MODULE 3: PRINCIPLES OF PLANT GROWTH AND

DEVELOPMENT

LO 3.1 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF A PLANT CELL

STRUCTURE OF A PLANT CELL

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PART DESCRIPTION FUNCTION
Rigid outer layer made of Provides structural support,
Cell Wall cellulose, hemicellulose, and protection, and helps
pectin. maintain the cell's shape.
Regulates the movement of
Semi-permeable lipid
substances in and out of the
Plasma Membrane bilayer with embedded
cell, maintaining
proteins.
homeostasis.
Provides a medium for
Jelly-like fluid inside the chemical reactions and helps
Cytoplasm
cell. in the transport of materials
within the cell.
Acts as the control centre of
Large organelle containing
the cell; stores genetic
Nucleus chromatin (DNA),
material and regulates cell
nucleolus, and surrounded
activities.
by a nuclear envelope.
A dense, spherical structure
found inside the nucleus. It Responsible for producing
is not membrane-bound and ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and
Nucleolus is composed of RNA, assembling ribosomes,
proteins, and DNA. which are essential for
protein synthesis.
Chloroplasts Oval organelles containing Site of photosynthesis;

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 chlorophyll and enclosed by converts light energy into
a double membrane. chemical energy (glucose).
Bean-shaped organelles with
a double membrane; inner Produces ATP (energy)
Mitochondria
membrane folded into through cellular respiration.
cristae.
Stores nutrients, waste
Large central sac surrounded
products, and maintains
Vacuole by a membrane (tonoplast),
turgor pressure, contributing
filled with water and solutes.
to cell rigidity.
Network of membranous Rough ER synthesizes
Endoplasmic Reticulum tubules; rough ER has proteins; smooth ER
(ER) ribosomes, smooth ER does synthesizes lipids and
not. detoxifies substances.
Modifies, sorts, and
Stacks of flattened, packages proteins and lipids
Golgi Apparatus
membrane-bound sacs. for storage or transport out
of the cell.
Small particles made of
RNA and proteins, found on Responsible for protein
Ribosomes
rough ER or in the synthesis.
cytoplasm.
Network of protein Provides structural support,
filaments (microtubules, aids in intracellular
Cytoskeleton
microfilaments, intermediate transport, and plays a role in
filaments). cell division.

Plant Cell Division

1. Types of Cell Division:

o Mitosis: This is the process of cell division that results in two genetically
identical daughter cells. It is essential for growth, tissue repair, and asexual
reproduction. Mitosis consists of several phases: prophase, metaphase,
anaphase, and telophase, followed by cytokinesis.
o Meiosis: This is a specialized form of cell division that occurs in the formation
of gametes (sperm and eggs). It reduces the chromosome number by half,
resulting in four non-identical daughter cells, each with half the genetic
material of the parent cell.
2. Phases of Mitosis:
o Prophase: Chromatin condenses into visible chromosomes, and the nuclear
envelope begins to break down.
o Metaphase: Chromosomes align at the cell's equatorial plane.
o Anaphase: Sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite poles of the cell.
o Telophase: Nuclear envelopes reform around each set of chromosomes, which
de-condense back into chromatin.
o Cytokinesis: The cytoplasm divides, resulting in two separate cells.

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Plant Growth

1. Types of Growth:
(a) Primary Growth: This occurs at the tips of roots and stems, leading to an
increase in length. It is facilitated by apical meristems, regions of
undifferentiated cells capable of continuous division.
(b) Secondary Growth: This involves the thickening of stems and roots and is
associated with the vascular cambium and cork cambium. Secondary growth is
more prominent in woody plants.
2. Cell Growth:

Plant cells grow by absorbing water, which increases turgor pressure and expands the cell
wall. Cell wall components such as cellulose and hemicellulose are synthesized and deposited
to strengthen the cell.

3. Hormonal Regulation:

Plant growth is regulated by hormones such as auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, and abscisic
acid. These hormones influence various growth processes, including cell elongation, division,
and differentiation.
Auxins stimulate cell elongation and are involved in processes like phototropism (growth
toward light); Gibberellins promote stem elongation and seed germination; Cytokinins
promote cell division and can influence leaf expansion.

4. Environmental Conditions: Light, water, temperature, and nutrients are critical for
optimal growth. Plants respond to these conditions through processes like
phototropism (growth toward light) and gravitropism (growth in response to gravity).

Plant Replication

Plant replication refers to the processes through which plants reproduce and create new
individuals. This can occur through both sexual and asexual reproduction:

1. Sexual Reproduction: This involves the formation of seeds through the fertilization
of ovules by pollen. The process includes:
o Pollination: Transfer of pollen from the male anther to the female stigma.
o Fertilization: Fusion of male and female gametes.
o Seed Development: Formation of seeds that contain the genetic material from
both parent plants.
2. Asexual Reproduction: Plants can also reproduce without the formation of seeds
through methods such as:
o Vegetative Propagation: Involves the growth of new plants from parts of the
parent plant (e.g., roots, stems, leaves).
o Cloning: Many plants can regenerate from cuttings, tubers, or bulbs.

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LO 3.2 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS

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STRUCTURE OF A MONOCOTYLEDON AND
DICOTYLEDON PLANT SEED

SEED MONOCOT SEED DICOT SEED FUNCTION

PART (E.G., MAIZE) (E.G., BEAN)
Seed Coat Thin, protective outer Thicker, protective Protects the seed from
covering. outer covering. physical damage and
prevents water loss.
Cotyledon(s) One cotyledon Two cotyledons – Stores or absorbs nutrients
(scutellum) – thin and large and store food that are essential for the
absorbs nutrients from reserves (starch, developing seedling.
the endosperm. protein).
Endosperm Large, nutrient-rich Typically, absent or Provides energy and
tissue that provides small; nutrients are nutrients to the
food for the growing stored in the developing embryo in
embryo. cotyledons. monocots. In dicots,
cotyledons take over this
function.
Embryo Contains the radicle Contains the radicle Develops into the new
(future root), plumule (future root), plumule plant.
(future shoot), and the (future shoot), and
hypocotyl. the hypocotyl.
Radicle First part of the First part of the Grows into the root
embryo to emerge embryo to emerge system of the seedling,
during germination, during germination, anchoring the plant and
grows into the grows into the absorbing water and
primary root. primary root. nutrients.
Plumule The embryonic shoot, The embryonic shoot, Develops into the shoot
located above the located above the system, which includes
cotyledon in cotyledons in dicots. leaves and stems.

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 monocots.
Hypocotyl The region between The region between Connects the radicle and
the radicle and the the radicle and the the plumule and aids in
plumule. cotyledons. early seedling growth.
Coleoptile A protective sheath Absent in dicots. Protects the shoot as it
covering the plumule grows upward through the
in monocots. soil.
Coleorhiza A protective sheath Absent in dicots. Protects the radicle as it
surrounding the grows downward into the
radicle in monocots. soil.

Differences:

 Monocots have a single cotyledon, a large endosperm for nutrient storage, and
protective sheaths (coleoptile and coleorhiza) for the shoot and root.
 Dicots have two cotyledons that store food, and they lack the protective sheaths
(coleoptile and coleorhiza) found in monocots.

ROOT STRUCTURE OF MONOCOT AND DICOT (cross

section).

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Structure and Functions of Monocot and Dicot Roots

FEATURE MONOCOT ROOT DICOT ROOT

Taproot system with a main
Fibrous root system with many fine
Root System central root growing deep
roots that spread laterally.
into the soil.
Single outermost layer with root
Similar structure with root
Epidermis hairs for water and nutrient
hairs for absorption.
absorption.
Parenchyma cells with large Parenchyma cells with less
Cortex intercellular spaces for storage and prominent intercellular spaces
aeration. for storage.
regulate water and solute movement
Endodermis Similar function
into the vascular bundle.
Gives rise to lateral roots and
Gives rise to lateral roots but does
Pericycle contributes to secondary
not contribute to secondary growth.
growth in older roots.
Arranged in a circular pattern with Star-shaped pattern with 2-6
Xylem Arrangement
numerous small xylem vessels. radiating arms.
Found between the arms of
Phloem Arrangement Alternates with xylem patches.
the star-shaped xylem.
Large and prominent, stores
Pith Absent or very small.
nutrients.
Present between xylem and
Cambium Absent, hence no secondary growth. phloem, allowing secondary
growth.
Present, resulting in
Lacking, resulting in no thickening
Secondary Growth thickened roots due to
of roots.
vascular cambium activity.
Function: Root hairs absorb water and minerals Root hairs absorb water and
Absorption efficiently. minerals efficiently.
Taproot penetrates deeply,
Function: Fibrous roots spread widely,
providing strong support and
Anchorage anchoring the plant in shallow soil.
stability.
Cortex stores nutrients, and
Function: Cortex and pith store starch and some dicot roots (e.g.,
Storage nutrients. carrots) are specialized for
significant storage.

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LONGITUDINAL STRUCTURE OF A PLANT ROOT

REGION MONOCOT ROOT DICOT ROOT

Protective structure at the tip
of the root; prevents damage Similar function and
Root Cap
as the root grows through structure as monocot roots.
the soil.
Located just behind the root
Same as monocots,
Region of Cell Division/ cap; contains actively
responsible for new cell
Meristematic Zone dividing meristematic cells
production.
for root growth.
Above the cell division Similar function, aiding in
Region of Elongation zone, cells elongate, root penetration and
increasing root length. elongation.
Cells differentiate into
specialized types (epidermis, Similar process, enabling the
Region of
cortex, vascular tissues); root to absorb water and
Maturation/differentiation
root hairs develop for nutrients efficiently.
absorption.

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 Found in the maturation
Same function as in
zone; increase surface area
Root Hairs monocots, enhancing
for water and nutrient
absorptive efficiency.
absorption.
Extends longitudinally;
Similar, with distinct xylem
xylem and phloem transport
Vascular Tissue and phloem arrangement
water, nutrients, and food
characteristic of dicot roots.
throughout the root.
Arise from the pericycle; Same function, although
spread out to increase the dicots often have a deeper
Lateral Roots
absorptive area of the root and more structured lateral
system. root system.
Forms a selective barrier for Functions as a selective
Endodermis
water and solute transport. layer.
Produces lateral roots and
Produces lateral roots; no
Pericycle contributes to secondary
role in secondary growth
growth
Present in older roots;
Absent; no thickening increases root thickness and
Secondary Growth (if any)
occurs over time. transport capacity (involved
cambium activity).

STEM STRUCTURE OF A MONOCOT AND DICOT PLANT

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FEATURE MONOCOT STEM DICOT STEM
Single outermost layer with
Similar, with a cuticle and
Epidermis a cuticle, sometimes with
occasional stomata.
stomata.
Hypodermis for mechanical support. for support and flexibility.
Generally absent or very Present, composed of
Cortex
narrow. parenchyma for storage.
Scattered throughout the Arranged in a ring, fewer in
Vascular Bundles ground tissue, usually number, and open (with
numerous and closed. cambium).
Present, surrounds vascular
Bundle Sheath bundles, made of Absent.
sclerenchyma.
Present, with vascular
Present in each vascular
cambium between xylem
Xylem and Phloem bundle; no vascular
and phloem for secondary
cambium.
growth.
Absent, ground tissue is Prominent and well-
Pith
undifferentiated. developed, stores nutrients.
Absent due to lack of Present, leads to thickening
Secondary Growth
vascular cambium. of the stem.
FUNCTION MONOCOT STEM DICOT STEM
Provides mechanical support Provides strong support
Support using sclerenchyma and using vascular bundles
scattered vascular bundles. arranged in a ring.
Conducts water, nutrients, Similar function, with xylem
Transport and food through xylem and and phloem organized for
phloem. efficient transport.
Stores nutrients in ground Stores nutrients in the pith
Storage
tissue. and cortex.
Some monocot stems, like Similar function in
Photosynthesis sugarcane, are herbaceous stems, such as
photosynthetic. sunflower.
Increases stem diameter in
Secondary Growth Not applicable. woody dicots, enabling
better support and transport.

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 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF A PLANT LEAF

PART STRUCTURE FUNCTION

Outer protective layer of cells on
both upper (adaxial) and lower Protects inner tissues from injury, water
Epidermis (abaxial) surfaces. Often covered loss, and pathogens. Regulates gas exchange
with a waxy cuticle. May through stomata.
contain stomata.
Prevents excessive water loss through
Waxy layer covering the
Cuticle evaporation and provides a barrier to
epidermis, made of cutin.
pathogens.
Facilitate gas exchange (CO₂ in, O₂ out)
Pores in the epidermis,
Stomata and control transpiration by regulating water
surrounded by guard cells.
vapor loss.
Specialized kidney-shaped cells
Regulate the opening and closing of stomata
(in dicots) or dumbbell-shaped
Guard Cells to balance gas exchange and water
(in monocots) surrounding
conservation.
stomata.
Tissue between the upper and
lower epidermis, divided into
Mesophyll for photosynthesis and gas diffusion.
palisade and spongy mesophyll
in dicots.
Columnar cells rich in
Palisade chloroplasts, arranged compactly Primary site for photosynthesis due to high
Mesophyll beneath the upper epidermis (in chloroplast density.
dicots).

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 Loosely arranged, irregularly
Spongy shaped cells with intercellular Facilitates gas exchange and water vapor
Mesophyll spaces, found below the palisade movement within the leaf.
layer.
Composed of xylem (upper part)
Veins (Vascular Xylem transports water and minerals;
and phloem (lower part),
Bundles) phloem transports sugars and nutrients.
surrounded by a bundle sheath.
Layer of tightly packed cells
Protects vascular tissues and aids in efficient
Bundle Sheath surrounding the vascular
transport.
bundles.
Stalk connecting the leaf blade
Supports the leaf and connects it to the stem,
Petiole to the stem (not part of all
allowing transport of nutrients and water.
leaves).
Leaf Blade Broad, flat part of the leaf with Main site for photosynthesis, gas exchange,
(Lamina) veins. and transpiration.

Midrib Central vein running through the Provides support to the leaf and serves as the
leaf blade, composed of vascular main pathway for transport.
tissue.
Veins Provides structural support. Facilitates transport of water, minerals, and
Network of nutrients
vascular bundles
within the leaf.
Parallel in
monocots;
reticulate in
dicots.

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF A MONOCOTYLEDON AND

DICOTYLEDON PLANT LEAF.
MONOCOT LEAF

Guard cell.

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 Guard cell

DICOT LEAF

Guard cells.

FEATURE MONOCOT DICOT

Broad and wide, with various
Shape Generally long and narrow.
shapes (e.g., oval, lobed).
Parallel venation: veins run parallel Reticulate venation: veins
Venation
to each other. form a network-like pattern.
Single-layered, with more
Single-layered with stomata equally
Epidermis stomata typically on the lower
distributed on both sides of the leaf.
epidermis.
May vary according to plant
Cuticle Often thicker to reduce water loss
species.
Undifferentiated; consists of spongy Differentiated into palisade
Mesophyll
mesophyll cells. and spongy mesophyll layers.
Prominent and well-developed, Less prominent and smaller
Bundle Sheath
especially in C4 plants. compared to monocots.
Numerous, scattered, and of similar Fewer, larger, and arranged in
Vascular Bundles
size; surrounded by a sheath. a branching pattern.
Leaf Stalk (Petiole) Sessile or with a sheathing leaf base. Petiole present, connecting the
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 leaf blade to the stem.
More stomata on the lower
Stomatal Evenly distributed on both surfaces
surface than the upper
Distribution (isobilateral).
(dorsiventral).
Guard cells Dumbbell-shaped Kidney/bean-shaped.
Photosynthesis, gas exchange, and Photosynthesis, gas exchange,
Functions transpiration, particularly efficient and transpiration, adapted to
for upright growth. diverse environments.
Example Plants Grasses, maize, rice. Mango, bean, sunflower.

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF A BEAN FLOWER

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PART STRUCTURE FUNCTIONS
Five green, leaf-like - Protect the flower bud
structures forming a during development.
Calyx (Sepals)
protective layer at the base - Support the flower parts
of the flower. when in bloom.
Composed of five petals:
- Standard: Attracts
- Standard (large, outer
pollinators.
petal).
- Wings: Aid in pollinator
Corolla (Petals) - Wings (two lateral petals).
landing.
- Keel (two fused petals
- Keel: Protects reproductive
forming a boat-like
organs.
structure).
Male reproductive part;
consists of 10 stamens: - Produce and release pollen
Stamens (Androecium) - Nine are fused into a tube, (male gametes) for
and one is free. pollination and fertilization.
- Anthers produce pollen.
Female reproductive part;
consists of:
- Facilitate fertilization.
- Stigma: Sticky tip that
- Ovary develops into a pod,
Carpel (Gynoecium) receives pollen.
and ovules develop into
- Style: Connects stigma to
seeds (beans).
ovary.
- Ovary: Contains ovules.
Swollen base where the - Provides structural support
Receptacle
floral parts are attached. to the flower.
Glands often located at the - Secrete nectar to attract
Nectaries
base of the flower. pollinators.

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 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF A MAIZE FLOWER.

The maize flower is unique because maize is a monoecious plant with separate male and
female flowers on the same plant.

PART STRUCTURE FUNCTIONS

Located at the top of the maize plant.
Consists of: - Produce and release pollen
Male Flower (Tassel)
- Spikelets: Contain stamens. for wind pollination.
- Anthers: Produce and release pollen.
Located in the leaf axils. Consists of:
- Silks capture pollen for
- Cob: Central structure holding ovules.
fertilization.
Female Flower (Ear)
- Ovary develops into
- Silks: Long, thread-like structures
kernels (seeds).
attached to ovules.
Found in the male flower; each has: - Produce and release pollen
Stamens (Male) - Anthers: Contain pollen grains. for fertilization of female
- Filament: Supports the anther. flowers.
Found in the female flower; consists of: - Capture pollen via silks.
Carpels (Female) - Stigma (Silk): Captures pollen. - Ovules develop into seeds
- Ovary: Contains ovules. (kernels) upon fertilization.
Swollen base where female flower parts - Provides support to the
Receptacle
are attached. cob and silks.
- Protect the reproductive
Protective bracts enclosing the spikelets
Glumes structures during
of both male and female flowers.
development.

Key Features of Maize Flowers:

 Wind Pollination: Maize flowers rely on wind for pollination, so they are not brightly
coloured or scented.
 Monoecious Nature: Male and female flowers are separate but found on the same plant.

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 Silks in Pollination: Each silk is connected to an ovule, and successful fertilization results in
the formation of a kernel.

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