation

-Vegetation planted by people e.g. forests of exotic trees, trees in

Agroforestry

and plants used as hedges e.g. cypress.

Factors Influencing Types and Distribution of
Vegetation

Topographical Factors
[Link]
Coniferous trees are found at high altitudes because they are adapted
to
cool conditions.
There is no vegetation on mountain tops because there
are very low

temperatures which inhibit plant growth.

[Link]
Gentle slopes which have deep and well drained soils are best
suited for

plant growth than steep slopes which have thin soils due to
severe erosion

and less soil water to sustain plant growth due to high runoff.
 Flat areas have poor drainage hence are swampy and can
only support

swamp plants.
[Link]

There are a wide range of plants on the slope facing the sun and in
the direction

of rain bearing winds as they are warm and wetter. Grass lands are
dominant on

the leeward side because they are drier.

[Link]

There is a large variety of plants on well drained soils while water

logged soils

have swamp plants such as reeds and papyrus.

Climatic Factors
[Link]

Plants in warm areas are large in number and grow faster e.g.
in the

tropical lands. Also there are deciduous trees

which shed leaves to reduce

the rate of transpiration.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 In areas with low temperatures there is slow growth of plants and
coniferous forests are found there.
[Link]

There are a large number of plants in areas with high

precipitation and

these areas are dominated by forests which are

broad leaved to increase

the rate of transpiration.

Areas with moderate rainfall are dominated by grasslands and
those with

little rainfall have scanty vegetation of scrub and

desert types.
[Link]

There is large number of plants in areas experiencing long

sunshine
duration.
There is little undergrowth in tropical rain forests because
the canopy

prevents sunlight from reaching the ground.

[Link]
There is heavy rainfall in areas where warm moist blow to and
hence a

large number of plants which may be broad leaved to increase

the surface

area for transpiration.

Edaphic/Soil Factors
Fertile soils have a larger number of plants while infertile
soils have

scanty vegetation.
Soil pollution e.g. oil spillage cause drying up of plants.
Deep soils have deep rooted plants such as trees while
shallow rooted

soils have shallow rooted plants such as

grasses and shrubs.
 Biotic/Biological Factors
[Link] Organisms

Bacteria, earth warms and burrowing animals improve

soil fertility

resulting into more vegetation growth.

Insect and birds pollinate plants enhancing their propagation.
Bacteria and insects cause plant diseases of plants resulting
in death of

some e.g. aphids which affected cypress in late

80s.
Large herds of wild animals can destroy vegetation through
overgrazing

and can turn grasslands into deserts.

[Link] Activities
Clearing of natural vegetation for settlement, agriculture etc. can lead to
desertification.
Bush fires such as burning grasslands for the grass to sprout
can cause

extinction of some plant species.

Overstocking can lead to overgrazing turning grasslands into deserts.
Rehabilitation of deforested areas can stop the spread of deserts.
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 Vegetation in Kenya

[Link]
The area under forest is less than 7%.
The bulk is found in Central Highlands
(a)Plateau Forests
It used to cover extensive areas around L. Victoria but today there
are few

patches around the lake in Maragoli, Kakamega, Kaimosi, Malava,

Turbo and
Tinderet forests.
They are tropical rain forests with tall trees standing among
shorter trees

intertwined with creepers.

(b)Lowland Forests
-Found along the Kenyan coast.
The main types are:

Mangrove forests which grow in shallow waters and

Tropical rain forests in Shimba hills in Kwale District and

Arabuko
Sokoke in Kilifi.

(c)Highland/Mountain Forests

-Found on the slopes of Mt. Kenya, Aberdare forests, Iveti, Mbooni,

Kilala and
Marsabit forests.
Indigenous hardwoods are olive, Meru oak, mvule, Elgon teak
and camphor

while indigenous softwoods are podocarpus and African pencil

cedar and
bamboo.
They have been planted with exotic hard wood trees e.g.
eucalyptus and silver

oak and exotic softwoods such as pines, cypress, fir and wattle.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 2. Savanna
-Most widespread vegetation covering about 65% of the total area.
(a)Wooded/Tree Grassland
-Found along the coastal strip and on the plateau bordering
highlands east of rift

Valley.
-Consists of grass of 1m mixed with thorny acacias.
Where rain decreases trees become fewer and shorter and the grassland becomes
more open.
There are many large trees along water courses due to
abundant moisture

(riverine or gallerie forests).

The trees shed leaves during the dry season to reduce the
loss of water by

transpiration.
(b) Bushland and Thicket
-Covers about 48% of savannah.
-Found between coastal land and Machakos and extends into
Kitui, Mwingi,

Garissa, Wajir and Mandera districts.

-Consists of a mixture of thorny acacias and shorter thorny
shrubs between

forming thorn bush with gaps between bushes which are bare or
covered by

scattered varieties of grasses.

Plants are adapted by:
Having thin leaves and hard cuticle to reduce transpiration rate.
Baobab has large trunk to store water for use during long dry period.
Shedding of leaves to conserve water.

(c)
Highland Grassland
-Found on the undulating slopes of grasslands.
-Grasses are such as red oat, wire, Manyatta and Kikuyu grass where
forests
have been cleared.
-Clover grows along kikuyu grass where rainfall is over 1000mm.
3. Semi-Desert and
Desert Vegetation
-Covers about 21% of Kenya.
It’s found on the parts of N.E and N Kenya including Marsabit and Turkana
districts.
It receives insufficient rainfall of less than 380mm annually.
It has mainly scrub type of vegetation (covered with
underdeveloped trees or

shrubs). A shrub is a plant lower than a tree with a small woody

stem branching

near the ground.

The shrubs are up to 1m and grasses are up to 3m and in between
there is bare

ground.
Tree species are acacia and comiphora.
Real deserts hardly have any vegetation.
Adaptations plants (Xerophytes)
Some have thick leaves to store water.
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 Long tap roots to access water from rocks below.
Needle like leaves to conserve water.
Shedding of leaves to conserve water (deciduous).
4. Heath and Moorland
-Vegetation found towards the mountain tops.
At lower altitudes there is groundsel, lobelia and heather.
Where there is poor drainage there is mountain swamp
vegetation

referred to as bogs.
At high altitudes there is tussock grasses, flowering plants and
alchemilla

shrubs. This vegetation is adapted to cold windy

conditions towards the
summit.
5. Swamp Vegetation

-Vegetation found in areas with flat relief in wet areas along river
courses and

areas experiencing periodic flooding e.g. along the course of R.

Tana, Lorian

swamp in Isiolo, Wajir and Garissa and the mangrove belt along he
coast.
Vegetation found there are marshes, grasses with smooth
surfaces and long

blades and papyrus which is dominant.

Vegetation Zones of the World
A. Forests
A forest is a continuous growth of trees and undergrowths covering large
tracts
of land.
1. Tropical Rain Forests
-Known as Selvas in S. America.
It’s found in the following
areas:

[Link]
Basin
[Link] Basin
[Link] sides of India, Burma and
Vietnam.
 [Link] land of Queensland Australia.
Characteristics
Closely set trees with three distinct canopies.
There is less undergrowth on the forest floor due to light being
obstructed

by canopies.
Trees take long time to grow.
Trees have large trunks with buttress roots (radiating wall like roots).
Trees have broad leaves to increase the surface area for efficient
transpiration due to high precipitation.
There is varied number of plants species over a small portion.
Trees are tall, have smooth stems and straight trunks.
Some trees are evergreen shedding a few leaves at a time while others
shed leaves and are left bare.
Some trees are very heavy and don’t float on water.
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 Trees take very long time to mature between 70-100years.
Types of trees present are mahogany, ebony, ironwood, rose
wood, camphor

and Sapele.
Tree creepets and parasites are found around tall main trees.
Uses of tropical rain
Forests

(a)Trees are valuable sources of timber for furniture,

building and
construction.
(b)Oil palms are for production of palm oil.
(c)Cacao crops for production of cocoa beans used to
make cocoa

used to make chocolates and

beverages.
(d)Chicle from the bark of Zabote tree is used to make
chewing gum.

(e)Ivory nuts are used for making buttons.

(f)Fibres from torquilla palm are used for making hats,
mats, baskets

and thatching materials.

(g)Cinchona tree’s bark contains quinine used in malarial treatment.
2. Mangrove Forests

-Found in low lying muddy coasts of tropical seas with shallow

salty waters.
Areas
[Link] the east coast of Africa.
[Link] the estuary of Amazon River in S. America.
Characteristics
Dominated by mangrove trees and 30 other species of trees.
Mangrove trees have special roots which are partly aerial
to aid

breathing. Some grow horizontally and then vertically

downwards

into mud while some grow horizontally in mud and bend

upwards

to aid breathing and others have net work of roots

resembling stilts.
 Uses of
mangrove Forests

[Link] trees provide tannin used for

tanning leather.
[Link] poles are used for building and construction because they
are
very strong.
[Link] trees are also used for firewood.
[Link] forests are habitats for marine life used for tourist attraction.

3. Tropical Monsoon Forests

Location
1.S.W and S coast of Mexico
[Link] of India, Bangladesh, Burma, Vietnam and Indonesia
[Link] lands of Australia
Characteristics
Most trees shed leaves during dry season and grow during hot
wet season.

Smaller number of tree species than tropical rain forests.

Tall species of trees rising up to 30m.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 Trees don’t grow together.
Trees have more branches because of light penetrating at
lower levels.

Denser undergrowth than tropical rain forests.

Particular species of trees dominate an area (pure/definite stands) e.g.
-Leak in Burma
-Sal in India
-Eucalyptus in Queensland Australia
-Bamboo in S.E Asia
Dominant tree species are leak, bamboo, acacia, camphor,
ebony, Sapele

and Pyinkaido.
Uses of tropical Monsoon
Forests

(a)Teak in Burma and Thailand is used for building houses

and boats
because it’s hard and resistant to termites.
(b)Bamboo and rattan creeper are used for making
furniture, baskets

and weaving.
(c)Young tender shoots of bamboo are consumed as vegetables.
4. Mediterranean Forests
Areas
1.S. Europe and N. Africa areas bordering
Mediterranean Sea.

[Link] Cape Town on S.W end of Africa.

[Link] coast of California.
[Link] Perth in S.W Australia.
Characteristics
Forests are open woodlands.
Many trees are deciduous.
Some trees are evergreen e.g. oak

There is woody scrub vegetation in areas which are dry and

with poor

soils which is called marquis in France,

Chaparral in California and

Machia in Italy.
 Many plants are sweet smelling (aromatic) e.g. rosemary,
lavender,

oleander, broom and myrtle.

Many trees are xerophytes e.g.
-Trees have long tap roots to reach the water
deep below

during long dry spells.

-Waxy leaves to reduce transpiration

-Storing water in their thick leaves or

stems

-Small spiny leaves

Types of trees are olive, sweet chestnut, beech, cedar, cypress,

sequoia,

eucalyptus
Uses
(a)Cork oak is used to make corks for bottling wine.
(b)Olive tree fruits are used for cooking and extraction of olive oil.
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 (c)Timber from sweet chest nut, beech, cedar, cypress and
pine is used
for building houses and making furniture.
(d)Shrubs and grasses are used as pasture for goats.
5. Temperate Evergreen Forests
-Found in areas experiencing warm temperate eastern margin or China Climate.
Areas
[Link] Natal coast in S.
Africa

2.S. china and S. Japan

3.S.E Australia
4.S.E and S. states of U.S.A.
Characteristics
Evergreen because of abundant rainfall throughout the year.
Most trees have broad leaves to increase the surface are for efficient
transpiration.
Manyevergreen trees are hardwoods.
Uses
(a)Hard woods such as oak and iron wood are used for furniture and
building materials.
(b)Soft woods such as cypress and pines are used for furniture.
(c)Wattle trunks are used in the coal mines of natal.
(d)Bamboo is used for making furniture and building in China
and Japan.

(e)Walnuts provide nuts used for making chocolate.

(f)Ivory nuts are used for making buttons.
(g)Young shoots of bamboo are eaten as vegetables in china and
Japan.

6. Temperate Deciduous
Forests

-Found in areas experiencing cool temperate western

marginal climate.
Location
1.C. and W. Europe.
[Link] of E. states of U.S.A.
[Link] in S. America.
Characteristics
Trees are deciduous and shed leaves in autumn and become green in
summer.
Individual species of trees are scattered and their density per unit area
is
 small.
Trees are smaller in size.
Trees are broad leaved.
Most of the trees are hardwoods
There is rich undergrowth because of being fairly open.
Trees grow in pure stands in some regions and at others they are mixed.
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 Trees are easier to exploit than tropical hardwoods.
Uses
(a)Hardwoods such as oak and birch are used for timber, wood fuel and
charcoal.
(b)Chestnut and walnut nuts are edible.
(c)Oak tree fruits are used for feeding pigs.
(d)Tung tree yields oil for making paint and furnish.
(e)Maple sap is used for making maple syrup.
Trees include eucalyptus (blue gum), olive, birch, walnut, elm and ash.
Coniferous Forests
It’s dominant in cool climates. It’s known as Taiga and Boreal in Russia.
Location
1.W. coast of Canada.
[Link] across Russia to the Pacific coast.
Characteristics/of soft woods in Canada
Their seeds are cone shaped.
Most trees are softwoods and are light in weight.
Trees mature faster than hardwoods of tropical regions.
Trees have big proportion of stem compared to leaves.
Most tree species are evergreen with few shedding leaves e.g. larch and
fir.
Tree species occur in big pure stands.
Very little undergrowth due to acidic humus from leaf fall.
Trees have straight trunks.
Trees mature after a long period of time (50-70 years) due
to the cold

conditions especially in winter.

Species of trees found here are pines, Fir, spruce, larch and Hemlock.

Adaptations

Needle-like leaves to reduce

transpiration.
Leaves with tough waxy skin to protect them from winter cold.
Tree crowns are cone shaped and flexible crowns to allow
snow to slide

off to prevent it from accumulating on the

branches.
Trees are evergreen to have maximum utilisation of sunlight during the
short summers.
Flexible tree trunks to allow swaying so as to allow swaying so
as not to
 break during strong winter winds.
Widely spread root system for maximum utilisation of moisture
from top

soil because sub soil is permanently frozen.

Used
Soft woods such as spruce, fir, pine and larch are used for
construction, wood

pulp used in paper manufacture.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 7. Mixed Forests
-Found at the zone of transition between temperate deciduous and
coniferous
forests.
Location
[Link] and Alberta provinces of
Canada

[Link] regions in Europe

[Link] lying Mediterranean regions

Characteristics
A mixture of broadleaved deciduous and coniferous trees.
Uses
Cedar and hazel are used for fencing posts.
Grazing activities are carried out where forests are open.
Softwoods such as spruce, fir and pine are used to make wood
pulp used for

paper manufacture.
Hardwoods such as oak and birch are valuable sources of timber, wood fuel and
charcoal.
Maple tree syrup is used for making maple syrup.
B. Grasslands
-Found in climatic regions where a seasonal pattern occurs with
a prolonged

drought of about 5-7 months.

Tropical
Grasslands/ Savanna

-Found in areas experiencing tropical continental

climate.
Areas
1.N and S of Congo Basin.
[Link] Sahel and equatorial forests in E. Africa plateau.
3.N.E of Australian Desert.
[Link] highlands
It’s divided into:
(a)Open grasslands where grass is dominant and
(b)Woodlands in areas which receive more
rainfall.

Characteristics
Grasslands with widely spaced trees such as acacias.
Grasses die in dry season and sprout quickly when it rains.
 Grasses are tall (up to 3m with stiff blades and elephant
grass is tallest

reaching up to 4m.
Trees are of medium size up to 13m

Tree crowns are umbrella shaped to provide shade around roots

to reduce

evaporation.
Most trees are deciduous and shed leaves during dry season.
Trees have small leaves and thick barks to reduce transpiration.
Trees have long tap roots to reach the water deep below
during long dry

spells.
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 Uses
(a)Grass is for grazing and commercial ranching though
it’s of low

nutritional value due to lack of

phosphorous.
(b)Cereals e.g. wheat farming because the soil is rich in
humus resulting

from the grass cover.

(c)Vegetation acts as soil cover to reduce soil erosion.
(d)Homes of wild animals which attract tourists e.g. E. and C. African
savannas.
(e)Trees are habitats for bees which provide honey.
(f)Some shrubs and herbs are used for medicine.
(g)Trees such as acacia provide fuel wood and charcoal.
Temperate Grasslands

-Found in continental interiors of temperate grasslands where

rainfall isn’t
sufficient to sustain forests.
Location
The Prairies
Areas
-Canadian provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba and neighbouring
states of U.S.A.
Characteristics
Continuous tuft grass
Grasses are nutritious.
Grass is short
Grass is interspersed with bulbons and leguminous plants.
Grass is mixed in some areas with species such as stipa, buffalo and
gamma
grasses.
Tall grasses in areas with rainfall of over
500mm.

The
Steppes
-Found in Eurasia- temperate interiors of Europe and Asia.
Characteristics
True Steppes-rich carpet of grass and some flowering plants.
Desert steppes-Coarse grass growing in tufts

-Grass doesn’t form a

continuous cove on the ground.
-Short grass which grows very close to the ground.
 The Pampas
-Found in Argentina.
Characteristics
Feather-like grass

Grass forms individual tussocks with patches of

bare soil.
Forests are present in some areas due to increased
moisture.

Xerophytic or drought resistant plants are present in

some areas.
The Veldt

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
-Found in S. Africa.

Characteristics
Grasses are extensively spread.
There is little or no mixture of trees or shrubs.
There is a uniform cover of grass on high plateaus.
The Downs
-Found in Australia and New Zealand.
Characteristics
Tall grass mixed with trees.
Semi desert areas have patches of dominant grass.
Mixture of temperate and tropical grass species.
Grass is nutritious and nutritious for livestock.
Natural grasses of Argentina have been replaced by Alfalfa
and in New

Zealand British meadow grasses now dominate.

Uses of Temperate Grasslands

(a)For grain cultivation e.g. wheat which requires as low as

325mm of
rainfall.
(b)For cultivation of other crops e.g. oil seeds, Soya beans,
vegetables and

millet and sorghum widely grown in the Veldt.

(c)For livestock farming e.g. cattle, sheep, goats and horses.
There are

scientifically managed ranches called

Estancias in Argentina.
Desert
Vegetation

Tropical Desert
Vegetation

-Found in tropical deserts.

Characteristics
Vegetation is present except in bare rock and sand covered
areas.

There are more plants on oasis e.g. date palms and a variety
of shrubs.
 Some plants are succulent to have high water storage
capacity.
Some have spines to protect them from animals.
Some have thorn-like leaves to reduce rate of transpiration.
Some have long roots to enable them to tap water from deeper parts of
rocks.
Some shed leaves during dry season and grow new leaves
during wet

periods to reduce water loss.

Some are salt tolerant (halophytic) by having many water
storing cells to

counter soil salinity or alkalinity.

Temperate and Arctic Desert
Vegetation

-Found in warm temperate deserts and arctic

climates.
Characteristics
Grasses and woody plants.
Woody plants which are Xerophytic and halophytic.
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 Shrubs have shallow roots due to permafrost.
Plants flower and produce fruits within short wet season.
There is scarce vegetation in Tundra.
Plants present in arctic deserts are such as lichens, mosses
and flowering

plants such as anemones and marsh marigold.

Uses of Desert
Vegetation

(a)Bilberries in temperate deserts bear

edible fruits.
(b)Small trees are source of fuel foe Eskimos who live in arctic region.
(c)Vegetation in tropical deserts is important in arresting
sand dunes to

prevent them from burying oasis and

settlements.
(d)In tropical deserts fringes vegetation is valuable food for animals.
(e)Date palm is cultivated for its fruit.
Mountain
Vegetation

-Vegetation found towards the top of the

mountain.
Uses of Mountain
Vegetation

(a)Grasslands are used for grazing.

(b)Alpine meadows in temperate regions provide summer grazing
pastures.

(c)Mountain forests provide timber, building materials, fuel wood

and charcoal.

(d)Mountain forests are habitats for wild animals e.g. elephants.

(e)Mountain vegetation makes mountains to be water catchment areas.
(f)Mountain forests help to purify air by absorbing carbon
dioxide and

providing oxygen.
(g)Mountain vegetation is used for research.
 Significance of
Vegetation

(a)Forests add beauty to country’s landscape.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 (b)Vegetation protects soil from erosion by wind and rainwater.
(c)Vegetation partly decays forming humus making the soil fertile.
(d)Some plants roots, barks and leaves are used for medicine.
(e)Forests modify the climate of the surrounding area by increasing
rainfall and

reducing temperatures.
(f)Some plants such as bamboo shoots and wild fruits are
consumed as food.

(g)Some fibrous plants such as sisal and jute are used for making
ropes, sacks,
mats, etc.
(h)Latex from rubber tree is used for manufacture of rubber used in tire
manufacture.

FORESTRY
Forestry is the science of developing and managing forests including cultivating
them.
Type of Forests
[Link] forests-which grow by natural means of seed
dispersal.
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 [Link]-natural/derived/cultivated forests-which is in the
process of
recovering from interference by man.
[Link]/cultivated forests-which have been planted by man.
[Link] forests-which are native to a region or which have
grown in a

region from the beginning.

[Link] forests-which have trees which have been introduced to a place
from other countries.
[Link] types have been discussed in the chapter of vegetation.
Factors Influencing Types and
Distribution of Forests

Temperature

High temperature causes fast growth of trees while low

temperature

causes slow growth.

Rain forests are found at low altitudes which are warmer while
coniferous
forests are found at high altitudes which are cooler.
Aspect

Dense forests are found on windward slopes of mountains

because they

are wetter than leeward slopes and they start at

a lower level than on the

leeward slopes.
In temperate region slopes facing equator have dense forests
because they

are warmer while those facing the poles have coniferous

forests which are

adapted to low temperatures.

Precipitation

There are dense forest where there is heavy precipitation

while there is

less forest cover consisting of stunted trees in

areas with little
 precipitation.
Coniferous forest have cone-shaped crowns to allow snow to slide off so
as not to accumulate on the branches and cause them to break off.
Soil
Deep soils support huge tropical trees while shallow soils
support

coniferous trees which have shallow and wide spread root

system to be

able to maximally utilise water on the top soil since the sub
soil is

permanently frozen.
Poor or infertile soils have stunted trees.
Human Activities
Deforestation and shifting cultivation- man has cleared forests
to create

room for agriculture settlement etc. which has

reduced forest cover on the
earth’s surface.
Afforestation and Agroforestry-man has planted trees in areas
where they

never existed establishing forests there.

Reafforestation-man has replanted forests which he has
cleared with

indigenous and exotic trees causing natural forests to

become semi-

natural/secondary or derived forests.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 Importance of Forests to Kenya

[Link] are water catchment areas which supports

agriculture and H.E.P.

generation.
[Link] provide us with wood fuel e.g. firewood, charcoal and saw dust.
[Link] prevent soil erosion by their roots binding the soil
together,

reducing run off thereby reducing incidents of

flooding and dam siltation.
[Link] are habitats of wild animals which are a tourist attraction
which
brings foreign exchange used to import goods and
services and fund

development projects.
[Link] are a disposal system for carbon dioxide which they
use in

photosynthesis and release oxygen thereby purifying air

and reducing

global warming.
[Link] increase soil fertility when leaves fall and rot forming humus.
[Link] regulate the climate of an area by creating a micro
climate

causing heavy and frequent rain by

evapotranspiration and lowering
temperatures.
[Link] are a source of timber for construction and furniture
making.

[Link] beautify the environment by flora (plants) and fauna

(animals).
[Link] forest’s trees are a source of medicine.
[Link] of forests has led to the development of infrastructure as
roads
have been constructed to make forests accessible.
[Link] provide employment to people e.g. forest guards,
forest officers,

lumberjacks, carpenters and timber merchants.

Importance of Forest Products
[Link] are a source of food e.g. fruits, honey, mushrooms
and bamboo

tender leaves which are used for vegetables.

[Link] provide wood used for manufacture of paper, soft boards, ply
wood etc.
[Link] in forests are hunted for food, skins and horns.
[Link] of trees and forest undergrowth are used as
livestock fodder.

[Link] provide wood which is used in cottage industries

for making

carvings and wooden utensils which are sold

locally and exported.
[Link] flora and fauna are a rich reservoir for research.
Problems Facing Forestry in Kenya

[Link] by people by clearing them to create room for

agriculture

and settlement, grazing etc. which puts some

plants and animal species in

danger of extinction.
[Link] especially of young trees by herbivorous wild
animals such

as elephants due to rapid increase in the

population.
[Link] of huge tracts of forests by fires caused by
poachers, honey

harvesters etc. especially during the dry season.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
 [Link] and diseases outbreak which can result in destruction of
large tracts

of land with valuable tree species e.g. there was an outbreak

of aphids in

1980s which destroyed cypress.

[Link] whereby the trees are harvested at a higher
rate than

which they are being replaced naturally and also

harvesting of immature
trees.
[Link] of forests e.g. by converting some parts of forests
into private

land, government land like Nyayo Tea Zones and public

utilities like

Agricultural Show Grounds which has resulted into reduction

of the area
under forests.
[Link] management of forests e.g. clear cutting which may lead
to

harvesting of immature trees in future, government officials

carrying out

illegal logging and government in the past having not been

strict in forest

conservation of forests which led to destruction of large areas

of forests.
Management and Conservation of Forests

Conservation of forests is protection of forests against

interference and

destruction by man while forest conservation is effective planning

and control
of forests and forest resources.
Conservation Measures
[Link] of forest reserves to protect indigenous forests
from extinction

e.g. Mt. Kenya forest, Shimba Hills and Arabuko

Sokoke.
[Link] of forest guard posts in the forests to protect forests
against illegal

logging (tree felling).

[Link] Nyayo Tea Zones to act as protective belts to prevent
people from

trespassing into the forests. They are also a source of

employment and

foreign exchange.
[Link] and reafforestation.
[Link] (intercropping of various crops with
trees) which:

Supplies wood resources

Provides animal fodder
Provide food e.g. fruits e.g. mangoes and avocadoes for good
health and nutrition
Acts as wind breakers and
Shade for crops.
Management Measures

[Link] to determine which tree species are suitable for

which area and

how to combat pests and diseases outbreak.

[Link] out public campaigns through mass media on the importance
of
forests.
[Link] of alternative sources of energy e.g. sun, wind, biogas
and water to

reduce the rate of tree felling.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on

[Link]
[Link] of energy saving stoves to reduce the rate of overexploitation of
wood fuel.
[Link] on cutting practices by selective falling of
trees and

replanting more trees than those cut.

[Link] of pests and diseases which affect trees.
Importance of Forest Management and
Conservation

[Link] a source of utility products e.g. firewood for fuel and food
from fruits
and nuts.
[Link] ecological reasons in that they help in the following ways:
To preserve flora and fauna
It’s a water catchment area
Moderating the flow of water reducing soil erosion
and floods

which also prevents siltation of

dams.
[Link] posterity i.e. so that the future generation will have forest
resources
available for their use.
[Link] reasons because forest products are used as raw
materials in the

industries such as furniture, paper making, etc.

5. Forests are important for scientific research such as on
herbal medicine

and genetic mapping of the species of plants and

animals which haven’t
been identified.
Softwood Forests in Kenya and Canada

Factors Favouring the Development of Softwood

Forests
Kenya

[Link] climate of Kenya highlands which enables coniferous

forests to

thrive e.g. Mt. Kenya and Aberdares.

[Link] rainfall received in Kenya highlands and low
evaporation rates
 which supports forest growth.
[Link] and steepness of some parts of Kenya
highlands making

them unsuitable for settlement thereby

leaving forests to thrive.
[Link] demand for timber and wood products locally and
outside the

country which encourages tree farming.

Canada
[Link] and cold climate which favours growth of coniferous
forests.

[Link] low average temperatures in the interior which favours

the growth
of coniferous forests.
[Link] and steepness such as of British Columbia which
discourages

agriculture and settlement leaving forests to thrive.

[Link] low population density leaving a lot of land available for forests.
[Link] rainfall on the windward slopes of mountain ranges of
British

Columbia and low evaporation in the east giving

sufficient moisture to
sustain forests.
Mode of Exploitation
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 Kenya
Workers are transported daily to logging sites in Kenya while in Canada
settlement is set for workers within forests.
Power saws are used in both countries to fell trees but axes are used to
a
limited extent in Kenya.
In Kenya transportation of logs is by tractors and lorries while in
Canada

rivers are widely used to transport logs by floating.

In both countries logging is systematic and it is done in blocks.
Factors Favouring Exploitation of
Softwoods

Kenya

[Link]’t experience winter so logging can go on throughout the

year.

[Link] wood forests in Kenya are easier to exploit because trees

are planted

in rows unlike in Kenya where they are natural and

trees grow

haphazardly.
[Link] Kenya forests are accessible throughout the year unlike
in Canada

where forests in the north are inaccessible during severe

winter and

ruggedness.
[Link] Kenya logging can go on throughout the year because there is no
winter.
[Link] of water from R. Nzoia for pulp and paper
manufacture at

Webuye.
[Link] market due to high demand for wood products locally and
outside
in COMESA.
Canada
[Link] winters in British Columbia which makes it possible to
transport

logs throughout the year.

[Link] of water from many rivers providing plenty of
water for

paper and pulp manufacture.

[Link] H.E.P. for factories from many rivers in Canada.
[Link] and efficient land and water transport system easing
transport of

logs to factories and to markets.

[Link] location of major producing areas making exportation
of timber

to U.S.A. and Japan easy.

[Link] demand for forest products in the neighbouring U.S.A.
and locally

due to high purchasing power.

[Link] of natural coniferous forests in pure stands (one
tree species

covering a large area) making exploitation easy.

[Link] of undergrowth which makes exploitation easy
(due to dead

leaves resulting in acidic humus.

Planted soft Woods in Kenya
Planted in clear rows.
Clear cutting
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 Mature at the same time.
Products
In Kenya and Canada products are poles sawn timber, pulp, paper,
block board,

ply wood, clip board etc.

Economic Significance of Softwood Forests in
both Countries

[Link] employment to people e.g. lumberjacks, tree

farmers and in
timber related industries.
[Link] led to development of timber/wood related industries
e.g. furniture,

paper manufacture etc.

3.A foreign exchange earner when in Canada timber is exported
to U.S.A.

and when products in Kenya are exported to

COMESA.
[Link] some foreign exchange when the country produce
wood products

to cater for their needs on which they’d otherwise spend

foreign

exchange.
[Link] development when roads are
constructed to ease

transportation of logs to industries and products to

markets.
[Link] income to tree farmers.
Problems in Kenya and Canada

[Link] fires which destroy large tracts of land where in

Canada the

greatest number of fires are caused by lighting

while in Kenya they are

caused by illegal loggers, poachers, etc.

[Link] and diseases e.g. aphids which destroyed cypress in 1980s.
[Link] leading to soil erosion as trees takes long
time to mature
 and provide sufficient cover to the soil after
planting.
[Link]’s trees take long time to mature (50-60 years due
to severe

winters which slow their growth. In Kenya

they take 12-35 years.
[Link] Canada there is problem of inaccessibility of forests in the
northern

part in winter and due to rugged terrain while in Kenya they

are planted

and easily accessible.

Comparison of softwood forests in Kenya and Canada
Similarities
Soft wood forests in both countries experience the problems of
pests and

diseases, fires, soil erosion and overexploitation.

Softwood forest products are similar e.g. sawn timber, wood
pulp, paper,

poles, etc.
Softwood forests in both countries grow in places with
heavy rainfall,

cool temperatures, heavy rainfall and rugged

terrain.
Forest products earn foreign exchange in both countries.
Tree species are similar e.g. there is pine in both countries.
Differences
Species of trees differ e.g. in Kenya there is Kenya cedar and
podo while

in Canada there is Douglas fir and white pine.

Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]
 Canada’s soft woods are mainly natural while Kenya’s are
mostly
planted.
Kenya’s softwood forests are found in highlands while
Canada’s are

found in lowlands due to cool temperatures.

Canada’s softwood forests cover large tracts of land than Kenya’s.
In Kenya softwood forests are propagated by afforestation
while in

Canada it’s by leaving some trees uncut so that they produce

seeds to be

dispersed naturally.
Canada’s softwood forests take longer to mature than
Kenya’s due to

severe winter temperatures.

Kenya’s softwood forests are planted in rows and easily
exploitable

unlike Canada’s which grow naturally and

haphazardly.
Mocks, KCSE pastpapers, Notes, Form 1 to Form 4 papers available on
[Link]