Business Communication and Report Writing

(Mam Naheed Waqar Notes)

Combined by Umme L.

Set 1
Part A

What is Communication?

“The imparting or exchanging of information, ideas or feelings by speaking, writing,

or using some other medium”.

The word "communication" is derived from the Latin word "communicare" which
means: to share, exchange, send along, transmit, talk, gesture, write, put in use,
relate,etc.

A number of definitions have been given to the term "communication". A few

important ones are:

• Communication is the sum of all the things one person does when he wants to
create understanding in the mind of another. It involves systematic and
continuous process of telling, listening and understanding.
Louise Allen

• Communication is process of conveying messages (facts, ideas, attitudes and

opinions) from one person to another so that they are understood.
M.W. Cumming

• Communication is defined as the interchange of thought or information

between two or more persons to bring about mutual understanding.
Robert Anderson

• Communication as the transfer of information and understanding from one

person to another person. It is a way of reaching others with facts, ideas,
thoughts, and values.

Keith Davis
Based on the above definitions we conclude that there are certain
characteristics of communication. These are:

o Communication involves at least two persons-the senders and the

receiver.

o It involves the transfer of ideas, facts, emotions, gestures, symbols, and

action from sender to receiver.

o Understanding is an essential component of communication, that is, the

ideas, opinions, emotions and so on, conveyed should be accurately
replicated in the receivers’ mind.

o Communication may be intentional or unintentional.

o The purpose of communication is to elicit action, inform or to express a

certain point of view.

o Communication is a two-way process, that is, feedback from the receiver

to the sender is an essential component of communication.

o Communication is a dynamic process, that is, it grows and develops.

o Communication is systematic, that is, every component of the process is

affected by every other component. For example, if there is a fault in the
telephone (channel of communication), it will affect the message
received by the receiver.

THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS/ Model/ Cycle

Communication passes between a source (the sender) and a receiver. The message
is encoded (converted to a symbolic form) and passed by way of some medium
(channel) to the receiver, who retranslates (decodes) the message initiated by the
sender. The result is the transfer of meaning from one person to another.

Paralanguage: Voice ka taiz or aista ho jana moti ya bareek ho jana.

Paraphase: content kahin sy ly thora sa change kr k use krna.

Pleasurizm: Content copy krna.
The following ILLUSTRATION shows the communication cycle. The model is made
up of six components:

Components of communication

[Link] sender/ encoder/ source

The sender may be a person, a group, a team or an organisation who is sends/

encodes the message. In most cases the sender would be a specific person.
However, reports, letters, memos and prospectuses may be communicated in the
name of a team or even a whole company.

For example, an IT helpdesk may share a group e-mail address that ensures
employees can access 24-hour help using the same group email address.

Another example would be the audit report which is typically signed in the name of
an audit firm rather than an individual partner.

Or you receive a letter from a bank.

2. The Recipient/ decoder

The receiver may also be a person, a group, a team or an organization.

[Link] Message:

The message is the actual physical product from the source encoding. When we
speak, the speech is the message. When we write, the writing is the message. Whe
we gesture, the movements of our arms and the expressions of our faces are the
message. However, messages need not be sent intentionally. Through slips of
tongue, or just a kind of fragrance you smell around may communicate something.

[Link] Channel and medium

The communication channel is the route by which the message is transmitted from
the sender to the recipient.

If we take a letter (the medium) as an example, this could be transmitted as

follows:

Telecommunications: The letter could be read out on a telephone call.

Internet: The letter could be emailed.

Post: The letter could be printed and then sent in the post.

Notice board: The letter could be printed then posted on a staff notice-board

5. feedback

In the communication process, feedback refers to a response from the receiver

which gives the communicator an idea of how the message is being received and
whether it needs to be modified.

Feedback is essential in communication so as to know whether the recipient has

understood the message in the same terms as intended by the sender and whether
he agrees to that message or not. ... It makes communication meaningful. It is the
end-result of an idea and makes communication a continuous process.

6. Context

It refers to the setting in which communication takes place. The context helps
establish meaning and can influence what is said and how it is said. There are at
least four aspects in regards to the idea of context:

1. Formal vs informal
Example: Communication at office vs talking to your family or friends
2. Confidential vs non confidential
Example: pay roll data or client data vs office timings on notice board
3. Urgent vs non urgent
 Example: Announcement for the evacuation of building vs guiding juniors on
proper pasture for computer work
4. Internal vs external
Example: Memo vs letter

Also learn theses definitions

Encoding - To encode is to put a message into words or images. The sender

organizes his message into a series of symbols – either written words or spoken
words or gestures or any other symbolic act or a combination of these modes. This
is termed as encoding of the message. There are three encoding skills: speaking,
writing and body language.

Encoding the matter is a very important element of communication. Using

appropriate words and symbols can make the message clear and effective

Decoding - Decoding is the process by which the receiver interprets the message
and translates it into meaningful information. Decoding involves two things: one is
technically receiving the message as it has been sent, and the other is interpreting
the message the way sender wants receiver to understand.

Stimulus: A stimulus is something that causes a reaction. It creates a need to

communicate and hence there must be a stimulus for communication to take place.
This stimulus may be external or internal. When it develops in an environment, it is
called an external stimulus.

The internal stimulus might be a desire from within the person to send across a
message or information. He converts the message into a code. This process is called
encoding. The sender is also called the encoder.

IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION

Effective communication is central to the success of any business organization.

Communication is an inescapable activity which encompasses almost all facets of
our lives. Much of our life is spent communicating with each other, be it at our
workplace or in our family life.
People have to communicate with each other, exchanging information, making
decisions, talking about new ideas, plans, proposals etc. They also have to
communicate externally with foreigners and people of other races and languages.

Scientific research has discovered that we spend nearly 70% of our waking hours
communicating – writing, reading, speaking, or listening – it seems that
communication is inevitable. A successful person is one who can communicate
effectively.

Communication is an ever-present feature of both commercial and personal life

whether initiated consciously (e.g. writing a report or email) or sub-consciously
(through non-verbal cues such as body-language).

Importance of communication has gained recognition because it is the most vital

mean by which people are connected together in the society. Communication plays a
crucial role in almost all aspects of life. To work in business, government or
organisations is impossible without communication.

Characteristics of Effective communication

Communication should demonstrate the following characteristics in order to
maximise its impact:

Accurate – Facts and figures including numbers, times, dates and names must be
accurate as inaccuracies can create a bad impression for an organisation which can
ultimately impact on its profitability.

Appropriate media and channel – This means selecting the right type of
communication such as an e-mail, letter, telephone call, report or meeting. Before
communicating something consider how you would feel and what message you
would actually receive if it was you receiving that particular message via that
particular type of communication.

Clear – There should be little doubt as to what is meant by the communication.

This requires careful choice of language and keeping the communication as simple
as possible.

Appropriate language (image and tone) – The image and tone that are portrayed
reflect both the sender and their organisation. It is particularly important when
communicating with parties external to the business to set the right image and tone
to ensure the message being communicated is not distorted and misinterpreted.

Common advice around language includes:

avoid using complex words;

support words with tables, graphs and other images; and

 avoid jargon and technical terms unless absolutely essential.

The key purposes of communication:

:
Acquiring information – collecting, analysing, checking and processing
numerous types of communication both internal and external to an
organisation. This often involves initiatives to generate ideas and solutions.

Disseminating information – sharing information to those who need it to

perform their job, make a decision or solve a problem. This might involve co-
ordinating plans and communicating goals and structures.

Maintaining relationships – relationships between co-workers and with

both suppliers and customers need managing through effective and
appropriate communication to ensure continuity of operations and ultimate
profitability of the organisation.

Barrier to communication …imp.

Any circumstance that prevents the message from being communicated as intended
by the sender to the recipient.

There are many reasons why the message that the sender sends is not the message
that the receiver receives and interprets. Barriers might include:

Issues in the relationship between the sender and receiver that can lead to bias.
( favor or against someone)
Noise – physical interference that damaged the message as it was being
communicated. Noise = misinterpretation Distortion =Interference

For example, a heavy storm may mean that the phone connection is weakened and
keeps breaking up so only part of the spoken words can be heard by the recipient.
Another example might be when watching a television programme and the picture
breaks up every time the electronic garage door is activated (due to electro-magnetic
noise).
There are various types of noise:
1. Physical noise: Physical noise is something external to the speaker and listener
that makes it difficult to hear what is being said – for example loud background
music in a restaurant, extremely high temperatures or very bright (or dim) lighting.

2. Psychological noise: Psychological noise refers to inert qualities that impact how
we communicate and interpret others. For example a loss of concentration or a
wandering of the mind, preoccupation with a problem, battling with prejudice.

3. Physiological noise: Physiological noise describes the interference to either the

sender or recipient from any physiological issue that interferes with communication.
Examples might include a migraine, hunger, fatigue or medication.

4. Semantic noise: Semantic noise describes the lack of a shared meaning in

communication which arises from using terminology and jargon. This exists when
words themselves are not mutually understood and can often arise in technical
areas such as discussions with lawyers, medical professionals, accountants and
scientists (amongst others).

Confusing and conflicting messages leading to distortion.

Selecting the wrong channel, for example trying to explain a complicated concept
with words when a diagram and logical written explanation would be more effective.
Suffering interruptions and distractions during transmission of the message
Receiver does not provide feedback.
Lack of information – for example contextual information that is critical to
understanding how to interpret a message.
Faulty systems – e.g. weak mobile phone signal.
Stereotyping assumptions that the recipient has a particular level of
understanding.
Use of technical jargon or complicated language.
Poor listening skills of the receiver – lack of attention, inability to absorb
information or perceptual selection (in simple terms ‘selective hearing’ – i.e. hear
only what they want to hear).
Non-verbal signs that contradict a verbal message (for example shaking the head –
which would imply “no” – whilst actually saying “yes”).
Information overload. This can become a huge issue particularly with emails
whereby the recipient is so swamped with the volume of messages that they are
simply unable to read, interpret and act on all the communications received.
Differences in education and/or social background leading to cultural differences
and varying interpretations of the same message. For example in many countries
around the world a ‘thumbs-up’ is a positive ‘good news’ gesture (meaning “ok”,
“yes”, or ‘I approve”), whereas in some countries such as Afghanistan, Nigeria, parts
of Italy, Greece and South America is it an offensive obscene insult.
Sender and receiver speak different languages.
The recipient of the information may be biased either due to personal or cultural
differences.
Physical distance between sender and recipient, for example Sydney- Australia
and New York-USA time zones making arranging a videoconference difficult.

Sender and receiver dislike each other and do not trust each other.

Khud sy dba dena

Filtering of Information – this refers to the sender’s deliberate suppression or

manipulation of information so that it may be seen in a more favourable perspective
by the receiver. It includes concealment of information by the sender which is not
considered to be in accordance with the expectations or viewpoints of the receiver.

Selective Perception – this describes the process by which the sub-conscious

mind subjectively ‘decides’ which stimuli relating to an object, person or event are
relevant and accepts only such stimuli which do not contradict the interests,
experience, background and attitude of the recipient and match (confirm) the
individual’s viewpoints. All other stimuli are considered irrelevant by the recipient
and ignored and rejected by the sub-conscious mind.

Org

When communication is referred to in an organizational context, it is known as

organizational communication. According to William Scott: ‘Administrative communication is
a process which involves the transmission and accurate replication of ideas ensured by
feedback for the purpose of eliciting actions which will accomplish organizational goals.‘
In the words of Peter Little, ‘Communication is the process by which information is
transmitted between individuals and/or organizations so that an understanding and
response develops.‘

Classification of Communication

Communication in an organization can be broadly classified into two types:

o Formal Communication

o Informal Communication

This classification is based on channels of communication. The channel of communication

refers to the path through which the information is transmitted

Formal Communication

Formal communication refers to the official communication which follows the formal
channel. Formal channels are the paths of communication that are institutionally
determined, that is, they are established by the organization. This communication follows
the scalar chain of command.

Formal communication can be oral or written. Oral communication can take the form of
interviews, meetings, presentations, and so on. Written communication can take the form of
notes, memos, letters, reports, and so on.

Formal communication can be further classified into the following:

o Downward communication: It refers to communication from top-level managers to

middle or lower-level managers. Any communication that moves from employees to
supervisors, supervisors to managers, managers to executives, regional manager to
general manager and so on, maybe categorized as upward communication.

o Upward communication: It refers to communication from lower-level managers to

top-level managers. It travels through senior executives to junior level functionaries,
from the controlling office to the branch, from the head of the division to the head of
the unit.

(Peer to peer)
 o Horizontal or Lateral communication: Lateral communication generally takes
place in an organization and is neither upward nor downward. It proceeds in a
horizontal manner and takes place among equals and at peer level.

o Interactive communication: Interactive communication is essentially a two-way

process. It takes place through meetings, conferences, teleconferencing, multimedia
presentations, group discussions, and other such active two-way exchanges.

Informal Communication

Informal communication refers to communication between individuals and groups, which

does not follow the official recognized channel. It is a result of social interaction among the
various members of the organization. The transfer of information may be related to work or
other matters and it cuts across official lines of communication.

The network or pathway of informal communication is called grapevine. The untrue part of
the grapevine is called rumor. The following are some of the characteristics of grapevine:

o In grapevine, the flow of information takes place in all directions.

o Transmission of the information is rapid because the chain of command is not

followed.

o It is selective about people who receive the information.

o It extends beyond the formal hierarchy system.

A. On the Basis of Relationship or Organizational Structure:

1. Formal Communication:

Formal communication is that which takes place through the formal channels of the

organization structure deliberately and consciously established by the management. It

implies the flow of the information along the lines of authority formally established in the

enterprise.

Members of the enterprise are expected to communicate with one another strictly as per

channels laid down in the structure. For example, when the chief executive issues

decisions and instructions to the subordinates, there is a formal communication which flows

downward. In the same manner formal communication flows upward when the subordinate
reports to the superior.
[Link]

IMPORTANCE OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION:

Effective communication is important because one needs to express his ideas clearly and
needs to be understood very clearly while communicating. The receiver should understand
the message in the same perception as intended by the sender of the message. This is
what we call an effective communication. Interestingly though, there are other facets to
effective communication when it comes to written communication particularly, popularly
known as ‘Seven C’s of Effective Communication’.

THE IMPORTANCE OF WRITTEN COMMUNICATION IN

AN ORGANISATION:
Communication is the key to motivation, it helps in informing and illuminating the
employees about the task to be carried out, the manner they should be performing their
task, and how to improve their performance if it is not up to the mark.

An Effective Communication is the best source of information to the members of

organization for decision-making process as it helps identifying and evaluate alternative
course of actions.

Communication also plays a fundamental role in altering an individual’s attitude, i.e., a well
informed individual will have better attitude than a less-informed individual. Organizational
magazines, journals, meetings and various other forms of oral and written communication
help in moulding employee’s attitudes.

Communication also helps in socializing. In today’s life the only presence of another
individual fosters communication. Human is a social animal and survival without
communication is neither possible nor fruitful.

Communication also assists in controlling process in a big way. It helps controlling

organizational member’s behavior in various ways. It is the art of getting work done. There
are various levels of hierarchy, certain principles and guidelines that employees must follow
in an organization. They must comply with organizational policies, perform their roles
efficiently and communicate any work problem and grievance to their superiors. Thus,
communication helps in controlling function of management.

Set 2
2. Communication in Organization

What is the meaning of organizational communication?

We define organizational communication' as the sending and receiving of messages among
interrelated individuals within a particular environment or setting to achieve individual and
common goals. Organizational communication is highly contextual and culturally
dependent.

Communication at organization level –

All managerial functions like planning, organizing, directing, coordinating and controlling
can be well performed with the tool of good communication.

The process of communication makes it possible for managers to carry out their task
responsibilities. Information must be communicated to managers so that they will have a
basis for planning; the plans must be communicated to others to be carried out. Organizing
requires communicating with people about their job assignments. Leading requires
managers to communicate with subordinates so that group goals can be achieved. Oral,
written, and, increasingly, electronic communications are an essential part of controlling.
Managers can carry out their management functions only by interacting with and
communicating with others. The communication process is thus the foundation for the
management functions.

Similarly, communication connects the organization with the outside world, be it customers,
suppliers, government authorities, or anybody else. Effective dealing with everybody
requires good communication skills.

There is the exchange of information which takes place within an organization and between
organization and its environment. Information is very vital for the survival and prosperity of
any organization in the today's fast changing environment. Passing and receiving
information needs communication. More effective the communication process, more
efficient and accurate the information will be

A large share of managerial time is devoted to the activity of communication. Henry

Mintazberg, management theorist has described the manager's job in three types of roles -
interpersonal roles, informational roles, and decisional roles. To perform all these roles
efficiently, manager needs to be a good communicator.

Why communication has gained importance in modern scenario

The importance of communication in business has all the more increased with the passage
of time as the society is becoming more and more complex and the businesses are getting
global. The factors responsible for growing importance of communication are as follows:

1. Global Business environment - Now a days organizations operate at transnational

level. This needs dealings with people of different cultures and language. The need of
effective resultantly enhances communication.
2. Large-scale operations - With the expanding economies, businesses are being done
on large scale. Consequently size and decentralization of the organization increase.
Coordinating the whole affair needs effective communication.

3. Technological advancement - With fast moving technology, the methods and

techniques of work change very fast. Making people understand the newer ways of doing
things needs effective communication.

4. Role of information - The organizations need for information has increased. The
business environment is changing very fast, and to keep pace with this changing
environment, organizations have to be abreast with the latest.

5. Change in management style - Earlier the style of working was - management

decides and orders and workers perform. Over the period of time, there has been a
substantial change in the approach. Now the emphasis is on participative management.

6. Need for better human relations and higher motivation level - With the growing
aspirations of work force and its awareness, keeping the workers motivated and
maintaining good relations with them is an important task of the management.

7. Increasing social role - Modern business is being recognized as a social institution. It

has to deal with different segments of society in different capacities, such as its
shareholders, customers, suppliers, trade unions, press, government, etc.

8. Role of ICT. Information and Communication Technologies.

What is an organisation?

Definition: An organisation is a social arrangement for the controlled performance of

collective goals that has a boundary separating it from its environment.

For example a car manufacturer, a grocery store and a golf club.

Communication in organization

An organization is a group of people striving for the achievement of organizational goals.

Without good communication, these goals cannot be achieved. Communication is
considered 'lifeblood of an organization.' As circulation of blood keeps human body healthy,
active and efficient, same happens with an organization through effective communication

With effective communication, attitudes and performance of employees improve

tremendously as they feel more informed about the policies and changes, they feel involved
in the strategic activities of the organization they feel free to give feedback to their superiors
about policies and directions In short, good communication greatly improves efficiency of
the workers in an organization

The characteristics that differentiate one organization from the other :

Ownership – public or private

Activity (i.e. what they do) – e.g. Agriculture, manufacturing, energy

Orientation: profit (normally private sector businesses) or non-profit (e.g. charities and
the public sector – schools and the government)

Size

Geographical location

Legal status – incorporated, partnership, sole trader

Source of finance

Technology

(Knowledge of the above will assist the sender in adopting the appropriate communication
medium, channel and content.)

Why do organisations exist?

(means why we need people from different educational backgrounds or experiences to

work together for one organization)

The common benefits of organisations include: imp.

They can overcome individual limitations. Spoil = khrb krna

They can enable specialisation.

Synergies can be identified that save both time and money.

( Synergy is the creation of a whole that is greater than the simple sum of its parts. The
term synergy comes from the Greek word meaning "working together")

They can enable the accumulation and sharing of knowledge as well as the pooling of
expertise.

The above can be summarised by saying that organisations have the ability to vastly
improve productivity through blending complimentary skills and achieving economies of
scale.

• Communication structure
What is communication structure in an organization?

The structure of the organization's communication networks dictates the methods and
speeds by which ideas flow among managers and employees.

The second approach defines communication structure as the patterns of interaction

among people who make up the organization. In this sense, structure depends on who
communicates with whom.

Different organizations use different structures, often based on the size of the
organization or whether it has multiple divisions operating independently. A specific
organizational structure or lines of communication an organization chooses must
help facilitate not only accurate messaging, but also timely responses to prevent
missed opportunities or late delivery of work.

Middle manager = blend of formal and informal

communication

Diagonal = blend of horizontal and vertical

Direction of communication
The concept of “direction of communication” can be applied to situations where
some kind of hierarchy or structure exists.

Hierarchy is a system in which people or things are arranged according to their

importance. or
A system in which the people within a company or organization are organized into
levels according to the authority they have.

Communication in an organization has 2 types of structures/ netwroks:

Formal and informal communication structures/ networks

Formal communication within an entity takes places through approved organisational
channels. These channels are sanctioned officially and are reflected in an organisational
chart. The organisational chart defines the hierarchical arrangements and the reporting
system in the organization

Examples of formal communication are reports and instructions by a manager to a

subordinate such as organisation charts, manuals and job descriptions. Formal
communication passes through the formal management structure and ‘chain of command’.
Individuals receive and give information because of their position in the organisation.

Direction of communication in organizations

Formal communication can be further classified into the following:

o 1. Vertical communication

A. Downward communication: It refers to communication from top-level managers

to middle or lower-level managers. Any communication that moves from employees
to supervisors, supervisors to managers, managers to executives, regional manager
to general manager and so on, maybe categorized as upward communication.

B. Upward communication: It refers to communication from lower-level managers

to top-level managers. It travels through senior executives to junior level
functionaries, from the controlling office to the branch, from the head of the division
to the head of the unit.

2. Horizontal or Lateral communication:

Horizontal is also called ‘lateral’ communication. Horizontal communication occurs

between peer groups and people of similar standing/ ranks.

3. Diagonal communication

Diagonal communication describes the simultaneous combination of vertical

and horizontal communication. In a commercial environment this might
involve cross-team communication when co-ordinating projects, innovating
new ideas or problem solving.

Diagonal communication can be used as a techniqueto by-pass blockages in

the usual vertical reporting line such as when a line manager is on holiday, or
when technical input is required outside the usual sphere of expertise.
Content from some Indian book

Additional information about Vertical communication

Managers communicate downwards when issuing instructions and briefing their

teams.
Employees would communicate upwards when reporting back to their managers
with updates and results on work performed.
Vertical communication is typically more formal as it recognises the different levels
within the hierarchy. However, there can be challenges in ensuring that upward
communication is effective in large organisations. For example:
1. Subordinates may consider that the seniors would not be interested in the
opinions or information given by the subordinates.
2. Subordinates may think that the seniors are busy and already facing information
overload and would not have time to consider the problems or suggestions provided
by subordinates.
[Link] may fear that reporting of a problem or communication of a
grievance may result in antagonizing (irritating, upsetting) or disappointing the
seniors which may have adverse consequences.
[Link] may fear that the upward communication may be considered by
their colleagues as a way of getting closer to their seniors and seeking favours.

Grievance = shikayat ,
problems
 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS

Introduction
An organisation may be considered as an information processing system that
collects and screens information, processes it, deduces it, transforms it and
finally acts upon it.
Information within an organisation flows through regular patterns of person-to-person
interactions. Organisations develop structured communication channels, in which
individuals occupy responsible positions for effective communication process. The
flow of information is organised, managed and controlled.

Systems of communication
There are two key systems of communication:

Internal communication

• Communication between those that work within the organisation such as team
colleagues, management and other members of staff.

• Internal communication links the day-to-day operations in a business entity. This type of
communication occurs within the same organisation, i.e. between or among officials and
employees of the same organisation.

External communication

• Communication with those from outside the organisation such as customers,

suppliers, the press, lobby groups, the Government and banks.
• External communication or exchange of information and messages takes place
between organisations and the individuals outside its formal structure.

Communication network (another dimension)

By a communication network within an organisation, we mean the channels through

which messages pass from one person to another within the entity. These are the
pathways along which information flows to groups and teams throughout the
organisation.
Organisational communication flows in multiple directions, i.e. upward, downward,
horizontally and diagonally. These communication networks can be formal or
informal; in either case, it is the communication network that connects senders and
receivers.
The choice of communication network depends on:
nature of the group’s tasks, and
 extent to which group members need to communicate with each other to achieve
group goals.

Communication network functions:

The functions of communication networks include:
Providing the means for organising the activities of individuals, groups and other
sub-units within the organisation.
Providing instruments for directing the activities of the organisation as a whole.
Facilitating the exchange of information within the organisation, and
Ensuring the flow of information between the organisation and the external
environment in which it exists.

Types of communication networks

Formal networks:
Formal communication within an entity takes places through approved organisational
channels. These channels are sanctioned officially and are reflected in an
organisational chart. The organisational chart defines the hierarchical arrangements
and the reporting system in the organisation.
They include the following major types:
 Chain network: In the chain network, information is passed straight up or down
the formal chain of command. One person passes information to others up/ down
within the line of hierarchy, who then pass it further up/down their own chain of
authority. It allows only vertical movement and is strictly hierarchical. Chain networks
have a leader who decides as to what messages are to be sent and how these
messages are to be communicated. Here each member communicates with the
person above and below. It reflects upward and downward communication and
exists in a vertical hierarchy. This type of network is suitable for tasks that have to be
accomplished within a given time and without any deviation. However this type of
arrangement does face the risk of losing some part of information at every
successive level. Moreover persons at the bottom may also feel isolated and less
motivated.
Y Network: Y network can be assumed as a variation of chain network; here
messages are communicated vertically, between the subordinates and supervisors
in the hierarchical arrangements. The information from the leader is shared
 simultaneously through two channels, who in turn pass on the information outwards.
This arrangement can disseminate the information faster than the chain network.

Wheel Network: It is characterised by the central position of the leader, where the
leader plays the key role to disseminate information. The primary communication
occurs between the members and the group leader and then group leader shares
the information with all. It is the feature of a typical work group.
In wheel network, decisions can be made fast but group morale is low since others
do not take an active part in decision making. The leader is very important and
powerful.
Circle Network: The circle network is different from the wheel, chain, and Y
networks. It is an example of horizontal and decentralized communication. The circle
network assumes no leader; here there is complete equality. The members can
communicate with persons to their right and left. Members have same restrictions,
but the circle is a less constrained condition than the wheel, chain, or Y networks.
Each member of the circle has the same authority or power to impact the group. The
core issue is that information moves rather slowly, and might get distorted. However,
morale is high because everyone participates in the decision making process.
All Channel network: The all channel or star pattern is an extension of the circle
in that all members are equal and wield exactly the same amount of power to
influence others, except that this pattern permits all group members to communicate
actively with each other. This pattern allows for maximum member contribution. A
prominent example is a self-managed team in which individual group members are
free to contribute and no one assumes a leadership role.
Self managed team

Informal communication structure/ network (GRAPEVINE)

Within an organisation, formal networks are not the only communication system; there is
also an informal system, known as the grapevine. In informal networks, information does
not flow in a specific direction, does not make use of official channels of communication
and can also be transmitted from one co-worker to another outside the organisation where
the colleagues meet socially.

Grapevine messages do not follow formal lines of hierarchy and are not controlled
by the management. It is perceived by most of the employees as being more
credible and reliable than messages sent through formal communication channels
by top management. Efficient organisations make best possible use of the grapevine
networks for constructive purposes.
However, often it is difficult to determine the source of the original message, which
creates a limitation and makes it difficult to ascertain the authenticity of grapevine
 information. It may also aim at serving the self-interests of individuals and groups to
spread rumours.

Informal communication is communication between individuals in an organisation that does

not pass through an official channel. Instead the information is passed by individuals in
general conversation, sometimes as gossip or as rumour. Often informal communication
passes as unofficial e-mails between colleagues. This is called the grapevine.

Example: AGEM Company

AGEM Company dismisses its finance director on Monday. It makes a formal

announcement to staff about the dismissal on Friday of the same week. However, most
people had already heard about the dismissal because the news had been ‘leaked’ and
passed from person to person within the organisation.

In this example the informal communication system has operated more quickly than the
formal communication. If it is accurate it is therefore more efficient. Unfortunately, informal
communication can be inaccurate and potentially, incredibly harmful.

More information about Grapevine

Grapevine messages do not follow formal lines of hierarchy and is not controlled by the
management. It stretches throughout the organisation in all directions regardless of the
authority levels. Grapevine messages are oral messages and are mostly undocumented.
Messages spread out too fast and are likely to take hours instead of days. When
employees sense uncertainty, insecurity or threat they rely more on these messages and
regard them more credible and reliable than messages resulting from formal
communication by top management.

Grapevine plays an emotional supportive role for the employees and can really work well in
cases where formal communication does not seem to work. Efficient organisations make
best possible use of the grapevine for constructive purposes.

However, often it is difficult to determine the source of the original message, which creates
a limitation and makes it difficult to ascertain the truth or falsehood of grapevine
information. It may also aim at serving the self-interests of the people within it supporting
rumours to spread out.
Comparison of formal and informal communication

All organisations rely on a mixture of formal and informal communication to operate

effectively. Arguably, formal patterns of communication are always supplemented by
informal patterns.

Formal information is often slow in arriving. Organisations therefore often rely on informal
communication for the transmission of information when the formal system is slow and
bureaucratic, or where senior managers are autocratic and do not believe in sharing
information with subordinates.

Informal information usually passes between individuals very quickly. A problem with
informal information is that management have no control over it. They control formal
communication channels but not informal communication. With informal information it is
sometimes a matter of chance who gets the information and who does not; some
individuals might be totally ignorant of what most of their colleagues already know.

Furthermore, informal communication may be malicious and at least in part, inaccurate or

at worst, completely speculative

In an effective organisation, there should usually be an efficient formal communication

system so that accurate information is passed in good time to everyone who needs it.
When formal communication is reliable, relevant and timely, employees will trust it.

However, even with the most efficient formal communication system, informal
communication systems always exist. People talk to each other unofficially and socially;
they exchange stories, rumours, gossip and so on, plus they do not always communicate
with each other in their ‘official capacity’. Even in their work, individuals often prefer to
communicate informally, in face-to-face conversations, or by telephone or e-mail, rather
than by more formal methods such as memos and reports.

Chain network: In the chain network, information is passed straight up or down

the formal chain of command. One person passes information to others up/ down
within the line of hierarchy, who then pass it further up/down their own chain of
 authority. It allows only vertical movement and is strictly hierarchical. Chain networks
have a leader who decides as to what messages are to be sent and how these
messages are to be communicated. Here each member communicates with the
person above and below. It reflects upward and downward communication and
exists in a vertical hierarchy. This type of network is suitable for tasks that have to be
accomplished within a given time and without any deviation. However this type of
arrangement does face the risk of losing some part of information at every
successive level. Moreover persons at the bottom may also feel isolated and less
motivated.
Y Network: Y network can be assumed as a variation of chain network; here
messages are communicated vertically, between the subordinates and supervisors
in the hierarchical arrangements. The information from the leader is shared
simultaneously through two channels, who in turn pass on the information outwards.
This arrangement can disseminate the information faster than the chain network.

Wheel Network: It is characterised by the central position of the leader, where the
leader plays the key role to disseminate information. The primary communication
occurs between the members and the group leader and then group leader shares
the information with all. It is the feature of a typical work group.
In wheel network, decisions can be made fast but group morale is low since others
do not take an active part in decision making. The leader is very important and
powerful.
Circle Network: The circle network is different from the wheel, chain, and Y
networks. It is an example of horizontal and decentralized communication. The circle
network assumes no leader; here there is complete equality. The members can
communicate with persons to their right and left. Members have same restrictions,
but the circle is a less constrained condition than the wheel, chain, or Y networks.
Each member of the circle has the same authority or power to impact the group. The
core issue is that information moves rather slowly, and might get distorted. However,
morale is high because everyone participates in the decision making process.
All Channel network: The all channel or star pattern is an extension of the circle
in that all members are equal and wield exactly the same amount of power to
influence others, except that this pattern permits all group members to communicate
actively with each other. This pattern allows for maximum member contribution. A
prominent example is a self-managed team in which individual group members are
free to contribute and no one assumes a leadership role.
Self managed team

Informal communication structure/ network (GRAPEVINE)

Within an organisation, formal networks are not the only communication system; there is
also an informal system, known as the grapevine. In informal networks, information does
not flow in a specific direction, does not make use of official channels of communication
and can also be transmitted from one co-worker to another outside the organisation where
the colleagues meet socially.

Grapevine messages do not follow formal lines of hierarchy and are not controlled
by the management. It is perceived by most of the employees as being more
credible and reliable than messages sent through formal communication channels
by top management. Efficient organisations make best possible use of the grapevine
networks for constructive purposes.
However, often it is difficult to determine the source of the original message, which
creates a limitation and makes it difficult to ascertain the authenticity of grapevine
information. It may also aim at serving the self-interests of individuals and groups to
spread rumours.

Informal communication is communication between individuals in an organisation that does

not pass through an official channel. Instead the information is passed by individuals in
general conversation, sometimes as gossip or as rumour. Often informal communication
passes as unofficial e-mails between colleagues. This is called the grapevine.

Example: AGEM Company

AGEM Company dismisses its finance director on Monday. It makes a formal

announcement to staff about the dismissal on Friday of the same week. However, most
people had already heard about the dismissal because the news had been ‘leaked’ and
passed from person to person within the organisation.

In this example the informal communication system has operated more quickly than the
formal communication. If it is accurate it is therefore more efficient. Unfortunately, informal
communication can be inaccurate and potentially, incredibly harmful.

More information about Grapevine

Grapevine messages do not follow formal lines of hierarchy and is not controlled by the
management. It stretches throughout the organisation in all directions regardless of the
authority levels. Grapevine messages are oral messages and are mostly undocumented.
Messages spread out too fast and are likely to take hours instead of days. When
employees sense uncertainty, insecurity or threat they rely more on these messages and
regard them more credible and reliable than messages resulting from formal
communication by top management.
Grapevine plays an emotional supportive role for the employees and can really work well in
cases where formal communication does not seem to work. Efficient organisations make
best possible use of the grapevine for constructive purposes.

However, often it is difficult to determine the source of the original message, which creates
a limitation and makes it difficult to ascertain the truth or falsehood of grapevine
information. It may also aim at serving the self-interests of the people within it supporting
rumours to spread out.

Comparison of formal and informal communication

All organisations rely on a mixture of formal and informal communication to operate

effectively. Arguably, formal patterns of communication are always supplemented by
informal patterns.

Formal information is often slow in arriving. Organisations therefore often rely on informal
communication for the transmission of information when the formal system is slow and
bureaucratic, or where senior managers are autocratic and do not believe in sharing
information with subordinates.

Informal information usually passes between individuals very quickly. A problem with
informal information is that management have no control over it. They control formal
communication channels but not informal communication. With informal information it is
sometimes a matter of chance who gets the information and who does not; some
individuals might be totally ignorant of what most of their colleagues already know.

Furthermore, informal communication may be malicious and at least in part, inaccurate or

at worst, completely speculative

In an effective organisation, there should usually be an efficient formal communication

system so that accurate information is passed in good time to everyone who needs it.
When formal communication is reliable, relevant and timely, employees will trust it.
However, even with the most efficient formal communication system, informal
communication systems always exist. People talk to each other unofficially and socially;
they exchange stories, rumours, gossip and so on, plus they do not always communicate
with each other in their ‘official capacity’. Even in their work, individuals often prefer to
communicate informally, in face-to-face conversations, or by telephone or e-mail, rather
than by more formal methods such as memos and reports.

Set 3

Syllabus headings

3. ORAL COMMUNICATION

• What is oral Communication

• Principles of successful oral communication

• What is conversation control

• Two sides of effective oral communication

• Effective listening

• Non – verbal communication

The proportions of communication

FORMS of COMMUNICATION

According to the research of Adler, Rosenfeld and Proctor:

Adults spend an average of 70% of their time engaged in some sort of

communication.

Of this, an average of 45% is spent listening compared to 30% speaking,

16% reading and 9% writing.

Basic forms of communication are:

A. Verbal Communication

Verbal communication uses words.

1. ORAL (Speaking) 2. Written [Link] 4. Reading

B. Non-verbal Communication

Non- verbal communication occurs without words.

[Link] COMMUNICATION

1 Oral Communication (Spoken)

Speaking is the fastest, most direct way of communication.

Oral communication refers to the communication where individuals converse

with each other. In other words it is any type of communication that makes use
of spoken words. It can be a direct face to face communication or may involve
a conversation made using mechanical devices e.g. telephone.

Oral communication comes in many forms in an organisation. It includes

formal staff meetings, planned conferences, and mass meetings. Here voice
and delivery are important. Informal talks are suitable for day-to-day liaison,
directions, exchange or information, progress reviews, and the maintenance of
effective interpersonal relations. Telephone calls are used for quick checkups
and for imparting or receiving information.

It involves expressing idea, providing information and influencing others

using spoken words.

It is an important success factor in private and professional life.

Its success depends heavily upon the observation skills of the listener and
speaker.

Advantages (PROS) of Oral Communication

1. Speed - Once you make contact with your audience, there is no time lag
between the transmission and reception of message. This is especially
valuable when time is of essence; if you need to have the funds in an account
released now, putting your request in a letter or memo won't be much help.

2. Speaker is able to get personal attention of the listener - You might

spend hours drafting a memo, letter or report only to have recipient scan it
superficially or not read it at all. In a personal contact, however, you have
much more command over the receiver's attention.

3. It allows instantaneous feedback - When you speak directly to one or

more listeners, you can respond to questions as soon as they arise. You can
rephrase or elaborate when your listeners seem confused, and you can speed
up if details are not necessary. You can revise quickly if you see you have
used the wrong word and offended or confused your audience.

4. Personal quality - When a personal meeting goes well, the relationship

that communicators develop can help solve problems that might have been
more difficult when handled at a distance. Personal meetings are especially
important in some cultures, where failure to visit someone in person is an
insult.

5. Confidentiality - Since oral communication does not create any records

that can be seen by the persons for whom they are not intended, it helps in
maintaining confidentiality of the matters.

6. Supplemented by non-verbal clues - The person receiving oral

communication can combine it with the expressions and other non-verbal
clues around the speaker, the message can be better understood.

7. Oral communication offers high level of understanding and transparency.

[Link] offers spontaneous feedback and helps making quick decisions.

[Link] is not only convenient and time saving but saves money and extra
efforts as well.

[Link] conflict resolution, it is best to have them spoken and put to an end
by talking them over.

11. It is essential for Team work.

[Link] encourages employees’ morale.

[Link] can be used as the best tool to communicate private and confidential
matters.
Disadvantages (CONS) OR Limitations of Oral Communication

Although it has many advantages, oral communication is not always the best
approach. It suffers from the following disadvantages:

1. No evidence - There is no documentary proof of oral communication and

as such the impact of oral communication is purely temporary.

2. Not suitable in certain cases - When the message to be delivered is too

lengthy or complex, oral communication may not be suitable.

3. Expensive and time consuming when the persons involved are at distant
locations - The biggest drawback of personal contact is the difficulty in
arranging the communicators. When the people who need to meet are
separated by longer distance, personal contact is expensive and time
consuming. Even a cross-town trip for a half-hour meeting can take most of
the morning or afternoon, depending upon traffic or weather.

4. Not appropriate when the matter is controversial - A personal contact

might also be unproductive if the contact antagonizes one or more of the
participants. If the personalities or the subject is likely to make someone angry
or defensive, then less confrontational forms of communication might be
better.

5. Serious deliberation is not possible - Serious thought is not possible on

the subject because the receiver has to take an immediate decision in
response to the communication received.

6. More prone to physical noise - An oral message has more probability of

getting distorted because of physical noise like inaudibility of speech,
somebody interfering in between, and likewise.

2. Written Communication

Written communication is a powerful medium in all walks of life. Even if we

could handle all our social and business communication on a face-to-face
basis, we would still need to prepare written messages. The reason may be
one of the many, like we may need a permanent record of what we said, to
whom, by whom, and on what date, or the matter may be so complex that it
needs a written representation, or the matter is so sensitive that it should be
planned carefully before communicating, or the oral communication is not
feasible because of distance between the persons communicating.

There are many types of written business communication. From fax messages
to letters, memorandums, notices, forms, and reports -each document type is
used for different purposes in different circumstances in business. To be
effective, written communication must be clear, complete, correct and
understandable. In later chapters, we will discuss on how to write effective
letters, memorandums, and reports because they provide the opportunity for
exploring how to write for variety of business purposes.

Advantages of Written communication

1. Unlike speech, written communication is permanent - Once your words

are down on paper, they are saved for future reference. While people may
have trouble accurately recalling what you said a few hours ago, they can
refer to your written remarks years later. In fact, policy matters, service
conditions, confidential orders and instructions, and many other
communications can be effectively and satisfactorily communicated only
through written communication, as they are necessary for future reference.

2. Written communication can be easier to understand than speech -

Readers can study complex messages, as many times as necessary, a luxury
they do not have when the same message is delivered orally.

3. It can be composed in advance - You can take as much time as

necessary to shape a message just as you want it.

4. Written messages are less prone to errors - Even the best-rehearsed

oral presentation can go awry. When you communicate in writing, you have
time to choose exactly the right words.

5. Written communication works best as evidence - A written record is the

best evidence of the state of affairs, and can be used to fix responsibility of the
concerned persons in the case of need.

6. It can address more number of persons at a time - Written

communication-like an advertisement in the newspaper, can address a vast
population at a time. However, with TV media, it has become possible to
address large population by oral communication also, but the written media is
much more cheap and has much wider coverage.

7. Written communication leaves more lasting impact in the mind of the

reader - Visual representation leaves more lasting impression in the mind of
the reader in comparison to the oral representation.

8. Probability of physical noise is comparatively low in written

communication - In oral communication, there is a possibility that voice is not
heard properly, or the mind of the listener drifts away, or the language used is
ambiguous. These

Limitations of written communication

1. Time consuming - It is very time consuming both in terms of preparing

the message and also in terms of understanding it.

2. Certain messages can't be put into writing - They are better understood
when delivered orally or non-verbally.

3. Different persons may interpret message differently - Sometimes words

used in written communication may have different meanings and may be
interpreted differently by different persons. If not carefully worded, written
communication may give rise to legal battles.

4. Immediate feedback and clarification is not possible in written

communication.

5. Reader is not able to see the non-verbal clues - Since the reader is not
able to see the facial expressions and other non-verbal clues around the
sender, he may not be able to guess the real intention behind the message.

6. Lack of confidentiality - Confidentiality may be lost when written

message passes through several hands.

7. Capability to cause greater damage - A haphazardly written note can do

much more damage to a business relationship than a careless remark. Thus a
written communication has to be planned very carefully.
After going through the relative merits and demerits of written and oral
communication, we may conclude that depending solely on one mode may not
be useful. The two modes are supplementary and should be used depending
upon the situation. Written communication is more useful where the subject
matter is complex and a final decision require deliberations from the persons
concerned, or the messages need to be preserved for future reference or
have legal implications. Oral communication should be relied upon in routine
and day-to-day matters or where the message is of confidential nature.

Difference between oral and written communication

Oral communication Written communication

Oral communication is less Written communication is
formal. formal, planned and detailed.
It produces a prompt response It causes a response after
of some kind. lapse of some time.
Oral communication is not It carries more authority and is
valued much for legal proof of a transaction.
purposes.
Oral communication is highly It is rigid and inflexible.
flexible.
It is an active transfer of It is precise and direct.
information.
Here the speaker can get the It is less personal.
audience engaged
psychologically.
More personal pronouns Less personal pronouns
It is spontaneous. It takes time. It is deliberate.

It is subjective It is objective.

3. Listening

Listening and hearing are two different yet related processes. It is therefore
not surprising that they are frequently referred to (incorrectly) as being the
same.
Hearing is the biomechanical process of perceiving a sound with the ear.
However, listening requires much more than simply hearing a sound – it
requires a conscious focus and effort to understand, consider and interpret
sound.

Hearing is receiving sound but listening is taking note of it.

Listening means not just hearing the words and sentences but a consideration
of how they are delivered, the use of language and voice and how the speaker
uses their body i.e. being aware of both verbal and non-verbal messages. So
the ability to effectively listen incorporates the ability to perceive and
understand all the components of the message, both spoken and unspoken.

.Hearing (the reception of stimuli by the sensory organs, the ears) is not the
same as listening, where the mind and memory are engaged in receiving,
selecting, organising, interpreting and storing information from the stimuli. The
specific thing about listening it that it is an active process and by consciously
engaging in the process, we can improve the effectiveness of our listening and
develop listening skills.

Just as we speak for a variety of purposes, we also listen for different

purposes. Three general types of listening may be distinguished:

• LISTENING FOR ENJOYMENT

• LISTENING FOR INFORMATION

• LISTENING FOR HELP

Listening And The Law Of Least Effort: Generally, the law of least effort
states, that given a choice, we will take the road of least effort, i.e. we shall
take a choice which is easiest of all. In listening, this law refers to the practice
of listening to messages that require little effort and avoiding messages that
require us to spend more energy and effort. Therefore, as listeners we should
avoid the law of least effort because we may fail to listen to complex but
valuable and important messages.
Effective Listening: As we listen for different reasons and purposes, the
principles we follow in listening effectively should vary from one situation to
another. Here we identify the four dimensions of listening.

Active Listening: Active listening is the process of sending back to the speaker
what you think the speaker meant in content and in feeling.

The functions and purpose of active listening is to check on accuracy of

understanding and to express acceptance of the speaker’s feelings.

Three simple techniques, which are useful in the process of active listening
are as follows:

1. Restate the speaker’s meanings – state in your own words what you
think the speaker meant. It helps in understanding the message, since the
speaker can correct your restatement.

2. Express understanding of speaker’s feelings – just as paraphrase

checks on the accuracy of your perception of content. The expressions of
feelings helps in checking the accuracy of the understanding the speaker’s
feelings.

3. Ask Questions – to ensure further understanding of the speaker’s

thoughts and feelings and to obtain additional information. Questions should
be relevant and should stimulate the speaker to express thoughts and feelings
further.

Active and Passive Listening: The art of effective listening is to be an active

participant. We should be active both mentally as well as physically. Recall,
for example, how your body reacts to important news. Almost immediately you
assume an upright posture, cock your head to the speaker and remain
relatively still and quiet. Our bodies reflect our active minds.

Passive listening - listening without talking and without directing the speaker
in any non-verbal way is a powerful means of communicating acceptance.
Passive listening allows the speaker to develop his thoughts and ideas in the
presence of another person who accepts but does not evaluate. Listening
passively, we provide a supporting and receptive environment. Listening to
music is the best example of passive listening.

Empathetic (Subjective) and Objective Listening: If we want to understand

what a person means and what a person is feeling. Then we need to listen
with empathy. To empathise with others is to feel with them, to see the world
as they see it.

Empathy means:

“Try to put yourself in other person’s shoes”.

For example, when we see a child crying because he or she has lost a coin.
From our point of view, the amount lost is insignificant and it therefore seems
foolish to cry over it. What we need to do is to see the situation from the
child’s perspective. Although for most communication situations, empathic
listening is the preferred mode of responding.

However, it is important to listen to a friend tell us how the entire world hates
him or her and to understand how our friend feels and perhaps why he or she
feels this way. But then we need to look a bit more objectively at our friend
and at the world and perhaps see the self-hatred. Sometimes we have to put
our empathic responses aside and listen with objectivity and detachment.

Non-Judgmental and Judgmental Listening:

Effective listening is characterised by both non-judgmental and judgmental

responses – listening with an open mind with a view toward understanding
and also listening critically with a view toward making some kind of evaluation
or judgement.

Clearly, we should listen for understanding while suspending judgement first,

only after we have fully understood the relevant messages should we evaluate
or judge. Listening with an open mind is extremely difficult. It is not easy for
us, for example, to listen to arguments against some cherished belief or to
criticisms of something we think is right. Listening often stops when a negative
remark is made.
However, listening with an open mind will help us to understand the messages
better; listening critically will help us to analyse that understanding and to
evaluate the messages judiciously.

Listening Problem or Faults in Listening:

There is often a strong tendency to pre-judge the communication of others as

uninteresting or irrelevant, even before we hear them. By pre-judging a
communication we are in fact lifting the burden of listening from our shoulders.
So we just tune out the speaker. We potentially lose, useful and relevant
information.

Another problem being faced is that of filtering. We tend to avoid listening to

difficult and undesirable messages. Many messages require careful
consideration and analysis. By filtering we do not listen attentively and may
lose useful information.

The listening faults can be enumerated as follows:

1. Prejudice against the speaker – there is a tendency of our attention

being diverted when the speaker’s position, attitude or belief is entirely
opposite in nature to ours.

2. External distractions such as noise, sloppy dressing, gesturing

excessively, background music, poor or glaring lights.

3. Thinking speed – our thinking and listening speeds differ enormously.

The spare time found in thinking actually shifts our attention from the actual
facts.

4. Premature evaluation – there is a tendency of interrupting the speaker

even before he has completely conveyed the message. We arrive at the
conclusion because of our rapid thinking speed. The actual conclusion may be
different from what the speaker intended to convey.

5. Filtering – there is a tendency to avoid listening to difficult and

undesirable messages.

6. Delivery – a monotonous speaker can put his listener to sleep or they

may loose interest completely. People become bored and critical in such
situations.
SKILLS REQUIRED FOR EFFECTIVE LISTENING

Here are some brief points on how to be a good listener in any level of
communication.

1. Be ready – your attitude must be right from the start and must decide to
listen.

2. Be interested – Always try to be interested in whatever is being

communicated.

3. Be patient – Do not interrupt if you disagree with someone. Present your

view later.

4. Be open-minded – Do not jump to conclusions by understanding part of

the message.

5. Concentrate – Do not accept everything blindly. Concentrate and try to

avoid your thoughts from wandering.

6. Give Feedback – Make the speaker realise that how you understand his
message. This will enable him to re-phrase his words in case his viewpoint is
being misunderstood.

RESULTS OF GOOD LISTENING

If you listen purposefully and positively the following benefits will occur:

1. Leads to the possession of a positive attitude – by understanding the

barriers in the way of good listening.

2. Promotes effective communication between the speaker and listener.

Each side is receptive of the other’s viewpoint.

3. The feedback to the speaker reveals that the listeners are interested.
The speaker, then tries to give his best presentation.

4. Helps listeners obtain useful information on which they can make

accurate decisions.

5. Develops a better understanding of people. Thus, enabling them to co-

ordinate effectively.
Types of listener

There are generally three natural listening styles that evolve. You need to be
aware of your natural style so that you can modify it to balance with the other
styles and objectives in order to maximise the effectiveness of your listening.

Results-oriented – Typically low on patience, these listeners are focused on

achieving their goals as quickly and efficiently as possible. Speakers who like
listeners to demonstrate empathy and logical thought often see results-
oriented listeners as arrogant and impatient. Conversely results-oriented
listeners would see many speakers as unfocused and become frustrated at
speakers taking too long to make their point.

Information-oriented – These listeners like to build a full picture, collect and

consolidate all relevant information in order to make the right decision. The
risk is that an overly analytical approach can overlook emotional attitudes and
appear unsympathetic to some speakers.

People-focused – The priority of this type of listener is not the business

outcome or a technical solution, but rather a focus on supporting the speaker
and being attentive to their feelings and needs. People-focused listeners have
lots of patience and are naturally gifted at providing feedback and reflective
questions that make the speaker feel good and confident about themselves.
The speaker really feels listened-to although a results-oriented or information-
oriented speaker may feel that a people-focused listener is vague and
inconclusive with too much of an emphasis on feelings.

NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

The Man used to communicate even before he developed language.

No doubt that the use of words provided him with a very versatile tool to
express himself, but the fact that communication takes place without the
words also leads us to explore the non-verbal modes of communication.
By non-verbal communication, we mean all communication that involves
neither written nor spoken words but occurs without the use of words –

In a conversation, if the non-verbal behavior is contradicting theverbal

communications, we tend to believe more in non-verbal than the verbal
(words)

Thus study of non-verbal behaviours become all the more important for the
following reasons:

1. We can learn about the effective and emotional states of other people
through non-verbal behaviours.

2. Many first impressions are formed through non-verbal cues.

3. Non-verbal communication has value in human interaction because

much of our non-verbal actions are not easily controlled consciously.

Characteristics of Non-verbal Communication

1. Non-verbal behaviour always has a communicative value - You may not

always intend to send non-verbal messages, but everything about your
appearance, every movement, every facial expression, and every nuance of
your voice has the potential to convey the meaning.

2. Non-verbal communication is powerful - We form impressions of others

mostly from non-verbal observations -about physical appearances and
behaviour. In fact when non-verbal behaviour seems to contradict a verbal
message, the spoken words carry less weight than the non-verbal cues.

3. Non-verbal communication primarily expresses attitudes - Non-verbal

behaviour implies how the other person feels about the state of things -like his
general interest, liking, disagreement, amusement, and so on.

4. Much non-verbal behaviour is culture bound - Certain types of non-

verbal behaviours are universal - like expressions of happiness, fear, surprise,
anger, distrust or contempt. Many nonverbal behaviours do vary from culture
to culture. For example, the 'nod' means 'yes' in some cultures, and 'no' in
some other cultures.
For example in many countries around the world a ‘thumbs-up’ is a positive
‘good news’ gesture (meaning “ok”, “yes”, or ‘I approve”), whereas in some
countries such as Afghanistan, Nigeria, parts of Italy, Greece and South
America is it an offensive obscene insult.

5. Non-verbal behaviour is ambiguous( unclear, vague) - Compared with

verbal language, non-verbal behaviour is highly ambiguous.

Does a customer's yawn signal boredom or fatigue? Is a presenter trembling

with nervousness or shivering with cold?

Most non-verbal behaviours have a multitude of possible meanings, and it is

difficult to assume what is the true meaning in the given case.

Non-verbal communication may either reinforce or contradict a verbal

message. For example, when a manager enquires how his/her employee is
progressing in the preparation of a particular report the words “it’s going very
well” may be betrayed by heavy sweating, a worried look and nervous glance
at the watch.

Types of Non-verbal Communication

1. Body language (Kinesics) – Body language (Kinesics) is the way body

communicates by its physical movements. When we study body language, we
specifically look for inner states of emotion as expressed through different
parts of the body and their physical movements. Watzlawick and his
associates indicate, “you can’t communicate” – you communicate just by
being. By nodding your head, blinking your eyes, shrugging your shoulders,
waving your hands, and making other such physical movements; you send
messages to others. We will examine each of these body parts for more
specific symbols of body language.

(a) FACIAL EXPRESSIONS - The face is where we look for most

expressions of what is going inside us. For example, consider the facial
expressions of your associate -Is the mouth open wide or closed, the eyelid
raised or lowered, the nose wrinkled or relaxed, the cheeks drawn up or back,
the forehead lowered or raised? All of the facial parts combined tell you
something about what is happening to create the expressions you see.
Thus the facial expressions can divulge hidden emotions -anger, annoyance
confusions, enthusiasm, fear, hatred, joy, love, interest, sorrow, surprise,
uncertainty and others.

They can also contradict verbal statements: A new employee may answer
"yes" hesitatingly, ashamed or embarrassed to tell the truth when asked if he
understands the supervisor's oral instructions. Yet from the red face of the
employee and bewildered expression in his eyes, a prompt supervisor should
consider restating the instructions more clearly.

However, facial expressions, like other non-verbal signals, may be ambiguous

times (a worker's frown could come from a bad headache rather than the
timing of your request). Nonetheless the researchers have found that accurate
judgments of facial expressions can be made.

Your facial expressions can show the feelings of happiness, sadness, anger
or fear.

The eyes are particularly expressive – narrow, wide, closed, raised

Also nose, lips, mouth, jaw and skin colour

(b) EYE CONTACT - Within the facial area, the eyes tell us much more than
other facial features. The eyes, along with the eyebrows, upper and lower
eyelids, and size of pupils, convey certain inner body states. Eyebrows with
upper and lower eyelids raised combined with dilated pupils - a wide eye
effect - tells us that the person is excited, surprised or frightened. The
opposite effect -eyebrows with upper and lower eyelids closed combined with
contracted pupils - a beady eye look - tells us that the person is angry,
intense, or in pain: When these eye features are put together with other facial
parts, we infer about the person's inner going on.

In fact, eye contact may be the best indicator of how involved a person is in
the situation. The person whose eyes droops or shift away from the listener is
thought to be shy or perhaps dishonest and untrustworthy. A job applicant
who never looks at the interviewer seems to be purposely remaining detached
or nervous or to be falsifying his or her own credentials.

However, we must be careful and must not over generalize because people
differ and there are exceptions on individual non-verbal cues. A person's eyes
may be red and misty because he or she has been ill, or raying, laughing,
drinking healthy, smoking, sleeping, suffering from infection, swimming or
working near harmful vapors.

Eye-contact is a key-characteristic of non-verbal communication and impacts

social behaviour greatly. It expresses much without having used a single
word. Eyes are termed as the windows of the soul. Eye contact however can
mean differently in different [Link] the US not keeping a proper eye
contact is a sign of dishonesty whereas in Asia keeping eyes lowered during a
conversation is a sign of respect. These differences may make you misread
the existing situation

(c) POSTURE –Posture (positioning) and orientation (which way someone

is facing)

Body posture is the position of the speaker’s body. Posture and how you carry
yourself speak a lot about you. The way you walk, sit, stand or hold your head
not only tells about your current mood, but says a lot about your personality as
well.

Some examples may include; Sit, stand, walk or lie down. There are various
meanings to each:

- Sit up straight = alertness

- Hunched = negativity

- Lounging = relaxation

People sitting/standing next to each other = cooperation

Standing opposite = confrontational or assertive

Postures non-verbally convey impressions of self-confidence, status and

interest. Confident executives may have a relaxed posture and yet stand more
erect than a timid subordinate. Interested - persons normally lean forward
towards the speaker, while those who are bored or annoyed may slump as
well yawn and repeatedly glance at their watches. The way you sit at your
desk when you are working can express something about your attitude
towards your job or how hard you are working to anyone who cares to look.
Standing up tall can help appear more authoritative, whereas a slumped
posture or slouched shoulders create an appearance of submissive or passive
behavior.

(d) GESTURES - Gestures are the physical movements of arms legs,

hands, torso and head. When you are speaking, some gestures have
standard meanings - for example, touching and tapping your forefinger to the
top of your head means you are thinking, a slight variation with a single rapid
tap means you have an idea. Likewise, fidgeting hands might betray your
nervousness; tapping foot show impatience; and clenched fists restrained
anger.

An extended arm can have variety of meanings, merely depending on what

position the hand is in and how it is moving. The symbols for .come here" and
"go away" are very similar, the difference is just in the way your hands face.

People communicate through gestures; while people may give reasonable

attention to their facial expression, they are less aware of their hands, legs
and foot motions. At times people make deliberate use of their gestures like –
gestures commonly used to discourage visitors at the working place are –
shuffling papers, making notes, keeping pen or pencil poised, continuing
talking on phone while visitor waits – all communicate an aversion to engage
in conversation.

Many gestures are culture specific, for example in Pakistan, people shake
their hands to greet others whereas in India they join their hands (palms
together) and bow down to welcome others.

A gesture is any movement made with a limb, particularly the hands, to

express, endorse, stress or back up the speaker’s attitude or intent. This non-
verbal action takes place regularly in our oral discourse.

Gestures movements of our arms, legs, hands, head etc. accent and reinforce
our verbal messages. Observing gestures, help us in getting a good picture of
the internal emotional state of the person. Gestures even emphasize verbal
messages. The louder someone talks, the more definite are the gestures used
and vice versa.

Shrug = indifference
 Jerk of the head to indicate direction

Tapping fingers = impatient

PERSONAL APPEARANCE

Appearance of your body determines how you are perceived by others. It

helps to create your public identity. Your physical appearance and
attractiveness determine how people get attracted to your personality. Your
grooming, clothing, the overall style that you carry form your physical
appearance.

This triggers first impressions, attitudes and generalisations about people.

Note that grooming and dress tend to reflect a person’s personality and
attitude to a greater extent than mere physical looks.

(f) SMELL AND TOUCH - Various odours and artificial fragrances on

human beings can sometimes convey emotions and feelings better than
words. Similarly, touching people in different ways can silently communicate
friendship, love, approval, hatred, anger. A pat on the shoulder or a slap on
the back is prompted by various attitudes and emotions.

(g) SILENCE can be a positive or negative influence in the communication

process. It can provide a link between messages or sever relationships. It can
create tension and uneasiness or create a peaceful situation. Silence can also
be judgmental by indicating favour or disfavour - agreement or disagreement.
For example, suppose a manager finds a couple of his staff members resting.
If he believes these staff members are basically lazy, the idleness conveys to
him that they are; and should be given additional assignments. If he believes
these staff members are self-motivated and good workers, the idleness
conveys to him that they are taking a well-deserved break. If he is personally
insecure, the idleness conveys to him that they are threatening his authority.

MOVEMENT AND STILLNESS

Consider the pace and pattern of movement. Brisk walking conveys

determination, stillness conveys calm, thoughtfulness and self-possession
(although in a social gathering might convey aloofness and hostility); whilst
movement without purpose conveys distraction, impatience and nervousness.

Touch

We communicate so many things by touching others. Touch is culture specific.

Touch is the characteristic of non-verbal communication and used when we

come into physical contact with other. Consider the messages given by the
following: a weak handshake, a nervous tap on the shoulder, an encouraging
slap on the back, a pat on the head, or a controlling grip on your arm. Touch
can communicate power, empathy, and understanding.

PERSONAL SPACE

Personal space is your “bubble” – the space you maintain between yourself
and others. This unseen boundary becomes obvious only when someone tries
to enter your bubble.

Have you ever felt your comfort level being disturbed during a conversation
because the other person was standing too close and occupying your space?
We all have a need for physical space, however that need changes depending
on the culture, the condition, and the closeness of relations.

Space means differently from culture to culture. For example, Canadian and
US people stand 5 feet apart during a business conversation. Five feet is too
close for people from Germany and Japan but for Arabs it is too far.

Sign Language - Symbols - For example, a map is a symbol that represents

an actual physical geographic territory, and the 21-gun salute is a symbol of
respect. The symbols can broadly be categorized as visual symbols and audio
symbols.

VISUAL SYMBOLS – These are the symbols like pictures, cartoons, paintings,
maps, etc., which have a visual impact on the mind of the looker. See what
the following symbol communicates.

It’s saying – Look here. Go to this direction.

AUDIO SYMBOLS - What do all these audio symbols communicate to us –
Morning alarm get up, its time you want to wake up in the morning, Bells in the
school/college - start, change, or end of the study period, Siren sound - there
is an ambulance, or police, or a fire extinguishing services van which needs a
clear road to move fast, Horn sound - you need to give way to the vehicle
behind you, a Sound of 'Azaan’ in a nearby 'Masjid' - it is time to offer the
'prayer', and so on.'

3. Paralanguage – Paralanguage describes the vocal yet non-verbal part of

communication. Variances in speed, tone, volume, voice and stress on words
can convey different meanings to the recipients in spite of using the same
words.

. It is everything other than words – intonation, pitch regional accent, sarcasm,

hesitations, truthfulness, emotion, etc.

Voice communicates in ways that has nothing to do with the words speaker
utters. Sometimes words are pleasant but the tone of voice betrays the true
feelings. The words "Wow! How prompt you are today!" could be a
compliment? But if tone of voice is sarcastic and said to someone who arrived
an hour late, the true meaning is criticism, perhaps anger.

(a) PITCH VARIATIONS - Pitch of the voice means -how high or low your
vocal tones are. Use of pitch can be seen in two contexts -one, using high,
normal, or low pitch depending upon the state of mind and status, two, using
variations in the pitch to make the talk more effective.

(b) VOLUME - Volume refers to the loudness of the voice. A good speaker
has to decide the volume of his speech:

1. According to the place where he is speaking, like if he is talking over a

telephone, his volume should not be too loud.

2. According to the size of audience -bigger the number of audience,

.louder the volume required. However, the loudness of volume should not
reach to the level of screaming. For adjusting with too big an audience beyond
his volume range, the speaker should use electronic equipments like mike.

3. According to the meanings and emotions he wants to convey through

his speech. The voice, which span from very soft to very loud, can emphasize
and bring attention to the meaning and feeling of a word, sentence or
paragraph. Any departure from the average volume level will draw attention.
Better speakers change volume levels more frequently than average speakers
do.

(c) SPEED AND PAUSE - Speed is another quality of voice. Speaking in a

very high speed may make the matter incomprehensible for the listener, and
speaking at too low a speed may make the matter so boring that by the time
you finish your sentence or para, the listener looses link from where you
started. Thus a speaker should use normal pace to get his message across
clearly.

Pauses are punctuation marks in speech and can be very powerful. They are
used as speed breakers while speaking. They give time to speaker to think.
Used effectively, they help to stress points and build interest. Used badly, they
can change the meaning of the conversation. If you get a chance, listen to the
speech of Leaders or TED talks and see how effectively they make use of
pause in their speech.

(d) STRESS ON WORDS - By emphasizing different key words in a

sentence you can purposely indicate your feelings about what is important.
Notice the difference in this one statement:

SHE is our manager.

She IS our manager.

She is OUR manager.

She is our MANAGER.

Note that the same sentence is conveying a different meaning (not in the
literal sense), in the sense what actually communicator wants to convey.

Uses of non-verbal communication

A person to have quality communication skills must possess the knowledge of

non-verbal communication. Non-verbal communication helps us communicate
the feelings and emotions behind the words spoken.
Though non-verbal communication goes unplanned quite often, yet it has
more impact than verbal communication alone. The non-verbal cues are
relatively more important in conveying feelings. People can deceive us more
with the use of words as they can be relatively easily controlled, on the other
hand, posture, body language, facial expressions, eye contact, vocal
characteristics etc. reflect speaker’s honesty. When people speak and their
gestures and expressions don’t endorse their words then we tend to prefer
unsaid words over spoken words.

Non-verbal behaviour performs numerous functions; it is used as a means to

persuade or control others, to clarify things, to stress and to complement as
well; at times non-verbal cues can also be used to substitute verbal
expression. Non-verbal communication is emotionally more expressive and
thus casts a persuasive impact.

Non-verbal communication can also help demonstrate self-belief, eagerness

and professionalism through the way one carries his/her personality. A person
who is well aware of another person’s non-verbal cues will understand that
person better. If you want to establish strong and lasting connections, then
you need to improve your non-verbal communication skills. The quality of
relationships improve when you can skilfully read people and understand the
feelings behind their words.

Set 4

‘THE SEVEN C’s OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATON’

For transmitting effective communication written or oral messages, certain principles must
be followed. These principles advocated by Francis J. Bergin. Bergin provides guidelines
for choice of content and style of presentation adapted to the purpose the receiver of the
message. They are also called as “Seven Cs” of communication. They are:

• Completeness
• Conciseness
• Consideration
• Concreteness
• Clarity
• Courtesy
• Correctness
THE SEVEN C’s OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION A road map

(i) Completeness

(a) Provide All Necessary Information

(b) Answer All Questions Asked

(c) Give Something Extra, When Desirable

(ii) Conciseness

(a) Eliminate Wordy Expressions

(b) Include Only Relevant Material

(c) Avoid unnecessary Repetition

(iii) Consideration

(a) Focus on “You” instead of “I” or “We”

(b) Show Audience Benefit or Interest in the Receiver

(c) Emphasize Positive and Pleasant Facts

(iv) Concreteness

(a) Use specific Facts and Figures

(b) Put Action in your Verbs

(c) Choose Vivid, Image-Building words.

(v) Clarity

(a) Choose Precise, Concrete and Familiar Words.

(b) Construct Effective Sentences and Paragraphs

(vi) Courtesy

(a) Be Sincerely Tactful, Thoughtful and Appreciative

(b) Use Expressions that show Respect

(c) Choose Non-discriminatory Expressions

(vii) Correctness

(a) Use the right Level of Language

(b) Check Accuracy of Facts, Figures and Words

(c) Maintain Acceptable Writing Mechanics.

[Link]

Definition: Complete

“Having all the necessary or appropriate parts”

Source: Oxford dictionaries

Your business message is complete when it contains all facts the reader or listener needs
for the reaction you desire. Remember that communicators (senders and receivers) – differ
in their mental filters; they are influenced by their backgrounds, viewpoints, needs,
experiences, attitudes, status and emotions. Owing to these difference communication
senders needs to assess their messages through the eyes of receivers to ensure they have
included all relevant information.

Every communication must be complete and adequate. Incomplete messages keep the
receiver guessing, creates misunderstanding and delay actions. Every person should,
therefore, be provided with all the required facts and figures. For example, when the factory
supervisor instructs workers to produce, he must specify the exact size, shape, quality and
cost of the product. Any assumptions behind the message should also be clarified. While
answering a letter, all the questions raised in the letter must be replied.

To help ensure the message is complete you could use the 5 W’s checklist:

Who?

What?

When?

Where?

Why?

A complete message offers the following benefits:

 • Complete messages are more likely to bring the desired results without the expense
of additional messages.
• They can do a better job of building goodwill. Messages that contain information the
receiver needs show concern for others.
• Complete messages can help avert costly lawsuit that may result if information is
missing.
• Costs are minimized as a complete communication reduces (if not eliminates) the
need for subsequent communication which could otherwise be required to
communicate missing information. In extreme circumstances it may also help avert
costly lawsuits.
• A complete message is more likely to persuade the recipient.
• The more complete the communication the more capable it is of assisting better
decision-making.

It is advised that while answering a letter one should make sure that all the questions are
answered.

The message is not complete, if it fails to answer questions like :

• What is the meeting about?

• When is it? and Where?

Illustration: Completeness
Below is a copy of an e-mail that Hajira sent to Laila:
“Send a copy of the report when convenient. Hajira”
Consider the following missing information:
What form should the report take – hard- or soft-copy?
Exactly when should it be sent – is there an actual deadline or would it be ok to send it in
a month’s time?
Who should the report be sent to – does Hajira mean for themselves, should this be
going to the bank or maybe a customer?
Where (physical address or e-email) should it be sent to?
The ‘why’ question has not been answered which means that Laila has no context for
sending the report. Depending on the ‘why’ she may need to attach supplementary
information or explanation when sending the report.

A more appropriate message might have been:

“Hi Laila,
Please could you email a soft-copy pdf of last month’s sales report to Sobia (cc’d in this
message). Thanks.
Sobia needs the report by the end of tomorrow so she can prepare an updated cash-flow
forecast for her meeting with the bank next Monday.
Kind regards

Hajira”
2. CONCISENESS
Definition: Concise

“Giving a lot of information clearly and in a few words; brief but comprehensive”.

Source: Oxford dictionaries

Conciseness is saying what you have to say in the fewest possible words without
sacrificing the other C qualities.

A concise message is complete without being wordy. Conciseness is desired because of

the following benefits:

• A concise message saves time and expense for both sender and receiver.
• Conciseness contributes to emphasis; by eliminating unnecessary words, you let
important ideas stand out.
• When combined with a “YOU-VIEW”, concise message are inherently more
interesting to recipients as they avoid unnecessary information.
• They show respect for recipients by not cluttering their professional lives with
unnecessary information.
• Constructing concise messages saves time (and therefore money) for both the
sender and receiver.
• Concise messages are more appealing and understandable to the audience.

For achieving conciseness:

• Limit the use of the passive voice. For example, instead of saying:

“An analysis of last quarter sales can be found in appendix B of this report”

Say:
“You will find the analysis of last quarter sales in appendix B or this report”.
• Avoid wordy expressions
• Practice brevity
• Do not repeat the words or ideas unnecessarily

• Only include relevant information

Stick to the point
Delete irrelevant statements
Avoid long introduction and unnecessary explanations
Put the action in the verb – for example:

Action Action in the verb

 We make use of new We use new
procedure. procedures
It is our hope that the We hope that the
company would company would
achieve its targets. achieve its targets.
X is an indication that X indicates that Y was
Y was a successful a successful initiative.
initiative.
X Provides a X justifies Y
justification for Y.
MORE Examples

concise words used as

an alternative to a
‘wordy’ expression.

Phrases Concise alternative

In due course Soon
Few in number Few
In spite of the fact that Although
Meet together Meet
Due to the fact that Because
At this time Now
On a weekly basis Weekly
Until such time as Until
Few and far between Rare

Illustration: Conciseness
Below is an extract from a report that Rashid sent to management:
“We chose to implement option A having established improved results on
profitability. Our results provide evidence that pre-tax profit increases by 8%.
The analysis in Appendix A goes into more detail about profit by product line
and provides support for the decision”.

This could have been written more concisely as:

“We implemented option A having established improved profitability. Our
results suggest that pre-tax profit increases by 8%. Appendix A details profit by
product line and supports the decision”.

3. CLARITY
Definition: Clarity

“The quality of being clear”

Source: Oxford dictionaries

Getting the meaning from your head into the head of your reader – accurately- is the
purpose of clarity. Of course you know this is not simple. We all carry around our own
unique interpretations, ideas, experiences associated with words.

Choose simple, exact, concrete, familiar and appropriate words:

State your purpose clearly.

Construct effective sentences and paragraphs:

Length – indicatively sentences maximum 15-20 words

Coherence – consistency, unity

Emphasis – be clear on the single message you are focusing on

Clear messages make interpretation and understanding easier.

Clear messages stimulate the recipient into action.

o Select words that have a high sense of appropriateness for the reader.
o Opt for the familiar word the one that is not pretentious.
o Insert no more than one main idea into a sentence.
o Arrange words so that the main idea occurs early in a sentence.
o Use English rather than foreign equivalents.
o Also, use familiar words instead of Latin Terms.
o

Do use Do NOT use

After Subsequent
For example e.g.
Pay Remuneration
About Circa (Latin)
Home Domicile
Invoice Statement of payment
So on etc.
 Illustration: Clarity – the placement of subordinate clauses
Compare the following statements:
“Cybercrime, because of the widespread use of computers to store and
process personal information, is increasing rapidly”, and
“Cybercrime is increasing rapidly because of the widespread use of computers
to store and process personal information”.
The second statement is clearer because the key message was not interrupted
by a subordinate clause. Therefore:
❑ Do not interrupt the main clause with a subordinate clause if the
interruption will cause confusion.

4. CORRECTNESS
At the core of correctness is proper grammar, punctuations and spelling. Documents are
our little ambassadors, they must be error free as they also reveal the inner stories of our
companies. For example if a manager dictated a message of 10,000 envelops and typist
added one zero more becomes 10,0000.

Correctness also implies that the message is exact and well-timed.

Use appropriate and correct language

Remember that Business communication is much more informal and uses simpler words
than legal contracts, Government statements and academic papers.

Avoid using substandard language – for example use “is not” instead of “isn’t”, “should
not” instead of “shouldn’t” and “will not” instead of “won’t”.

Check the precision and accuracy of figures, facts and language

Verify numerical data.

Double-check totals.

Ask an independent person to proof-read the message.

If the communication is correct it boosts the confidence level of the recipient.

Correct messages are more impactful on the recipient.

Illustration: Correctness

The following management commentary about last month’s sales contains a number of
errors that need correcting:

“Most outlet’s grow accept Faisalabed witch see dropping of 10%.”

Corrections needed include:

‘outlets’ not ‘outlet’s’ – remove the apostrophe

‘grew' not ‘grow’ – past tense

‘except’ instead of ‘accept’ (meaning to receive, consent or agree)

Faisalabad not Faisalabed – spelling mistake

‘which’ instead of ‘witch’ (a practitioner of witchcraft!)

‘declined’ instead of ‘see dropping of’ – simplify

The corrected commentary now reads:

“Most outlets grew except Faisalabad which declined 10%”.

5. CONSIDERATION
Definition: Considerate

“to be Careful; not to inconvenience; not to harm others”.

Source: Oxford dictionaries

Consideration means preparing every message with the message receivers in mind; try to
put yourself in their place.

If you are considerate, you do not lose your temper, you do not accuse, you do not charge
them without [Link] are most aware of their desires, problems, circumstances,
emotions, and probable reactions to your request. Then handle the matter from their point
of view. This thoughtful consideration is also called “you-attitude”, empathy, the human
touch and understanding of human nature.

In a broad but true sense, consideration inspires the other six C’s of good business
communication. You adapt your language and message content to your receiver’s needs
when you make your message complete

. Three specified ways to indicate consideration are:

Focus on “you” instead of “I” and “WE”.

Show audience benefit or interest in the message.

Emphasize positive and pleasant facts.

 • Show empathy. Ask how you would feel if you were to receive this [Link]
should try to think of things from your recipient’s perspective.

For example:

What do they really need? A customer may already accept that the price is fair but want
further reassurance on the safety features of the product. In this instance a communication
promoting how cheap the product is, will have significantly less positive impact compared to
a communication outlining the safety features and guarantees.

What emotions might they currently be feeling? Someone feeling angry and betrayed
(e.g. someone who has recently encountered a loss or a fraud) is likely to need extra
reassurance regarding trust and integrity compared to someone who is happy and at peace
(e.g. someone who just got married or won the lottery).

What emotions might your message generate?

Consider current or potential problems being faced by the recipient

Self-respect of the recipient is vital…. any loss of respect, insult or humiliation could
instantly isolate the receiver.

• Flattery and charm can be used…but very carefully: use sparingly and not to
exaggerate… this maylose your credibility.

The ‘you’ approach

Business messages should focus on how the recipient will benefit, for example what they
will receive or what they will learn. This is commonly referred to as the ‘you’ approach.

Considerate communication adopting the ‘you’ approach will demonstrate the following
characteristics:

Focuses on ‘you’ instead of ‘I’ or ‘we’

Make sure you understand people’s needs.

However, try to avoid YOU in sensitive cases – express a direct negative in passive
voice (see example below).

Empathize with the audience and show interest in them. This will stimulate a positive
reaction from the audience.

Refer to the benefits that are specific to the audience.

Refer to something specific about their situation that shows you are communicating with
them specifically and are thinking about them.
 Emphasize what is possible rather than what is impossible –

for example instead of saying “you can’t travel business class on short-haul flights”

one could say, “you can travel business class on long-haul flights”.

Stress positive words such as thanks, warm, healthy, committed and help.

Example: Creating a YOU attitude

‘We-attitude’

I am delighted to announce that we will be maintaining prices at existing levels.

‘You-attitude’

You will be able to benefit from the same prices as you paid last year.

‘We-attitude’

I am delighted to announce that we will be extending our opening hours.

‘You-attitude’

You will be able to shop in the evenings and throughout the weekend due to extended
opening hours.

Another view

Example: Avoiding YOU in sensitive cases

Instead of saying:

“You have not sent the report”.

you could say

“The report was not received”.

Instead of saying:

“You cannot return the items if they are soiled or not in a saleable condition”.

you could say

“Items may be returned if they are clean and in a saleable condition”.

Another example:
Illustration: Consideration

We-attitude to You-attitude

Below is an extract from an e-mail that Qasim sent to a client:

“I would like to express my thanks for your order dated 16th April. We have now
executed the order and I would like to draw your attention to our
despatchdocuments that I have attached to this email. The documents include our
invoice, our packing note and our driver delivery note”.

Now read the improved version:

“Thank you for your order dated 16th April. The goods you ordered have now been
dispatched. Please find attached the relevant dispatch documents including invoice,
packing note and driver delivery note”.

More about consideration

Use Euphemism for consideration:

The use of harsh words may hurt feelings. The words or phrases that may be considered
unkind or unpleasant to hear are replaced with mild or pleasant words or phrases. The use
of such pleasant expressions in place of harsh, offensive or direct words is termed as
Euphemism.

Examples:

1. Between jobs for unemployed.

2. Downsizing or workforce reduction for firing employees.
3. Ethnic Cleansing for genocide.
4. Big-boned for heavy or overweight.
5. Passed away for die.
6. On the streets for homeless

6. CONCRETENESS
Definition: Concrete

“Specific; Definite”

Source: Oxford dictionaries

Communicating concretely means being specific definite and vivid rather than vague and
general.

Concrete business communication is particular, clear, vivid, explicit and specific. It means:
avoid General, vague and obscure messages because you will receive either no response
or equally vague and general responses from the receiver.

Concreteness of messages is an essential requirement of effective communication,

particularly in oral communication, we can’t draw tables, diagrams, or graphs to make our
statement vivid, but we can use precise words to convey the correct messages and support
it by relevant facts and figures. If the message is specific, there would be increased
likelihood that themessage is interpreted by the receiver as intended by sender. For
sending concrete messages, the following guidelines should be followed:

• Use concrete expressions.

• Use specific facts and figures.
• Put action in your verbs.
• Choose vivid, image-building words.

Facts lend credibility to our communication.

Concrete expressions create visual images that are easy to register. So instead of vague,
generalized statements, definite facts should be given.

The statements with no passion, no vivid detail, having nothing that creates emotion and
nothing that tells people in the audience why they should care does not work well.

Example: It was very hot in the factory. (not very effective)

If we say: I saw that sweat was trickling down the arms of workers. (more effective)

We can use FIGURES OF SPEECH (figurative language )to make our messages
concrete. It is the use of symbols, similes or metaphors that serve as image building words.

Examples:

• workers working like machines. simile

• His brain is a [Link]

Example: use precise wording

Instead of saying: “Sales have increased slightly”.

you could say:

 “Sales have increased by 6% from $50m to $53m in the first sixmonths of the year”.

Note that when precise facts and figures are not available you should state that is the case
rather than simply ignoring them altogether.

Avoid vague words as given below:

Small A few Several

Slightly Soon Almost

Benefits of concrete messages:

Concrete messages can not to be misinterpreted as they are so specific and clear.

Concreteness strengthens the confidence of both the sender and receiver.

Concrete messages convey professionalism and help towards building the reputation of
the sender and the organisation they represent.

Using vivid and image-building words can help make the message more compelling and
impactful.

Illustration: Concreteness – using vivid, image-building words

Instead of saying “Profit has increased greatly” you could say “Profit has tripled which
beats your forecast by 120%”.

Instead of saying “The factory was idle whilst the generator was fixed” you could say
“Two weeks of productivity equating to $300k gross profit was lost due to the generator
break-down”.

More about concreteness

Often it means using denotative (direct and explicit) rather than connotative words
(suggested).

Denotation:the literal or primary meaning of a word, in contrast to the feelings or ideas that
the word suggests.

Connotation:an idea or feeling which a word invokes for a person in addition to its literal or
primary meaning. OR

Connotation is the emotional and imaginative association surrounding a word. Denotation

is the strict dictionary meaning of a word.
Words have positive and negative connotations

Words Stress always taken as negative connotation.

Word Happy always taken as positive connotation.

REMEMBER

We often times do not need very concrete expression when:

1. When your wish to be diplomatic and do not point out mistakes in particular

Example: “You have missed three invitations to my office” (it is harsh)

We may be more tactful if we say

“I’ve sent you several reminders to see me in my office; I am sure you were busy.”

2. When exact figures are unimportant, as “more than half the committee was present.”

[Link]
Definition: Courtesy

“the showing of politeness in one’s attitude and behavior towards others”

Source: Oxford dictionaries

Courtesy is the respect that we show to others and in business communication also it
means the same thing. You should show respect to your reader by having courteous
communication. The individual while sending the message should be polite, sincere,
enthusiastic, and reflective (thoughtful).

Courtesy in business messages implies that the message should reflect the theme of your
message as well as respecting the receiver and being considerate to their personality.

Courteous messages will demonstrate the following:

Be sincere and tactful, thoughtful and appreciative.

Use expressions and terminology that show respect.

Avoid irritating expressions and clichés

 Avoid using questionable humour.

Use non-discriminatory expressions and ensure the message is unbiased.

Use language that will not offend particular groups of people. For example be careful not
to prejudice against culture, religion, genders, ethnic origin, age and physical features.

Courteous messages take into consideration both viewpoints as well as feelings of the
receiver.

Courteous messages are positive and focused on the audience.

Avoid communicating an assertion that the sender is right and the receiver is wrong –

Illustration: Instead of saying:

“I can’t understand any of this confusing table”. You should say:

“It is my understanding that the tables should include only specific data.”

Instead of saying:

“You did not understand my message!” You should say:

“Sorry that the point I was making was not clear. Let me explain it a different way…”

Courtesy stems from a sincere you-attitude. It is not merely politeness with mechanical
insertions of “please” and “thank you”, although applying socially accepted manners is a
form of courtesy. Rather it is politeness that grows out of respect and concern for others.

In business discussions, you should say things with force and assertiveness without being
rude.

The following guidelines should be observed to ensure courtesy:

• Thank generously for a favour. When someone does a favour to us, acknowledge it
promptly and thank the person.
• Apologize for an omission. If you had committed a mistake, express regret promptly
and sincerely.
• Avoid irritating expressions. Words and expressions having negative connotation
should not be used in the message.
 • Use of non-discriminatory expressions that reflect equal treatment of people
regardless of gender, race, ethics, origin and physical features.

Set 5

Part B

Crafting Business Messages, Reports, Proposal and Memos

6. Business Letters

• Introduction to business letters

• Writing routine and persuasive letters

• Positive and negative messages

• Organizational plans

• Writing memos

• Circulars

Objectives of written business messages (letters, memos, circulars,

reports, emails, etc.)

To help the reader remember complex information

To communicate with a busy person at their convenience

To encourage the reader to retain our message for reference in the future

To retain a record of what we said (called an ‘audit trail’)

Definition: Audit trail

An audit trail is a record that provides documentary evidence of a sequence of

events including details of those events.

Key elements of written business messages

There are three key elements of written messages that you must consider:

The message
 The writer

The reader

The writer faces the challenge of putting the message into writing. They must
be clear to avoid creating any misunderstanding, ambiguity or confusion.

In cases when the objective (aim) of a communication is to get a decision from

the reader then the key reader is the decision-maker.

Letter Writing

Before the advent of modern technology made communication so easy, the art
of writing a letter was considered an important requirement. Even today a
letter is an important means of communication in both the workspace as well
as our personal lives.

A letter is a written message that can be handwritten or printed on paper. It is

usually sent to the recipient via mail or post in an envelope, although this is
not a requirement as such. Any such message that is transferred via post is a
letter, a written conversation between two parties.

Now that E-mails and texts and other such forms have become the norm for
communication, the art of letter writing has taken a backseat. However, even
today a lot of our communication, especially the formal kind, is done via
letters. Whether it is a cover letter for a job, or the bank sending you a
reminder or a college acceptance letter, letters are still an important mode of
communication, which is why it is important that we know the particulars of
letter writing.

There are many standard types of business letters, and each of them has a
specific focus. Here is given brief introduction to a few types of business
letters most commonly sent and received.

[Link] Letters

Typical sales letters start off with a very strong statement to capture the
interest of the reader. Since the purpose is to get the reader to do something,
these letters include strong calls to action, detail the benefit to the reader of
taking the action and include information to help the reader to act, such as
including a telephone number or website link.
Sales letters follow AIDA plan:

1. Attention
2. Interest
3. Desire
4. Action

2. Order Letters

Order letters are sent by consumers or businesses to a manufacturer, retailer

or wholesaler to order goods or services. These letters must contain specific
information such as model number, name of the product, the quantity desired
and expected price. Payment is sometimes included with the letter.

3. Complaint/ Claim Letters

The words and tone you choose to use in a letter complaining to a business
may be the deciding factor on whether your complaint is satisfied. Be direct
but tactful and always use a professional tone if you want the company to
listen to you.

4. Adjustment Letters

An adjustment letter is normally sent in response to a claim or complaint. If the

adjustment is in the customer’s favor, begin the letter with that news. If not,
keep your tone factual and let the customer know that you understand the
complaint.

4. Inquiry Letters

Inquiry letters ask a question or elicit information from the recipient. When
composing this type of letter, keep it clear and succinct and list exactly what
information you need. Be sure to include your contact information so that it is
easy for the reader to respond.

5. Follow-Up Letters

Follow-up letters are usually sent after some type of initial communication.
This could be a sales department thanking a customer for an order, a
businessman reviewing the outcome of a meeting or a job seeker inquiring
about the status of his application. In many cases, these letters are a
combination thank-you note and sales letter.

6. Letters of Recommendation

Prospective employers often ask job applicants for letters of recommendation

before they hire them. This type of letter is usually from a previous employer
or professor, and it describes the sender’s relationship with and opinion of the
job seeker.

7. Acknowledgment Letters

Acknowledgment letters act as simple receipts. Businesses send them to let

others know that they have received a prior communication, but action may or
may not have taken place.

8. Cover Letters

Cover letters usually accompany a package, report or other merchandise.

They are used to describe what is enclosed, why it is being sent and what the
recipient should do with it, if there is any action that needs to be taken. These
types of letters are generally very short and succinct.

9. Letters of Resignation

When an employee plans to leave his job, a letter of resignation is usually sent
to his immediate manager giving him notice and letting him know when the
last day of employment will be. In many cases, the employee also will detail
his reason for leaving the company.

10. Collection letters

A collection letter (also known as dunning letter) is a notification sent in

writing, informing a consumer of his past due payments. Debt collection
letters' function is to remind the debtor of his delinquent payment owed to a
creditor. ... A collection letter is to be sent, when debtor's invoice has become
past-due. (also called as Dunning letters

Set 6 Interpersonal Communication (Excluded)

Set 7

Planning a business message

The four key elements of communication planning are:
❑ Objectives – what are you trying to achieve
❑ Audience – consider situations specific to the audience that may impact
how they interpret the message
❑ Structure – consider the content – order, format and emphasis
❑ Style – given the audience factor, what language, sentence structure and
visual aids will best achieve the purpose of the message

Organizational plan of Business Letter

Organizational plan refers to the order of content of letter or the structure of a

letter. Generally business letters follow the plans given below:

1. Direct plan (when informing): Give the most important information

first. Provide explanations and details.
2. Direct plan (when requesting): Ask the most important question first.
Give a detailed description or ask further questions, and explain the
reasons for the request. Request action, give a deadline, and show
appreciation.
3. Indirect plan (when delivering bad news): Soften bad news with an
indirect opening (the buffer).
Give reasons for bad news
Close with a polite, positive statement that doesn’t refer to the bad news.
4. AIDA plan (when persuading) Capture attention with a compliment,
question, or statement of reader’s benefit. Reduce resistance with
explanations. Motivate action.
For persuasion the popular AIDA formula is used. AIDA is an acronym:
Attention, Interest, Desire, and Action.

Basic parts of business letters

1. Heading (Sender’s address/ return address)

Most companies use letterhead--stationery with the company’s logo, name,
address and other details; this lends it a more professional air. If the company
does not have letterhead, the company’s full name and address should be
typed at the top of the page.

independent contractor, add your name either in place of the company name
or above it.

Example:

LOGO Consolidated Steel Mills Limited

23-A, Southern Commercial Zone

Some Area, Some City 35467

Phone:11111111 , fax: 2222222

Email: info@[Link]

Website: [Link]

2. The date of the letter Letters should always include a date. Enter dates
two to six lines below the heading, depending on the length of the letter.

Example:

• October 12, 2005 US style

• 12 October 2005 UK style

The date is aligned with the return address.

3. Reference

Some letters require specific reference to file, account, invoice, order, or policy
numbers. These references are usually typed below the dateline, but they may
also be centered on the page.

Example:
Your reference: HRY265

Our reference: ICP 38-X

4. The Inside Address (Receiver’s address)

The recipient’s address is written after your own address and date always on
the left margin. Include the recipient’s name, company, address and postal
code. Add job title if appropriate.

Example:

Mr. Rizwan Dawood, Finance Director

Swan Electrical Industries Limited - Pakistan

Sixth Floor, Haya Complex III

24 M.T Khan Road, Karachi.

5. The Greeting / Salutation

The salutation (or greeting) in a business letter is always formal. It often

begins with “Dear {Person’s name}.” Be sure to include

Mr. Mrs., etc. (courtesy titles) while Prof., Dr. (professional titles)

If you’re not sure if he or she is male or female, then just use their first name.

• Dear Mr. Saad Zaheer, (sure it’s a male name)

• Dear Naseem, (not sure either a male or female name).

Mr. for male, Mrs. for married woman and Miss for unmarried woman

Ms. is preferred when you don’t know woman’s marital status. Since it shows
no discrimination, the use of Ms. is preferred.

6. The Subject Line (optional)

Adding a subject line makes it easier for the reader to quickly understand the
situation or aims of the letter. Normally the subject sentence follows the word
“Subject:” or “Re:” (regarding). Subject line is usually placed one line below
the greeting but alternatively can be located directly after the “inside address,”
before the “greeting.”

7. The Body Paragraphs

Whether your letter consists of a single paragraph or several, the chief rule
here is brevity. Business letters should never go beyond one page unless
absolutely necessary. Use a new paragraph when you wish to introduce a
new idea or element into your letter. Depending on the letter style you choose,
paragraphs may be indented. Regardless of format, skip a line between
paragraphs.

8. The Complimentary Close/ sign-off

This short, polite closing always ends with a comma. It is either at the left
margin or its left edge is in the center, depending on the Business Letter Style
that you use. (We are going to read about it on the next pages).

The use of Complimentary Close generally corresponds with the salutation:

“Dear Sir or Madam” must end in “Yours faithfully”

“Dear Mr. ABC” must end in “Yours sincerely” or “Sincerely yours”

(Note: the second word of the closing is NOT capitalized)

9. Signature and Writer’s identification

The signature is the last part of the letter. You should sign your first and last
names. The signature line may include a second line for a title, if appropriate.
The signature should start directly above the first letter of the signature line in
the space between the close and the signature line. Use blue or black ink.

The most common closing is "Sincerely." Follow this with a comma. Skip four
single lines after the closing and type your name. Sign your name in the space
above your name.

Example:
Sincerely,

Jonathan Wilson

Finance Manager

10. Carbon Copy Notation (cc)

This device is used to sends duplicate copies of the letter to other people
other than the addressee.

cc: Mr. Mata, ArslanArif, Ms. RameenRehman)

11. Enclosure

If you are enclosing additional information with your letter such as a resume or
a curriculum vitae, skip two single lines after your typed name and type
"Enclosure" or "Enclosures; ‘Enc.’, or ‘ Encs. ‘, as appropriate." If you use the
plural, you have the option of stating the number of enclosures in
parentheses.

• Enclosures: (2)
• Enclosure: copy of invoice

12. Post script (P.S.) – This is written when the writer forgets to
include an important point in the message

13. Attention Line

An attention line is appropriate when you are writing to a company and

want a particular person or department to receive your letter. Drop two
lines below the date and place the attention line either on the left margin or
in the centre of the page. Your salutation should be two lines below the
attention [Link] the attention line given below:
 Example:

Mr. ABC, The Manager

ABC Company
XYZ Area, City Inside Address
Postal code

Attention: Mr. Ibrahim Attention Line

Dear Sir, Salutation

Subject Line Subject: Inquiry about XYZ products

All standard parts of a business letter and their allocation are given in the
sample letter on the next page
Business Letter Formats

1. Full Block Style

The most widely used format for business letters is "block style," where the
text of the entire letter is justified left. The text is single spaced, except for
double spaces between paragraphs.
Full block style business letters have a formal look; however they can be used
in any business situation. If you are looking for a single format that will work
well in every situation, this is a good one to use.
 2. Modified Block Style
The modified block style business letter is the second-most popular layout. It
has a clean, traditional look, with your company’s return address, the date, the
closing, and the signature line being started at the center point of the page.
All other elements including inside address, greeting, body, and enclosures
notation are left justified, and paragraphs are followed by either double or
triple spacing.

Modified block style business letters are less formal than full block style
letters. If you are corresponding with someone you already have a good
working relationship with, the modified block style letter is a good one to use.

3. Semi-Block Style
In the semi-block format business letter, all text is aligned to the left margin.
As in other business letter templates, each paragraph is separated by double
or triple spacing. The main difference between this type of correspondence
and others is that the first line of each paragraph is indented.

The semi-block format business letter is a little less formal than the block
format letter and slightly more formal than the modified block format letter. It
works well in almost all situations and is a good choice if you find yourself on
the fence about which format to use.

Set 8

Presentation Skills
What do we mean by “Presentation skills”?

Presentation skills are a set of abilities that enable an individual to:

• Interact with the audience;

• Transmit the messages with clarity;
• Engage the audience in the presentation;
• Interpret and understand the mindsets of the target audience.
It suggests that presentation skill doesn't just mean knowing how to put a good set of power point
slides together, but engaging and connecting with an audience to get your message across.

Why are presentation skills so Important?

Presentation and communication skill is the requirement of a career.

In a recent survey conducted and published in Forbes, an American business magazine, reports:
70% of people confirmed their belief that presentation skills are key to achieving career success.
20% of survey respondents said they would do almost anything to avoid giving a

Presentation

You need effective presentation skills to present your ideas, projects, plans, strategies and products
in front of the audience, teams and in front of venture capitalist online and offline.

Why can’t everyone be good at giving presentations?

For many people giving presentation is nerve-racking. Speech anxiety is the fear of public speaking
and termed as “Glossophobia”. This speaking anxiety may not be confined to speaking to large
audiences; people suffering with glossophobia may struggle to speak in a meeting, classroom and
in other smaller group settings. This can make it very difficult for sufferers to communicate verbally
in order to express their ideas and thoughts. As a result, glossophobia may hamper the sufferer’s
ability to further his or her academic, social or career opportunities.

Speech anxiety is not uncommon; speaking in public is one of the most common fears, ranking
higher than fear of heights, death and snake biting.

According to one estimate, 75% of people experience some degree of anxiety or nervousness when
go for public speaking, and 10% of people are extremely scared of speaking before audience.
Surprisingly, many famous people have suffered from glossophobia, including actors, politicians
and even presidents. Some notable examples are Abraham Lincoln, Gandhi, Sigmund Freud,
Thomas Jefferson, Bruce Willis and Julia Roberts.

Speech anxiety makes it difficult to articulate: the voice may quiver and shake, 'umm' or 'ah' may
creep into speech, unnecessary pause, stammers or tics, dryness in the mouth, weakened tone of
voice, sweating particularly on the hands and forehead, feeling of nervousness or panic attack, etc.

How to overcome speech anxiety?

The one and only basic practical advice for overcoming speech anxiety is to do whatever you think
may boost your confidence. How can you gain confidence? The general tips are:

1. Have command on your presentation material; prepare it thoroughly,

2. Practice often and aloud,
3. Prepare an impressive introduction,
4. Videotape your presentation and find the areas of improvement,
5. If possible, practice in realistic virtual environments before the event to overcome anxiety,
6. Prepare a list of potential audience questions and prepare answers.
7. Don't memorize word for word,
8. Practice relaxation techniques in the days before your presentation. Lie down or sit comfortably
in a quiet place. Breathe slowly. Close your eyes. Imagine your upcoming speaking
engagement. Picture yourself speaking with confidence.
9. Speak slowly and naturally,
10. Keep a glass of water next to you,
11. Speak with anyone around for a while before you go for presentation
12. Prior to speaking, tell yourself the famous three audience truths:
i “Audience believe that you are an expert”,
ii “They want you to succeed”,
iii “They don't know what you are going to say”. This means if you make an error or forget
to include something, don’t disclose; don’t apologize; just keep going. It’s only you who
knows you have missed out a point; they don’t know at all.
13. Smile and maintain a positive, pleasant expression on your face in the moments before you
speak.

Presentation Planning and Preparation

Formal Presentations

Formal presentations demand proper planning and preparation. There are a number of aspects that
you need to consider when preparing a presentation. They include the aim of the presentation, the
subject matter, the audience, the venue or place, the time of day, and the length of the talk. All
these will affect what you say and how you say it, as well as the visual aids that you use to get your
point across.

Consider the following key components/ elements for planning and preparing a presentation:

1. Objectives
2. Audience
3. The venue
4. The time
5. Time duration of presentation
6. Preparing the content of the presentation
7. Write it out
8. Visuals
9. Review and edit your content
10. Rehearse

1. Objectives
The objective/purpose of a presentation may be:

a. To inform: in informative presentation gives the audience information about the

topic.

b. To persuade: a persuasive presentation is an effort to change/influence the

opinions, beliefs, or behaviors of the audience.
 c. To inspire: an inspirational presentation is an appeal to the feelings, emotions,
values, and thoughts of your audience.

d. To entertain: an entertaining presentation is light hearted, casual and fun. The

emphasis is catching and holding the attention of the audience. Humor, stories, or subtle
irony could be the focus.
The objective of the presentation determines most of the substance. Writing down objectives will
make it much easier to organize the content and decide on design and tone of presentation. If the
objective of the presentation is clear, it keeps you focused as you research and develop the content
of the presentation.

2. Audience
Before preparing presentation, try to obtain information about your audience.

• The expected size of the audience.

• The age range: Retired/ old people, middle aged, or young trainees.
• Gender: the audience is predominantly male or female.
• Contextual consideration: working hours or leisure time? The place is comfortable with all
facilities required?
• Psychological considerations: are they already tired? Or alert and attentive.
• Their knowledge and expertise level: do they know something about your subject already or
will it be totally new to them? Is the subject part of their work?
• How can you link new material to things they might already understand?
• Are you there to inform, teach, stimulate, or provoke?
• Your relation with them: are you junior or senior to them?
• Can you use humour and if so what would be considered appropriate?
If you fail to consider your audience’s needs, you will fail to appeal to their interest and imagination.
Tailoring your talk to the audience is important.

3. The Venue
It can be helpful if you can obtain information about the place where you are going to speak. If you
could see the venue before the event, it may help defeat fear, as you can visualize the place while
you are preparing your talk. You may know about:

• The size of the room/ hall etc.

• The seating arrangements: theatre-style, cabaret style, rows of seats with aisle(s), round-
table, etc.
• The availability of equipment: microphone, laptop, pointer, projector, flip chart.
• If the room has curtains or blinds? This is relevant if you intend to use visual aids, and so
that you can ensure the correct environment for your presentation
• Does it have a stage? A podium? Where will you stand? What would be the distance of
slides? Will it be visible to entire audience? Do you need a chair when/if you conduct any
activity?
• The position of the light switches. Check if you need someone to help if you are using
audio/visual equipment and need to turn off the lights
• The likelihood of outside distractions: noise from another room, or passing traffic.
If the required information about place is not available ahead of time, it will help to get there a bit
early, to give you time to set up.

4. The Time
It is often not possible to set the schedule your presentation; still you should know the effect of time
and day may help you understand the context easily.

Let’s see how time of day can affect your audience?

Mornings:

The morning is the best time to speak because for most people, mornings are their most productive
hours. Researches have proved that Tuesday at 10:30 in the morning is the most productive time.
However, people may begin to feel hungry if the time is closer to lunch time. In this situations,
including a coffee break is not a bad idea.,

Afternoons:

In the afternoons, after lunch, people often feel drowsy and lethargic. If you are given a slot
immediately after lunch, you need to get your audience involved. An engaging introduction, a
discussion or any light activity may be very effective. Late in the afternoon, people again tend to
lose concentration as they start to worry about getting home, or focus on their personal priorities.

5. Time duration of presentation

Before you decide on the content of your presentation, you have to consider the length of time you
have for the presentation. Always find out if this given time includes time for Q&A session. Also get
information if there are other speakers too and, if so, where you are placed in the order. If you can
find an opportunity to choose, don’t opt to go last. Probably going first is not as bad idea as going
last.

Remember that audience attention span is not that long; they may lose concentration, if the
presentation is lengthy. In any case, your presentation must be interesting, well planned and
original. Maximum one hour presentation including Q&A session may be effective.

6. Preparing the content of the presentation

After you have considered the audience, the aim, the location, the time and the duration of the
presentation, start developing the content of the presentation. For the preparation of the content
of your presentation, take the following steps:

i. Select the appropriate main points.

Choose the main points you wish to include in the presentation. The main points should reflect your
own objectives as well the needs of your audience. Arrange these points in a logical and coherent
way.

ii. Choose the supporting information

The supporting information helps your audience understand, believe in and agree with your main
points. This may need factual data, points of detail or an explanation of process, or the diagrams,
pictures or video segments.

Whatever information or aid you decide to include, it must:

 • Add clarity to your argument. (explaining complex terms, reminding your audience of
any supporting theories)
• Add authority to your argument (making connections with other people's work, quoting
experts, offering evidence from your own research)
iii. Sequence Your Presentation
A good way to do that is to use a simple flowchart which lays out the order of the ideas that you are
going to present.

Subtopic detail
Notes/Visuals
1.1

Sub-topic#1 Subtopic detail

Notes/Visuals
0:00 – :15 1.2

Subtopic detail
Notes/Visuals
1.3

Subtopic detail
Notes/Visuals
2.1

Presentation Sub-topic #2 Subtopic detail

Notes/Visuals
topic 0:15 –0:30 2.2

Subtopic detail
Notes/Visuals
2.3

Subtopic detail
Notes/Visuals
3.1

Sub-topic #3 Subtopic detail

Notes/Visuals
0:30 –0:45 3.2

Subtopic detail
Notes/Visuals
3.3

iv. Write it out

Now it is time to write it out. There are options for you. You could just make more detailed notes on
the breakdown of your detailed presentation elements, or you could write it out in full. The latter is
more time-consuming, but can also give you a better idea of where you stand time-wise. If you write
it out in full, a tentative estimation formula says: 110 words for each minute. Your speaking rate
may vary, so adjust according to your own style.

The advice is: don’t prefer speaking notes on-stage. For sure you can use notes to practice and
speaking out loud and see how it sounds. You may write some main points or roadmap of your
presentation on small cards. Place them on podium and have a look, while continue speaking , just
for the sake of not missing any important point.

v. Visuals
The next step is to figure out what sort of visual aids you need. Visual aids are helpful when
anything requires expanding, clarifying or simplifying. The illustrations of any type should be
relevant and fully explained. You can create slides based on the topical break-down or it may be
based on natural transitions within the speaking notes.

PowerPoint or other presentation software (like Prezi) is often used to support a presentation, and
not detract from the main essence of your talk. Do not use visual aids or PowerPoint just as fillers or
to show off your technological expertise.

Limit the number of slides. Presenters who constantly “flip” to the next slide are likely to lose their
audience. A good rule of thumb is one slide per minute.

View your slides on the screen but do not read from your slides. Do not speak to your slides; many
presenters face the direction of their presentation rather than their audience

vi. Review and Edit Your Content

When editing presentation content, you should consider the following:

• Ensure that the language you use is appropriate for the audience. Are there any terms they
may not be familiar with? If so use more familiar terms or explain the meaning; particularly
in case of technical jargons or obscure words.
• The sentences are short, and their structure is simple and easy the audience’ understands.
• Do you need additional visual materials to illustrate your key points?
• Check, and double check, that any presentation slides or illustrations, titles, captions,
handouts, etc. are free from spelling mistakes.
• Finally ask yourself if the presentation meet your objectives.

vii. Rehearse

Remember 3P’c: “practice, practice, practice”. Practice will make you appear far more
polished and professional while delivering your presentation. Rehearse until you are
confident enough and ready to present. There are three areas to practice in order to become
a masterful presenter:
i Body Language:

This is important to notice how you appear to your audience. Proper use of gestures,
posture, expressions, eye contact, movement of hands, etc. is essential element. However
excessive use of gesture is distracting and sometime awkward.
a. Keep your head straight.
b. Stand with balanced weight. Leaning against a table, chair, or lectern undermines
your confidence.
c. Don't fidget. It conveys that you are nervous, bored, or impatient.
d. People also imitate others' dispositions and emotions. If you are smiling, your
audience will smile; if you are energetic, yet relaxed, then your audience will tend to
be energetic and relaxed, too.
e. Do not turn your back on the audience, (when explaining a slide or so), you will lose
control on them, moreover, don’t block the visual with your body.
 ii Vocal Tone, stress and pauses: Manage speed, volume, and inflection to ensure that you
are heard clearly and powerfully. Have a control on your articulation.
iii Familiarize yourself with the content: Practicing doesn’t mean memorization. Engage
yourself with the flow and order of the ideas in a way that you remember what is backwards
and forwards.
iv Record your presentation and review it in order to know how you sound and appear to your
audience. You may notice that you are pausing awkwardly, talking too fast, or using
distracting gestures.
v Consider using different colored highlighters to remind yourself when to pause, when to
emphasize a particular point, when you have a slide change on your PowerPoint, etc.
vi Practice in front of peers or a friend and take feedback. Ask them to comment on your
delivery and content. Also ask about your strong points as well as weaker areas.

Improve your performance during the presentation

Being in charge of the situation when presenting, it is your job to make your audience feel
comfortable and engaged with both you and the material of the presentation. Consider certain key
points for the effective presentation:

I. Dress appropriately.
II. Be enthusiastic about your topic.
III. Focus On Your Audience, Not Yourself
IV. Speak naturally in a non-robotic way.
V. To ensure better performance you can memorize your opening. Learn your first few
sentences so well you don’t have to think about it…this empowers you to start strong and
make a confident first impression.
VI. People respond to your body language before you start talking. The way you talk and stand,
your facial expressions, and your eye contact (or lack of it) communicate whether you are
nervous, confident, excited, and more. Decide what impression you want to convey, and
then control your body language accordingly.
VII. Avoid fillers, such as “Ah, uh, I mean, like, okay, um….”
VIII. Use gestures to emphasize points and move about the space if possible.
IX. Stay facing full front to audience.
X. Include stories to engage people emotionally.
XI. People’s attention spans are getting shorter and shorter. People learn best in 20-minute
chunks. Insert small surprises into your demonstration to break monotony. Try throwing in a
video clip or interrupting your speech with a relevant activity.
XII. Human senses are always competing with each other: While using any visual aids, know
this fact that it’s difficult for people to both listen to you and read your slides. So establish a
balance
XIII. People shut off their brains when confronted with complicated drawings and tables, so
simplify your graphics.
XIV. Only look at notes or slides very briefly. Sweep the room with your gaze, pausing briefly on
various people.
 XV. Humor Reduces Your Nervousness. If you are comfortable incorporating humour into your
talk, go for it. The laughs from the audience will lessen their stress and incite their interest.
XVI. Watch TED talks, watch good presenters’ videos and try to learn the art of effective
speaking.
XVII. Join a Toastmasters group in order to practice presenting in a non-threatening and
supportive environment along with a positive feedback from the group. It would help you
gain the confidence you really need for impressive speaking and presentations.

Handling Question- and- Answer Session

“Nothing can derail an otherwise good presentation more than being unprepared for Q&A.”
Handling Q&A session following a presentation requires great communication skills. How can you
do it?

• Do a prior planning: try to anticipate potential questions and prepare answers. You may
reserve some slides for the answers and use when appropriate according to the answer.
• Set some rules for asking questions. At the start of your presentation, make it clear when
you would prefer to deal with questions - as you go along or at the end of the
presentation.
• Listen to the whole question. You don’t have to answer a question immediately. Pause
for a few seconds, actively listen to all parts of the question and think about the best way
to answer.
• Acknowledge the question may be saying “Good Question!” This gesture shows your
interest.
• Rephrase the question. It ensures you understand the question, and you gain time to
think about your answer.
• Answer the question as clearly and concisely as possible.
• You can encourage your audience to ask questions after the event has finished by
providing your email address. This shows a high level of respect for your audience and
implies that the topic still has much further scope for enquiry.

Using Power Point Techniques

In the previous section, we have already discussed few points regarding the use of power point in
presentations. Here we discuss in detail.

The Use of Power Point Techniques can help us communicate an idea to an audience in a more
effective and precise way. The effective use of power point techniques not only helps communicate
a message but also add color to a presentation.

Following are the steps on how to create a basic PowerPoint presentation:

1. Plan the role and contribution of slides

 A presentation is all About You, Not the Slides; so plan what you want to write in PowerPoint. The
use of slides should be logical; it should support the presenter in conveying the message more
professionally. It is often considered that slides are the inevitable part of a presentation; it’s not the
case: many effective presenters go even without using any. So the slide making must be planned
with great care and attention. The slides should correspond with the purpose of your presentation.

2. One idea at one time

At any given moment, there should be one idea on the screen that you are explaining. The
audience will almost instantly read every slide as soon as it is displayed. If you have the next three
points on the slides that you plan to discuss, your audience will be three steps ahead of you, waiting
for you to catch up rather than listening with interest to the point you’re making. Your job as
presenter is to control the flow of information so that you and your audience stay perfectly
synchronized.

3. Don’t put content on slides

There are many different guidelines about the maximum number of words that should be on one
slide:

The rule of 4 x 5 says: four bullet points of five words each.

The rule of 33 says: a maximum of 33 words per slide.

There isn't really a single, hard and fast rule. The basic idea is that too many words affect the
receptiveness of the audience; they are confused between listening and reading.

Another fact: the more words you try to put on one slide, the smaller the type needs to be, making
reading the slide an increasingly challenging activity.

4. Include Graphics to arouse emotion

Use images only when they add important information or make an abstract point more concrete.
Use high-quality graphics including photographs. Never simply stretch a small, low-resolution
photo to make it fit your layout; it will degrade the resolution even further. Avoid using
PowerPoint Clip Art; your audience might have already seen it. Some presenters use real
images of people as they believe that the photography of people tends to help the audience
connect with the slide on a more emotional level.

5. Keep Your PowerPoint Slides Simple

Your slides should have plenty of “white space” or “negative space.” Do not feel compelled to fill
empty areas on your slide with your logo or other unnecessary graphics or text boxes that do not
contribute to better understanding. The less clutter you have on your slide, the more powerful your
visual message will become.

6. Create your own original PowerPoint templates

You clearly need a consistent visual theme throughout your presentation, but most templates
included in PowerPoint have been seen by your audience countless times and your audience
expects a unique presentation with new content and style. No audience will be excited about a
cookie-cutter presentation, so you can make your own background templates which will be more
tailored to your needs.
 7. Use appropriate colors
Color evokes feelings. The right color can help persuade and motivate. Studies show that color
usage can increase interest and improve learning comprehension and retention. According to Color
Theory, Cool colors, like blue and green, work best for backgrounds as they appear to recede away
from us into the background.2. Warm colors, like orange and red, work best for objects in the
foreground, such as text, because they appear to be coming at us.

Take care of the surrounding while choosing colors for the slides. If you need the room should be
dark, then dark background like dark blue, grey, etc. with white or light text will work fine. But if you
plan to keep most of the lights on, then a white background with black or dark text works much
better

8. Choose fonts well

There are three basic categories of fonts: Serif, Sans-Serif and Script. Sans-Serif is a better
choice. The most popular sans-serif font is Arial; others include Calibri, Century Gothic, Helvetica,
Lucida Sans, Tahoma and Verdana. A sans-serif font is easier to read. Title Font must be between
32 and 40 point and the Body Font is mostly taken between 24 and 32 point.

Avoid boldface, italics and ALL-CAPS and Limit punctuation.

Centered text is harder to read and looks amateurish. Line up all your text to a right-hand or left-
hand baseline – it will look better and be easier to follow.

9. Using video or audio

According to estimation, 75% of our learning is through seeing, 13 % through hearing. Use video
and audio when appropriate. A video clip not only will illustrate your point better, it will also serve
as a change of pace thereby increasing the interest of your audience.

10. Limit transitions & animation

Use animation and slide transitions wisely. Bullet points should not be animated on every slide.. A
simple “Wipe Left-to-Right” (from the “Animations” menu) is good for a bullet point, but a “Move” or
“Fly” for example is too boring and slow. Avoid cheesy sound effects such as the sound of a horn or
applause when transitioning slides.

11. Think outside the screen.

The slides on the screen are only part of the presentation; not the main part. Just focusing on slides
and ignoring your own presentation manner is not at all professional. Remember: You are the focus
when you are presenting, no matter how interesting your slides are.

12. Asking questions while using slides

Questions arouse interest, provoke curiosity, and engage audience. Quiz their knowledge and then
show them how little or more they know.

More about VISUAL AIDS Important

Note that the prime purpose of visual aids is to communicate with greater clarity and increase
the level of understanding among the audience.

In order to achieve the optimum benefit in a presentation:

- Visual Aids should be used sparingly to highlight and give greater credibility to key points.
Excessive use of Visual Aids would lose their efficacy.

- Visual Aids must be clearly visible to the entire audience. It is irritating for the audience to listen
to a presentation that has visual aids which can be seen only by a portion of the audience in the
room.

- Visual Aids should be displayed only at the relevant points in the presentation and should be
removed/switched off before moving on to the new information. An irrelevant Visual Aid creates
distractions among the audience.

- A Visual Aid should contain only such information which can be easily comprehended by the
audience.

- A Visual Aid showing Clip Arts from well-known sources should be avoided as it shows lack of
original professional knowledge of the subject.

- After offering the explanation of the contents of the Visual Aid, the speaker should immediately
turn face towards the audience and continue to speak.

Visual aids and equipment used important

Visual communication ….
Whilst words (both spoken and written) require a reasonable amount of effort to hear, read,
interpret and absorb, visual communication can achieve a much greater impact in a
significantly shorter period. Visuals can be more memorable and clearer than a wall of
words and blocks of text and figures.
A brief word of warning though that visual images are essentially a symbolic language and
can as equally be misinterpreted by the viewer. Feedback is still an essential component of
communicating using visual aids.
The various types of visual aids you
are likely to encounter in business
communications are described in the
table below.

Visual aid Explanation

Blackboard and whiteboard Blackboards (also called chalkboards) are gradually
being replaced by modern wipe-clean whiteboards. The
principle remains the same in that the presenter writes
on them in real-time, then wipes them clean to re-use
the writing surface.
The process is both time-consuming and messy
although remains a useful alternative to overhead
projectors for annotating brainstorms and group
problem-solving.
Handouts Handouts describe the printed notes and diagrams that
are distributed to delegates in a presentation. They
may be a copy of the presentation or other supporting
documentation to be reviewed at the convenience of
the reader.
Flipcharts Flipcharts are essentially a large pad of paper mounted
on an easel frame.
One benefit is that individual sheets can be removed
and used as posters in training rooms. Furthermore it is
a low-tech solution and can support multiple groups
preparing presentations in a live auditorium.

Overhead projectors Overhead projectors are rapidly being superceded by

slides although they are still used by many
organisations. Overhead projectors involve projecting
pre-printed or hand-written images from a clear film
onto a large screen.
The advantage of overhead projectors compared to
slides is the ease with which presenters can mark-up
and annotate the film with special purpose pens. For
this reason they remain popular in training rooms.
Slides Slides are essentially freeze-frame photographs
including text and diagrams projected onto a screen of
some kind. Modern software such as Microsoft
 PowerPoint allows audio and video to be embedded
into the slides too.
Film and video Film and video are powerful aids that similar to slides
can be projected onto a large screen or output to a
screen such as a computer monitor or television
screen.
Props and demonstrations Products (props) and demonstrations (of an operation
or product) are an effective way of showing the
audience how something works.
This is useful at the design stage of product
development when looking at prototype products and
scaled-models for a production process as well as in
the sales and marketing phase when promoting
products.

Now FROM ICMA book (just read once)

ORAL PRESENTATION SKILLS STRUCTURE

A good oral presentation is well structured; this makes it easier for the listener to follow.
Basically there are three parts to a typical presentation: the beginning, middle and end or (introduction, body
and conclusion). We are going to look at the content of each part individually and the language needed to
express its structure and content.
THE BEGINNING OR THE INTRODUCTION
The beginning of a presentation is the most important part. It is when you establish a rapport with the audience
and when you have its attention. More detailed techniques are to be found later.
Get the audience's attention and signal the beginning.
In English-speaking countries it is not uncommon that the speaker begin with a joke, an anecdote, a surprising
statement to get the audience's attention, to make people want to listen, to feel relaxed and even to introduce
the subject. An illustration from real life can be useful here as this may be a way to present information in such
a way that the audience can identify with.
Try to get your audience involved in your talk either by asking direct or rhetorical questions. Ask for a show of
hands for example in response to a question. Some of these approaches may not be appropriate in all countries.
Ask yourself how things are done in your country together with regard to your own experience and adapt
accordingly.
Greet the audience.
It is important to greet the audience by saying something like:
Hello ladies and gentlemen.
Good morning members of the jury.
Good afternoon esteemed guests Good evening members of the board Fellow colleagues Mr.
Chairman/Chairwoman
Introduce yourself
Good afternoon ladies and gentlemen, let me introduce myself
Good morning everyone, I'd like to start by introducing myself. My name is...
I am a student at the INT where I am a doctoral candidate,
I am X. Y. from 3 Com. I'm the manager of…
I am a researcher from …
I've been working on the subject now for X years. and I've had wide experience in the field of ...
Good morning, my name is LawrenceCouderc. I am a student at the INT and I would like to talk to

THE END OR CONCLUSION

The end or the conclusion of your talk should include four parts:
Give a brief reminder of what you tried to show in your speech and how you tried to do so. You should
briefly summarize your speech in a few lines to make sure the audience has retained the main points.
Alternatives are to just simply: state the point of the speech; give the essential message to retain; list the main
points and what you want the audience to remember; review informally or indirectly by using a quote, a
comparison or example.
1. Present a short conclusion. That is to say you should give a message that logically comes out of the
ideas developed in your speech. This could be a commentary, the lessons learned, some
recommendations, or the next steps
2. Thirdly, thank the audience for attending.
3. Invite the audience to ask questions or open a discussion. If you choose the former, you put yourself
in a superior position compared to the audience and should be considered as an expert. You will need
to be very prepared intellectually and psychologically to give control to the audience and able to answer
any questions. However, in the case of the latter, you put yourself more or less on equal terms with the
audience and do not have to be the expert with all the answers! The audience may have some clear
ideas or some practical knowledge about the subject themselves!
4. NB The end of a talk should never come as a surprise to an audience but needs special consideration.

CONCLUSION
To give a successful presentation and at the same time a good image of yourself or firm, careful preparation
and organization are required. You need to take into careful consideration who you are speaking to, when,
where, why as all of these details will have an impact on your structure and content. A well-structured speech
with a step by step approach is one that is easy to follow.
Besides structure it is also necessary to be relatively repetitive. A good "rule" is announce what you are going
to say, say it and finally, say what you've said. Be careful with the figures. Pronunciation and presentation are
important, practice beforehand! This is equally important for the key words of your presentation. It is particularly
annoying for the audience to hear the same word mispronounced a dozen or so times.
In addition to careful preparation - good structure and vocabulary - and organization, a message passes in other
ways. According to experts 55% of the message is non-verbal. Using images (visuals), body language and
voice are extremely important and will be presented in the following sections.

How many slides should you prepare?

One every two minutes is sufficient.
General and miscellaneous tips.
Visuals should be adjusted to the audience. Visual should supplement the spoken message. Large enough for
everyone to see. (Good idea to give out a paper copy, not at the same time though as the audience may not
be looking at you)
Ask yourself questions
Does the layout work?
Are there any spelling mistakes or grammatical errors? Remember they are going to be in plain view all the
time of your visual.
How should you present a visual in a presentation?
It is not sufficient just to put up a transparency on the screen and expect the audience to move its attention to
it, to understand it and make the link with what you are saying. (See Giving Presentations Unit. 4) I would
suggest the following strategy:
1. Introduce subject. What does the visual show?
2. Transition. Let's turn to the visual.
3. Explain the visual in terms of the axes, key, and source.
4. Describe the visual (e.g. if it is a graph, describe the movement).
5. Comment and analyze.
6. Do not read everything. Do not explain every detail.
7. Use round figures and emphasise trends.
Finally it is important to prepare your audience for what they are going to see. This keeps the audience on their
toes and gives you the opportunity to position your visual correctly.
ESTABLISHING A RELATIONSHIP WITH THE AUDIENCE
Do not assume the audience will be interested in what you have to say. Even if they are, minds wander and get
distracted. From the very beginning you need to create interest and continue doing so throughout your speech.
You need to put everything on your side to promote knowledge acquisition. In informing an audience you have
to adjust to what people think, to constraints, maintain a dialogue (and not a monologue) and use attractive
supporting material.
Arouse listeners' interest from the beginning. In the introduction show how your subject or what you are going
to say affects or may affect their lives. This can be accomplished in a number of ways.
➢ Give an unusual fact or statistic.
➢ Use words like you, we, us, our.
➢ Illustrate with a real life story.
➢ Ask the audience to do something. "Raise your hands if you know..".
➢ Ask the audience rhetorical questions for which the speaker does not expect an answer but should attract
the listener's ear.
➢ Be brief and clear in giving the subject and purpose. Speakers attitude is important - knowledge,
personality, openness.
➢ Be lively and enthusiastic.
Use a variety of media sources.
Rhetorical Questions
What is a rhetorical question? A question that you ask without expecting it to be answered. Why use such a
question? In using such a question the speaker appears to be having a dialogue with the listeners. It also should
catch their attention.
Have you ever seen/heard/experienced...?
How can we explain this? What does that mean?
What can be done about that?
Repetition
As I've said before... Let me repeat

Positive Body Language

Eye Contact
to keep audiences' attention (Asian audience might feel aggressed.)
facial expressions should be natural and friendly:
raise eyebrows to show surprise –
curl your eyebrows
Posture
stand straight but relaxed
(do not slouch or lean sideways)
Lean forward to emphasize however
No hands in pockets
Body Movement
to indicate a change of focus
keep audience's attention
move forward to emphasize
move to side to indicate a transition gesture
up and down head motions are movements to indicate importance or acknowledgement
pen or pointer to indicate part, place (on a transparency)
shrug shoulder to indicate I don't know or care
The Hands
Lots of possibilities to emphasise, to enumerate.
to express sincerity or reflexion
Be conscious of what you do with your hands
If you are unhappy, hold notes or cards to occupy them
arm - movements back and forth to suggest flow.
Open arms to include or welcome ideas

Negative Body language

loss of eye contact
looking at notes
looking at screen/board
don't stare, or look blankly into people's eyes
swaying back and forth like a pendulum
back turned to the audience
nervous tics
arms folded like a barrier
hands in pockets
VOICE AND PRONUNCIATION
Correct pronunciation is important if one is to be understood correctly. Incorrect pronunciation is perhaps the
first cause of communication breakdown. If the listener is not accustomed to the speaker's native language,
he/she will not understand a mispronounced word. Mispronunciation also tires the listener's ear and he/she will
perhaps even stop trying to understand the speaker if it becomes too difficult.
What is pronunciation?
There are two important aspects of pronunciation of individual words, word stress and the individual sounds
themselves called "phonemes" .
A suggestion: make sure you know how to correctly pronounce at least the key technical words or words that
your repeat over and over again in your speech. Just as in the case of individual words in English a particular
syllable receives stress, so do particular words in a sentence.
Using the Voice
The voice , or more precisely the qualities of the voice should be used to their fullest.
Qualities include loudness, speed (fast or slow), variety, pitch (high or low), silent moment or pauses.
The voice is important: - to indicate importance, meaning - to create atmosphere and to avoid sounding
monotonous and putting the audience to sleep!

Set 9

Intra-personal Communication and Thinking types

Intrapersonal communication includes conversations continually going on in our own minds.

Such internal conversations can be for the purpose of clarifying thoughts or
analysing a situation, reflecting upon or appreciating something.
Mastering the skills of intrapersonal communication lays the foundation of successful
socialization.
Example:
The most evident and noticeable form of intrapersonal communication is the voice coming
from inside; just like an unending speech that takes place inside our minds. These are kind
of remarks and judgments about whatever we experience.
The 3 important ingredients of intrapersonal communication are

1. self-concept,
2. perception
3. and expectations.

1. Self-concept
Self-concept provides the basis for intrapersonal communication, because it governs how a
person perceives one’s self and is oriented towards other individuals. Self-concept which
can also be referred to as self-awareness comprises of
three major factors: beliefs, values and attitudes.

❑ Beliefs: are either descriptive or prescriptive, they represent basic personal attitudes
and inclinations towards what is true or false, good or bad.
❑ Values: are deep-rooted morals, standards and ideals, which are consistent with
beliefs about good and bad, right and wrong, ideas and actions.
❑ Attitudes: are learned predispositions and tendencies towards or against the subject
matter, ideals that stem from and are generally consistent with values. Attitudes often are
global and typically influenced by emotions.

The three selves:

❑ Real self: what do you think of yourself when you are being honest.
❑ Ideal self: – who you would like to be or think you should be.
❑ Public self: – the one you would like others to know.

2. Perception
Where self-concept focuses internally, perception moves the focus towards the outside
world. Perception, thus, can be defined as a process by which individuals establish,
organize and interpret their sensory impressions towards the external world in order to give
a meaningful and coherent picture of the environment. However, what an individual
perceives can be significantly different from the actual reality and may also be different
from what others perceive of the same situation.
Perception of the external world is also deeply embedded in beliefs, values and attitudes. It
is so closely inter-related with the concept of self that one feeds off the other, thereby
creating a harmony between understanding of both one’s self and one’s world.

Factors affecting perception

A number of individuals looking at the same thing may perceive it completely differently.
There are numerous factors that can either shape or distort perception. All these factors
can either pertain to the perceiver, the object, the target which is focussed and is being
perceived or the context in which the perception is being made.
❑ Perceiver: When the perceiver looks at a thing and attempts to interpret it, then his
personal characteristics deeply influence that interpretation. These characteristics include
attitudes, motives, interests, experience, expectations and beliefs, e.g. if you expect
teachers to be mentors, old people to be forgetful, then you are perceiving them as such,
irrespective of their actual traits.
❑ Target: Characteristics of the object under focus may also affect the perception of the
perceiver, e.g. individuals who are talkative are more likely to be noticed than those who
are quiet.
❑ Context: The context in which we see the targets is also very important, e.g. a person
perfectly dressed up for a corporate meeting is normal but the same person attired for a
cricket match with the same group of people would appear weird. Though the perceivers
and target both are the same but the situation is different. Such situational factors might
include; time, place, light, temperature, seasons, etc.

3. Expectations
Future based messages dealing with long-term implications are termed as expectations.
These are strong beliefs regarding something that would happen in future.
There are two main aspects of expectations, i.e. the expectations we have from others and
the expectations we have from our own selves. How expectations are managed is critical to
how experiences and goals are managed and pursued.
In order to manage expectations one should develop an understanding as to what is in
one’s control and what is not. Expectations can be unreasonable if they are at extremes,
i.e. if someone expects to get hired immediately or assumes will never have to work again,
represents extremely unreasonable expectations.

Factors that influence intrapersonal communication

❑ Perspective:
Perspective is a particular attitude towards something and is the way we see anything, e.g.
if a person thinks that toys corrupt children’s minds, then seeing from this perspective, all
toy shops would be the worst most evil places on earth.
Knowledge, understanding and standards in our minds, shape our perspectives,
philosophies and paradigms. Our approach towards life impacts our perspectives in life.
Positive thoughts will cultivate positive perspectives in life, which in turn will produce
positive actions. Positive perspectives produce positive interpersonal relationships.
❑ Self-esteem:
Self-esteem is our perception of ourselves. It reflects how we measure our value, how we
perceive our value to the world and what worth we think we have for others. Self-esteem
has profound effects on almost every aspect of our lives; it impacts our confidence and
belief in our own selves and in others, our connections and our work.
Positive self-esteem provides us with the courage and flexibility to take control of our lives
and learn from our mistakes without the fear of rejection and non-acceptance. It
encourages us to shape our lives as best as we can. A person with high level of self-
esteem is comfortable with one’s self and is happy with what is reflected in the mirror.
On the other hand, low self-esteem causes a weakening effect that prevents individuals
from realizing their full potential. A person with low self-esteem feels worthless, inept,
incompetent and useless. It leads to a number of weaknesses in life.
In order to build high self-esteem, one should recognise the abilities required to actually
achieve whatever one wants. Those who suffer from low self-esteem, should interact with
those who have optimistic attitudes towards life and believe in the positivity of their actions.
❑ Self-confidence:
Self-confidence is our assessment of our own abilities to do something and achieve
success. High levels of self-confidence help us to take actions based on perspectives and
values we hold. It provides us with the strength to achieve the goals in our lives. One
should have a strong feeling of being an individual who is positive, successful, has
capabilities and can contribute something meaningful to the society. One must think and
find ways to solve issues rather than surrender to the circumstances.
❑ Self-assertive:
Self-assertiveness refers to the capability to take a stand and perform suitable actions to
guard perspectives and positive values in which one strongly believes.
Patience, courage and determination are the major attributes needed to improve any
adverse situation. One should behold firmly to the principles, ethics and rules one strongly
believes in.

Types of intrapersonal communication

Intrapersonal communication may involve internal dialogue, solo vocal communication, and
solo written communication.
❑ Internal dialogue: involves thinking, deliberating, investigating and analysing. Some
experts are of the opinion that daydreaming and nocturnal dreaming both relate to this
category. Observations and reflection also are part of this process.
❑ Solo vocal communication: involves talking loudly to one’s own-self. This may be
done to elucidate thinking, to practice a message anticipated for others, or simply to let off
steam, e.g. talking to one’s self as the subordinate complains about the superior.
❑ Solo written communication: refers to written communication which is not meant for
others, e.g. personal diary.

Importance of intrapersonal communication

Though intrapersonal communication is retained within an individual’s mind, yet it is the

basis of all other types of communication. Our understanding of and response to what we
hear and read depends heavily on the quality and extent of our communication with our
own selves.
In order to successfully communicate with others, one must first learn to communicate
within one’s own self. Intrapersonal communication is the simplest form of communication.
Thoughts and ideas that flow within the mind are influenced by an individual’s
temperament, emotions, experience, knowledge, opinions, views, values and attitudes.
The intrapersonal communication can be improved by concerted efforts, self-awareness,
and constant watch over one’s own self. Willingness to understand other people’s point of
view can help to broaden the thinking prospects, e.g. well-thought planning is essential
prior to appearing for a job interview, or meeting with a customer or initiating an arbitration
process.
Before communicating with the world one needs to communicate within one's ownself. In
that sense we can say, that intrapersonal communication can be regarded as an essential
pre-requisite for effective interpersonal communication. Effective communication rests on
positive outlook of the communicator.
Skills in intrapersonal communication can provide the right stability, direction and frame of
judgement in communicating with the external world.

Role of stereotypes in the communication process

Stereotypes refer to generalized ideas or images about certain group of people that
are widely accepted by others.

Examples:

- Boys are good at sports

- Girls are emotional

- Black people are the best athletes

- Chinese people eat rice.

Stereotypes can pertain to different ethnic groups, social classes, religious groups
and opposite genders.

e.g.

- Lower class people are uneducated.

- Men are stronger than women.

- Chinese are an extremely competitive race.

Stereotypes arise as an approach towards explaining and justifying differences

between groups. It might arise as a result of lack of exposure to other groups,
cultures, etc. They can be positive or negative.

Stereotype can be taken as a printing stamp to make multiple copies from a single
mould.

Though stereotyping in social relations plays a significant role by classifying people

and helping us foretell their conduct and plan our reactions yet it can also be
dangerous. Cultural stereotypes often result from or lead to prejudices, negative
opinions about others. Prejudices based on generalization of any race of people
into thin, negative stereotypes can have disastrous consequences such as
discrimination, violence and genocide in extreme cases.

We often find people stereotyped around characteristics of:

Age: Old people are forgetful.

Religion: Islam is growing faster than any other religion.

Profession: All lawyers are greedy.

Things: All Swiss watches are perfect.

Race: All Chinese people look alike.

Stereotypes have four main characteristics:

They are simpler than the reality.

They are acquired from others rather than on one’s own experience.

They are erroneous by their very nature.

They resist change if entrenched deeply.

We trust on these simplified generalizations because they help us make decisions

quickly. The problem occurs when we start generalizing inappropriately or too
much. They are widespread and may not contain any truth at all when applied to a
single person or situation, so therefore we need to exercise care and discretion to
avoid being unfair

Thinking process

Thinking is a mental activity which continues even when one is sleeping. Thinking is
said to be a constructive process that involves a number of mental activities, such
as deducing, extracting, reasoning, envisioning, judging, problem solving, and
creative thinking. Thinking is basically a conversation between our minds and
ourselves. Our mind has the skill to assess facts and choose what is true or false.
Thinking is a more difficult process than feeling because it requires command over
impulsive emotions and strong desires. Since the dawn of human civilization a lot
of effort has been put in to identify different thinking processes and their
importance in private and public life. Two major processes are discussed in the
following paragraphs i.e. Creative thinking and Critical thinking.

Creative thinking

Creative thinking is the procedure we follow in order to develop ideas that are
unique and exclusive, useful and worthy of further elaboration. It is described as an
approach of looking at problems or situations from a new standpoint that in turn
proposes unorthodox solutions. To sum up, creativity is the skill of bringing
something into existence that was not there before.

Characteristics of a creative thinker

A creative thinker is always curious and looks at problems as

opportunities.

He enjoys taking challenges and is comfortable with imagination.

A creative thinker challenges assumptions and does not give up that

easily.

Creative people are self-governing and free in their judgments, and are
self-assertive, dominant, impulsive, prefer complexity, etc.

They develop the ability to deal with ambiguity and unstructured

problems.

Role of creativity in life

Have you ever realized whatever you see around you, the stuff that you use for
work in everyday life, the conveyance you use for travelling from one place to
another etc. are all the products of human thinking? Creativity is a specific kind of
thinking process that involves reaching out to the solution of a problem in an
exclusive and novel way which was missing earlier.
Creativity is the mother of all inventions and discoveries in the world. Unlike
routine solutions to the problems, creative solutions are fresh, original, and
unique, that others have not practised before.

Believe it or not, we all are creative thinkers by nature. Turn over the pages of past
and visualise the days of your childhood, it would give you the proof how you used
your creative skills for doing simple things. But the misery with this simple fact is
that, ahead in the secondary education these skills are not developed and
emphasized upon. Another simple fact is that creative thinking skill is one of those
things that humans will ever have a monopoly on.

It’s the key that opens the door to unlimited opportunities. Look around and you
would know what this skill has done for mankind. Business Communication

© Emile Woolf International 96 The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Pakistan

Critical thinking

“Critical thinking is the thinking procedure we follow in order to reflect on,

measure and evaluate the assumption fundamental to our own and others’ ideas
and efforts”.

It is the intellectually controlled process of vigorously and proficiently

conceptualizing, applying, analysing, synthesizing and/or evaluating information
gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning or
communication.

Distinctions between critical

thinkers and uncritical thinkers

Critical thinkers
Uncritical thinkers

Have a passionate drive for Often fall victim to ways that are
clarity, accuracy and uncertain, imprecise, inaccurate
applicability. etc.
Are logically honest with Pretend that they know more
themselves, acknowledge openly than what they do and disregard
what they don’t know and their limitations.
recognize what their limitations
are.

Listen open-mindedly to Are close-minded people and

contrasting views and welcome fight criticism of beliefs and
criticism. assumptions.

Think independently and are not Tend to get involved in “group

scared of disagreeing with group think”, uncritically following the
opinion. crowd.

Set 10

REPORT WRITING

DEFINITION
A Business Report is an impartial, objective, planned presentation of facts to
one or more persons for a specific business purpose.
They present ideas and facts to decision-makers. In most cases the decision
are based on reports. Today we often rely on weather reports, credit reports,
consumer reports, monetary reports, congressional reports, and world reports
before making crucial decisions.
In business, executives, managers and supervisors often base policy decisions
on reports. For every long report, countless short reports are presented to help
business people make informed decisions on matters as diverse as the most
comfortable office chairs to buy or the best recruit to hire for management
training.
What is a report?
A report is a document in which a given problem is examined for conveying
information, reporting findings, putting forward ideas and, sometimes making
recommendation. Writing an effective report is a necessary skill for
communicating ideas in the business environment. At some point during your
professional career, you may be given a task to write a report which might give
you opportunity of practical learning by applying all the theories you have
studied during your academic years.
Purpose/Importance of a Business Report
In a small business, the owner or manager can supervise his Business, matters
personally. However in, a large, and complex business, the situation is entirely
different. Here the owner cannot be everywhere. Whenever he faces and
problem he needs information, which he gets through business report prepared
by reliable expects. A business report helps the managers monitor the various
units in an organization. It is equally useful for the lower level employees as it
explains the management decision to them.
Characteristics/Qualities of a Business Report
A good business report must have the following characteristics.
(i) Comprehensive
A business report should be comprehensive. It should cover all the aspects
of a problem. The writer of a business report should study a problem
thoroughly. He should discuss the various causes of a certain problem as
well as suggest solution to it.
(ii) Concise
A business report must be clear and free from ambiguity. The language of
the report should also be very clear, the report writer should avoid vague
statements and confused phrases.
(iii) Concise
Conciseness is a desirable quality of a business report. It should always
be brief and complete. A manager does not have time to read unnecessary
and irrelevant details.
(iv) Cohesive
A business report should be cohesive. There must be a logical order in it.
It should be based upon a proper format, i.e., introduction, discussion,
findings and suggestions.
(v) Objective
 A. good report is always objective. It. means that there should be no
personal feelings or prejudices involves in it. The writer should base his
report on facts instead of personal opinion.
CLASSIFICATION/TYPES OF A BUSINESS REPORT
Following is the diagram that shows the classification of the business reports.

BUSINESS REPORT

Oral Reports Written Reports

Routine Special
Reports Reports

Short Reports Long Reports

(Memo Reports) (Formal
Reports)

Why organizations need reports?

A report is a kind of testimonial or an account of some happening. It is purely based on observation

and analysis. Reports serve several functions. They are a strong base for planning and control in an
organization. They may be used to communicate information within an organization upwards to
senior management, downwards to staff, or externally to government regulators. Reporting financial
information, marketing and management strategies and issues to others is an important component
of the business world. They can also serve a persuasive role to get management motivated to take
a desired action, support a project, and approve an investment decision.

Reports usually address a specific issue or problem, and are often required when a decision needs
to be made. They present the author’s findings in relation to the issue or problem and then
recommend a course of action for the organization to take. The key to a good report is in-depth
analysis. Good writers will show their reader how they have interpreted their findings. The reader
will understand the basis on which the conclusions are drawn as well as the rationale for the
recommendations.

How to write effective reports?

The essentials of good/effective report writing:

a. Know your objective; it helps you stay focused.

 b. Make an analysis of the target audience: Estimate what they require from the report? What
kind of data audience is looking for in the report? How this report will help them achieve
their objective.
c. Collect required data and research the topics.
d. Discuss all sides of the problem reasonably and objectively. Include all relevant facts in a
report.
e. Decide the report writing style and the structure.
f. Ensure good presentation and careful documentation
g. Make appropriate paragraphs, give bold headings for each paragraph, use bullets wherever
required, etc.; it would make your report attractive and interesting.
h. Use tables, graphs, charts, etc. to show the numerical data.
Formal vs Informal Reports

Informal Reports
An informal report is usually an internal report. The readers of such reports are the members of a
specific department and the department heads. However such reports may also circulate
throughout the company. The format, structure of these reports are typically simple can even be
formatted like a memo. Sometimes such reports may be several sections long, still they are much
shorter than formal reports.

The report has three basic parts: introduction, body and conclusion. There is no abstract/synopsis/
executive summary. The introduction is a straight forward starter; or it briefly states the problem.
The body explains what you have researched, the precise data calculated and then final conclusion.
You are often familiar with the audience, so you do not find problem in the selection of appropriate
wording and layout. You may state the facts in a candid way. Though you may avoid going into
much details but make sure the entire report is comprehensible. It must present justifiable solutions
and a clear conclusion.

You may include your recommendations if required. The report should have a vivid transition
portraying the efforts you made in compiling the results- it enhances your worth as a report writer.
Try to be positive and optimist about the expectations and recommendations.

Formal Reports
Formal reports explore much deeper into a topic than an informal report. Formal reports are usually
detailed. The formality of the report is determined by the nature and scope of the subject matter. It
follows the formal organizational plan. It consists of various parts each of them specific for the role/
information.

There are two categories of formal reports: informational and analytical reports. The informational
report gathers data and facts used to draw conclusions. The analytical report contains the same
information as the informational report, but it also offers recommendations to solve a problem.

We will discuss the structure of formal reports in detail.

Type of Formal Report

There is various kind of report and all are important for business communication. Here we
understand the function and scope of a few significant types:

1. Statutory report

2. Compliance report

3. Informative report

4. Analytical report

5. Due diligence report

6. Periodic report

7. Special report

8. Financial report

9. Performance report

10. Progress report

11. Annual report

12. Audit report

13. Justification report

14. Troubleshooting report

15. Internal report

16. External report

1. Statutory Report: A formal report prepared and submitted as required by law is called a
statutory report e.g. Report of directors to shareholders, Auditors Report, Annual Report etc. This
report must be prepared for legal bindings.

2. Compliance reports: A formal report which is not required under any law but prepared to help
the managerial activities is known to be non-statutory report.a.

Compliance reports are comprised of multiple procedures that underline the general activities and
the directions, an organization follows. To keep a business running affectively, there are rules and
regulations that must be respected towards other competitors as well as the government; therefore
an up-to-date report is given on these specific policies. To avoid infractions and major fines, these
reports are considered as a warning to entrepreneurs

3. Informative/ Informational Report: Informative report presents the facts, events or issues
related to particular situation. It does not make analysis, explanation, conclusion or
recommendation. These are left to the readers to derive. Such report is usually self-explanatory.
Example: Manager of a city’s website might prepare an informational report for the city council; the
report would provide statistics on the number of people who pay their city water and sewage bills
online etc.

Other examples: financial statement, work record for employees and workers, list of assets etc.

Informational reports may:

a. Present information on the status of current research or of a project.

b. Present an update of the operation in a division.
c. Explain how an organization or division does something.
d. Present the results of a questionnaire or research
4. Analytical Report:

This is the report which attempts to solve the problems. Such report includes presentation of
facts as well as analysis, explanation, conclusion and recommendations. In this report type,
information is researched and collected, than the report provides an analysis that leads to one or
more recommendations.

Example: A report that helps a company determines where to open a new store. The report might
look at three properties with respect to road traffic, cost of the land, and adjoining stores, and then
recommend the best site from the alternatives.

Reports of scientific research, feasibility reports are also the best examples of analytical report.

5. Due Diligence Report

The term, "due diligence" refers to the act of fully researching something before taking action. It is
used in a variety of business dealings, each with its own set of directives for conducting due
diligence research and then summarizing the findings in a report format. The size and scope of
such a report will vary, based on the intent of the document and of the subject matter being
investigated.

Typically a due diligence report is written before enacting a business transaction. They are
commonly used in business valuation, in real estate development or in sales or acquisition. Due
diligence is also done when making capital expenditures or high-level investments. They may also
be used before proposing a merger, introducing or ceasing a product line or relocating or expanding
a business.

6. Periodic Report

A report prepared and issued at regular intervals for routine activities of the business is known as
periodic report. Such report may be issued daily, weekly, fortnightly, monthly, quarterly, semi-
annually or annually. Performance report, Inspection report, Inventory report, Annual report etc. are
the example of periodic report. Some other examples are:.

7. Special Report:

Special report is a report which is related to a single occasion or situation. It is also called one-time-
only report. e.g. Report on proposal of a new branch, Report regarding problems among staff etc.
8. Financial Report:

A report containing financial information is known as a financial report. Usually it comprises of

income statement and balance sheet. These two provides information to make decision and know
about the financial condition of respective organization.

9. Performance Report:

This type of reports is submitted to higher authority stating evaluation of workers, employees or
learners. In many cases, the progress or stage of completion of project work is submitted also to the
higher authority through performance report.

10. Progress reports:

Progress reports are also known as periodic reports, and interim progress reports. They are a
general analysis describing the progress of a given business in comparison to its original outline.
The writer informs the customer about their recent work on the project, any problems they may
have encountered, offer solutions if necessary, and finally outline future plans in accordance with
the given budget and the time limit.

11. Annual Reports:

Annual Reports are essential statements that conclude a company’s accomplishments and reflect
their financial standing during the previous year. This will enable employees, both present and
future when choosing the most profitable firm. When compiling this annual report, the writer must
ensure its purpose well serves the audiences expectations, therefore the strengths, and
weaknesses of the firm's financial data must be taken seriously into consideration.

12. Audit Reports

Audit Reports written by internal auditors, focus mainly on circumstances within the organization
whereas external auditors focus mainly on problems outside the organization. These reports
evaluate every aspect of the business. As a result, the opinion is given to the corporation by the
auditor, or individual who confirms the report, in order to create a center of attention around the
location of the industry. They will then subsequently have an increase in their clientele, hopefully
attracting more investors.

13. Justification Reports

Justification Reports are also known as internal proposals. Justification reports are planned for the
higher management. These reports are made in order to convince the decision makers to approve
on an investment project, or anything that might be considered as a plus for the enhancement of the
company. In this report, the clarification, the process, the cost and benefits of the project suggested,
are clarified.

14. Troubleshooting Reports

Troubleshooting Reports are also known as Investigative Reports. Troubleshooting reports are
asserted by the top management. Similar to the research reports, this specific report analyzes
actions as well; however they are aimed mostly at existent problems. Whenever there is a problem
in a company, a report is asked to be fulfilled. First it is important to know how this problem was
triggered, then analyze how big of an issue it is, and finally recommend solutions.

15. Internal Report

Such report moves within the organization. They are prepared to help business operation as well as
administration. It is also known as administrative reports.

16. External Report

Such report is prepared for distribution information among the outsiders who are interested and
related to the company e.g. Annual reports are prepared for shareholders, creditors, investors,
bank, regulatory bodies, tax authority and the society as a whole.

Short Reports

The report that contains topics of medium or moderate length and having no special need for formal
presentation are called short report. Most short reports include the minimum supporting materials
such as problems, methods, findings and conclusions.

The headings of a short report are:

1. Terms of reference / Introduction

2. Procedure / Methodology
3. Findings
4. Conclusions
5. Recommendations

1. Terms of reference
In this first section of the report, the author details the scope of the report,.

What is it about?

• What exactly is needed?

• Why is it needed?
• When do I need to do it?
• Who is it for, or who is it aimed at?
Procedure

Having outlined the report’s scope, the writer identifies the means he or she adopted to collect its
data:

• By studying documents
• By interviewing personnel
• By visiting branches
• By observation
• By examination, analyses
Sources can be: [Link]: Interviews, surveys, questionnaires, observation, unpublished
documents
 2. Secondary: Published material, catalogues, handbooks, brochures, college website, etc
Findings

Here the detailed information which has been collected is sifted for relative importance and
relevance and classified under appropriate headings, usually in descending order of importance,
where the most important comes first.

Conclusion

In this section a resume or summary of the principal findings is written, and is particularly helpful to
those who may not wish to read the entire report.

Recommendation

Having classified the detailed information of the report and summarized its main conclusions, the
writer’s last duty, if required, is to identify the means by which a problem may be solved or a
deficiency remedied, so that decisions may be made or advice acted upon.

PROCESS OF WRITING REPORTS

The planning process involves the following steps:
1. Defining the Problem, its Purpose and Scope
The first step toward the planning process is to analyse the problem and
know the purpose of the report.
2. Considering the Reader
The second step involved in the planning process of writing reports is to
consider the reader. It is extremely important for the writer to visualize his
reader and his needs.
3. Determining Ideas to Include
It is always highly desirable that they writer should have a pre thinking
about what ideas he should include in his report in order to meet it purpose.
4. Collecting Needed Material
It is very important that the report presents bare facts, collected through
reliable sources. In all collecting real, reliable and relevant material help
the writer add to the aspect of reliability of is document.
5. Analysing and Interpreting Data
This fifth step involved in the planning process requires analysis,
arrangement and interpretations of the data collected.
6. Organizing Data and Preparing Final Outline
 After careful analysis and interpretation, the writer should organize his
findings and make the final outline.
ORGANIZATION AND OUTLINE OF REPORT
Organization and outline of report body includes the following aspects:
1. Plans for Organizing Report Body
2. Ways to Organize Report Text Section
3. Methods of Outlining
1. Plans for Organizing Report Body
To make the report really useful for the reader the writer should choose
suitable organizational plan for the report body. He should know which
method of presentation will be more effective for the reader. The two usual
ways to organize a Report body are:
(i) Deductive or Direct Plan
In Deductive or Direct Plan the writer puts the main ideas or main
recommendation in the beginning part of the report and then follows
them with detailed explanation.
(ii) Inductive or Indirect Plan
Contrary to the deductive plan, in the inductive organizational plan he
writer puts the text first and then presents the conclusion and
recommendations.
WAYS TO ORGANIZE REPORT TEXT SECTION
The text details can be organized in one or more of the following ways,
depending on the needs and requirements of the readers
1. By Topics
To arrange text details topic-wise means that the writer should divide the
text of the report into different topic and then provide them suitable,
standard heads.
2. By Order of Occurrence
In this sort of arrangement, the writer presents details of the text in a
chronological order. He presents the different parts of the text not
according to ay standard divisions but according to the time periods.
3. By Order of Location
Organization of the text materials in order of location means that the writer
gives details of the report place-wise or location-wise.
4. By Procedure or Process
Here the writer describes the events of the report step-by-step to save him
from possible digressions that may otherwise occur.
5. By Order of Importance
According to this organization, the writer puts the details of the text in order
of their respective importance. He first puts the ideas, events, or topics
which are of greater importance and then follows them with ideas of lesser
importance.
6. By Order of Familiarity
This organizational scheme aims at proceeding form simple or familiar to
the complex or unfamiliar.
7. By Sources
In this method the write of the report arranges details of the text in order of
the sources of his information. This method is good only when the reader
is more interested in the revealing sources than in the ideas.
8. By Problem Solution
In this sort of organization, the writer firs discusses the problem and follows
it by a solution.
IMPORTANCE OF REPORTS
Reports are a very important part of a company’s communication network.
Directed chiefly upward, they serve as a permanent record of performance in
every sphere of the organisation’s activities. They also help management see
how previous decisions are working and provide the basis for new decisions.
As the decision making process becomes more rational, business reports grow
in number and sophistication. Cool, smoothness, polish, style
CLASSIFICATION OF REPORTS
Probably the best overview of reports can be obtained by grouping and
describing them according to purpose and format & style.
PURPOSE
On the basis of purpose, a business report is either informational or analytical.
INFORMATIONAL REPORT
The informational report is designed only to communicate factual data. Such
data may include figures, personal observations and the results of interviews
and other investigations. The inferences from these data, however, are left to
the reader. Examples of informational reports are a foreman’s weekly report of
production in his section; a salesman’s expense sheet etc. Such reports are
valuable for their facts alone, but they may also form the basis – perhaps in
conjunction with other reports – for certain conclusions and decisions by the
management to which they are submitted.
ANALYTICAL REPORT
Like an informational report, an analytical report contains facts, but is also
characterised by the writer’s conclusions or recommendations based on an
analysis of the facts. The analytical report is designed to guide management
decisions and therefore puts more than ordinary responsibility on the writer. An
analytical report might, for example, weigh alternative plans for reimbursing
employees tuition fees, pointing out the advantages and disadvantages of each
plan. Other analytical reports may provide the data and recommendations on
how a new product could be marketed successfully etc.
FORMAT AND LANGUAGE
On the basis of format and language, reports are either formal or informal.
INFORMAL REPORT
The informal report may range from a short statement on a single page to a
more developed presentation taking several pages. Usually the informal report
is submitted in the form of a letter or memorandum. Irrespective of length, the
informal report rarely, if ever carries a cover, table of contents etc. The language
of the informal report is like that of a letter.
Letter reports typically go to people outside the organisation. For the
introductory and closing elements of your letter, follow the standard letter
format. The two format additions in a letter report are:
1. A subject heading placed two lines below the salutation and
2. Other headings as needed, to segment you letter into specific areas
Letter reports a variety of purposes. Here we show letter reports designed for
two common purposes: to inform and to recommend. Beyond merely providing
information, the recommendation report intercepts data, draws conclusions and
offers recommendations.
FORMAL REPORTS
The formal report is usually identified by the fact that it has a cover and binding
and other features that might include a covering letter, title page, table of
contents etc. When it is to have a wide distribution, the formal report is often
printed and bound like a book e.g. Annual Financial Report to the shareholders.
The language of the formal report is relatively impersonal and restrained.
Formal reports are question-answering or problem-solving reports. Analysis is
basic to our thinking, and in this sense all the assignments you have written
have involved analysis. With a formal report, your analysis might influence a
major decision. Say for example you receive the following assignment from you
supervisor: Investigate the feasibility of opening a branch of our company in
Karachi City and select the best available location.
Clearly to get this job done, you will have to do more than observe your subject.
Since high-level decisions will depend on your findings, you must seek out and
interpret all data that will help you make the best recommendations.
OVERALL PLANNING OF REPORTS
There are three factors to be considered in this first stage. Each one represents
an important component of the report.
THE WRITER
Because you are the best person for the job. Either you are the expert in
possession of the necessary facts or anyhow, you are best qualified to discover
them. By the end of the report you will have become the expert; you are the link
between the reader and the material in your report; it will be communicated only
through you. Take personal responsibility for your report.
WHAT IS MY SUBJECT?
It is the writer’s business to discover precisely what the report is meant to be
about.
• Define your terms of reference by discussion with whoever is requiring the
report.
• Make sure that you are both in agreement on these.
• Write down the agreed terms with a copy for both parties.
WHAT IS MY PURPOSE?
It is important that report writers know why they are writing as well as what.
In determining your purpose find out why the report has been called for when
discussing your terms of reference. What is the situation or event that has made
it necessary? What is the problem? What type of solution is appropriate?
If you know your purpose, your report will communicate its message better. The
significant facts will be more prominent.
THE READER
The reader is the other end of the communication chain. The manner in which
you present your information and arguments will determine how well you
communicate. You would not speak to an invisible audience: do not write for the
unknown reader.
A report that lacks a reader in the writer’s mind is unlikely to be very successful
in securing attention. It will lack direction and persuasive force.
The writer must:
• Identify the reader(s). If in doubt, concentrate on the one responsible for
deciding and acting on the report.
• Consider the reader at all stages, particularly when arranging material and
choosing words.
• Focus the attention of readers on the report by directing it to their particular
needs, interest, and requirements.
MATERIAL
It is at this point the writer is faced with a number of questions. What is my
material? Where do I find it? How much do I need? How shall I collect it? How
do I arrange it? What order should it be in? Attempting to deal with all these in
a haphazard way leads to confusion and wasted effort.
The key to preparation is to keep clearly in your mind the purpose of the report.
Bearing this purpose in mind, the first step is to get all your ideas on what could
be in the report out of your head and on to paper. These points are then
arranged into a logical sequence following the main theme of the report.
PRINCIPLES OF WRITING A REPORT
Compiling requires intensive planning; in the same way as other business
writings do so. The main steps involved in the planning and presentation of a
comprehensive report are discussed below.
DETERMINING THE TYPE OF REPORT
Before writing the report, you need to know what kind of report the situation
requires. Otherwise, you may not provide enough data or the right kind of data
or he may put the data in the wrong form. Equally bad, you may collect a great
deal of unwanted data and thus waste time and effort that could have been
expended more profitably on other projects.
Guides for determining the type of report are:
1. Specific instructions given by the person for whom the report is being written.
If instructions have not been given then previous cases are taken into
consideration. Otherwise, the person authorising the report may be
questioned about the type of report desired.
2. The length of time the writer is given to prepare the report has a strong
influence on the kind of report eventually produced. A report produced in a
few hours, will be necessarily short and a report project that requires weeks
or months will eventually be a long detailed document.
3. The importance of the report: Some reports require deeper investigation and
more formal treatments than others do because their subjects are more
important.
4. A report intended for a single reader is of course adapted to the reader.
When a report is intended for a number of readers on several levels of
authority and knowledge, many more details and much explanation is
included in the report. A report for public distribution is usually formal in
format and language.
ANALYSING THE PROBLEM
Apart from the ordinary questions relating to the kind of report to be prepared,
there are the broader questions relating to the objectives of the report and the
best ways of fulfilling those objectives. Ask yourself different questions to
understand the problem. For instance, you need to consider the following
points:
What exactly does need to know and for what purpose?
How much information is required, how quickly and at what cost?
Do you need to give judgements, recommendations etc.?
SOURCES OF INFORMATION
After the writer has a clear idea of the kind of report he is going to prepare and
has done considerable thinking about the problem and its possible solution, he
is ready to gather the information he needs. The sources he will use must be
reliable and can be classified into two categories: Primary and Secondary
data. Primary sources provide first hand information which has not been
altered, abstracted or interpreted whereas secondary information is mainly
obtained from printed sources such as records, magazines, government
statistics etc.
ORGANISATION OF DATA
If the report has been well planned and the collection of material is systematic,
organising the data will not be difficult. The data collected is classified and
arranged according to a prescribed format. Most reports are classified under
the following divisions:
1. Introduction
2. Body
3. Conclusion
Headings and sub-heading are usually employed to organise the data into a
logical and appropriate sequence.
THE SIX COMMON USES OF REPORTS
 PURPOSE OF PREPARATION &
COMMON EXAMPLES
REPORT DISTRIBUTION
To monitor and Plans, operating reports, Internal reports move
control operations personal activity reports upward on recurring basis;
external reports go to
selected audiences.
To implement Lasting guidelines, Internal reports move
policies and position papers downward or on a non-
procedures recurring basis.
To comply with Reports IRS, SEC, External reports are sent
regulatory EEOC, Human Rights on a recurring basis.
requirements Commission
To obtain new Sales proposals External reports are sent
business or findings on non-recurring basis.
To document client Interim progress reports, External reports are sent
work final reports on a non-recurring basis.
To guide decisions Research reports, Internal reports move
justification reports, upward on a non-recurring
trouble shooting reports basis.
FORMATS OF REPORTS
You may present a report in any one of four formats.
PRE-PRINTED FORM
Basically, for “fill-in-the-blanks” reports, pre-printed forms are relatively short
(five or fewer pages) and deal with routine information, often mainly numerical.
Use this format when the person authorising the report requests it.
LETTER
For reports of five or fewer pages that are directed to outsiders, letter reports
include all the normal parts of a letter, and they also may have headings,
footnotes, tables and figures.
MEMO
The most common format for short (fewer than ten pages) informal reports
distributed within an organisation, memos have headings at the top: TO, FROM,
DATE and SUBJECT. In addition, like longer reports, memo reports often have
internal headings and sometimes visual aids.
MANUSCRIPT
For a formal approach, manuscripts range from a few pages to several hundred
pages. As their length increases, reports in manuscript format require prefatory
and supplementary parts.

ORGANISING SHORT REPORTS

Short reports are basically of two types: informational and analytical. Although
there may be overlapping between the two types, the former is more neutral
whereas the latter is more analytical and persuasive.
Short reports can be divided into the following:
MEMO REPORTS
A memo report is a cross between an interoffice memo and a formal
report.
In the business world, the memo report is the most popular form for routine
reports within an organisation.
It uses a memo heading, but the body which is usually two to five pages long,
is organised like the body of a formal report and may have side headings.
Memo reports can be used to:
• Answer a request for information.
• Report progress.
• Make recommendations.
• State facts.
• Communicate ideas.
• Send statistical data.
• Explain trends within an organisation.
CLASSIFYING MEMO REPORTS
Typical memo reports are categorised as:
• INFORMATIONAL MEMO REPORTS
• ANALYTICAL MEMO REPORTS
INFORMATIONAL MEMO REPORTS
The main purpose of informational reports is to inform and to summarise
information. For an informational report, you will:
• Gather facts, figures and data.
• Organise the information.
• Interpret and present the organised information objectively.
• Make recommendations, if asked.
These reports vary widely in content, depending on type of business, purpose,
topics discussed and reader’s needs. Although there are many kinds of
informational reports, following are the main types:
1. CONFERENCE REPORTS
Topics for conference reports range from summaries of personal sales call
conferences to write-ups of meetings attended by hundreds of persons.
For example, an advertising account executive may write a conference
report after every meeting or phone call between the ad agency and a
client. The text of such reports is usually organised by topic discussed or
presented simply chronological order.
2. PROGRESS OR STATUS REPORTS
Some internal communications are simple progress or status reports
written on fill-in-forms and sent as needed or required to those who need
the information. Others are fairly brief narrative reports. These narrative
reports may be:
• Responses to requests for complex information.
• Ideas.
• Explanations.
• Simple recommendations.
• Longer, more involved progress or status reports may contain
recommendations supported by financial data or operating results.
3. PERIODIC REPORTS
Periodic reports are routine and are prepared at regular time intervals –
daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly, or annually. Sales Reports and Financial
Reports are among the most common periodic reports prepared in
business organisations.
Periodic reports are often prepared on pre-printed forms which provide
blank spaces in which to record information. Reports may also be prepared
according to standardised outlines to ensure uniformity. Sales reports,
Credit reports, Audit reports and may legal reports are prepared in
standardised format.
ANALYTICAL MEMO REPORTS
A pure analytical report has one central purpose: To analyse a situation or
issue. There may or may not be a specific recommendation in the end of the
report. Such reports include:
• Report on the cause of the abrupt decline in sales volume.
• Report on the evaluation of a person before recruitment.
• Report on an individual who is in consideration for a promotion.
• Report on the analysis of a particular book.
ORGANISING MEMO REPORTS
One of the most common and effective techniques of memo organisation is to
itemise the information. A report that contains complex facts and ideas will be
easier to read if items are: (1) Separated into paragraphs. (2) Numbered or, (3)
Preceded by side headings.
The next step after information gathering is to determine the best way to present
your finding. Remember that your report is expected to be factual and reliable.
To accomplish this, you would:
• Present the facts with absolute fairness and accuracy.
• Be careful not to mix your opinions with the facts you report.
Reserve your comments for your conclusions and recommendations.

Sample Reports

Internal report using Memo Format:

ICMAP Lahore

To: Mr. ABC, Director Education

From: XYZ, Deputy DirectorEducation

Date: May10, 2019

Subject: Need of Short Course in Communication Skills at ICMAP Lahore

Introduction:

In a meeting of the Education Department on 20 April 2016, the view was expressed that our
students lack expertise, both in spoken and written aspects. So it was proposed that a short course
in Communication Skills should be opened under the management of the expert trainers.

Discussion:

We realized the need for such a course for good reasons. From the answer scripts of the students
of different stages, we found that the standard of communication skill of about 80% of them is far
below the average. We interviewed many students of our campus, members of ICMAP and the
finalists, and found that they deplorably lacked correctness in writing and fluency in speaking. We
also talked with them about opening a short course in communication in order to help them with the
basics of writing and speaking. They all highly appreciated the idea and opined that such a course
would be of much help for them.

The students need to use correct language in their answers of the exam questions in different
courses and subjects. If they are given knowledge and practice, they can go a long way towards
improvement to face the challenges of the contemporary information age.

Conclusion:

The Short Courses in communication skill will be a quite popular program. It will help students,
non-students, and professionals.

Recommendations:

We would recommend that such a course should be opened in ICMAP Lahore, and the
management should look into the financial aspects of the program as early as possible.

Human Resource Manager of the leading commercial bank writes a repot Regional Manger

Scenario: Over the last six months, various clients have complained about the rude and
unacceptable behavior of a Customer Services Manager of ABC branch. Mr. Zahid , the Customer
Services Manager has been an employee of the bank for the past 7 years He has a clean record
and until recently has been one of the most valuable contributors to the bank. Now this issue is
surprising for the management. You are required to investigate and prepare a short report to be
submitted to the Regional Manager, Customer Services. You may assume any necessary details.

Sample Report on the above scenario:

To:Mr. Name, Regional Manager Customer Services, Corporate Office, ABC Bank Ltd.

From: Some Name,Human Resource Manager

Date: October 22, 2018

INVESTIGATION REPORT

Dear Sir,

This refers to your directive in which I was asked to produce investigative report concerning the
rude behavior of Customer Services Manager.

Procedure:

• Consulted documents in the form of customers' complaints

• Interviewed some important clients.
• Interviewed Manger and Staff of the department concerned.
• Collected feed-back through questionnaire.
To the best of my knowledge and experience, my findings are as follows:

Findings:
Investigation reveals that such behavior of the manger is not due to not lack of skill and negative
attitude but pressure of unmanageable workloads.

Many members of his team have been away from work due to discontentment and Mr. Ahmad has
had to do their work also.

Mr. Zahid has tried explaining to his line manger but there is no response.

All the workers have become the victim of role conflict as they are overburdened. Now Mr. Zahid,
owing to his passive attitude failed to resolve such conflict and his aggression is being reflected
through his rude behavior as mentioned by our customers.

Conclusion:

Though, Mr. Zahid has clean record and until recently has been one of the most valuable
contributors to the bank but our customers’ satisfaction is our top most priority.

Recommendations:

At our earliest, we need to resolve Mr. Zahid's conflict by providing him sufficient staff. I would also
recommend that our managers must be given trainings to develop professional attitude in them so
that they may overcome crises.

I have completed this report to the best of my knowledge and experience. if there is point that
needs further clarification , I may be contacted as per your convenience.

Sincerely,

Scenario:

You are the Branch Manager of Super Asia Bank Ltd., SITE branch, that has been in business for
the past 25 years. Fine Leather Ltd. (FLL), engaged in the business of manufacturing leather
garments has applied for a long-term loan facility for import of machinery. Due diligence was made
by your subordinates and through reliable sources it was discovered that the company has already
availed long-term loans from 3 other commercial banks. However, the company is in the process of
expanding its operations and requires additional funds for the export.

You are required to prepare a short formal report to be submitted to the Head of Advances of the
Bank with your suggestions on whether or not to sanction the loan facility to FLL based on the
findings of a site visit conducted by you to the leather factory and a detailed analysis of the
company's financial performance in the past 5 years.

Sample report for the scenario:

Super Asia Bank Ltd.

SITE Branch. 123 Road, Some Area, Karachi

April 20, 2005

SANCTIONING LOAN FACILITY TO FLL

Sir,

In response to your directive dated April 10th, 2005 in which I was asked to produce report with
suggestions on whether or not to sanction loan facility to FLL.I personally visited the company site,
having gone through bank statements and liabilities, even collected report of the company's
reputation from the market and business circle, my suggestions are as follows:

Fine leather Ltd. (FLL) is a thriving industry and it enjoys worldwide reputation.

Though company has already availed long term loans from 3 other commercial banks but
company's business expansion, client age and assets are enough to justify its position.

Also the said loan facility is meant for import of machinery.

The aforesaid company is going to import computerized, machines from Germany, so their unit will
be of unique nature in our country.

The credibility of the company is also checked through its exports which is the major chunk of its
business.

It can be also revealed through company's annual report that in the near future, they are going to
introduce Provaire Leather Technology which is a major breakthrough in the world.

On the top of all these, professionals consider FLL, a sound party. Their shares are Blue chips and
they are considered as the trend setter of the market.

Keeping all this in view, I would strongly recommend that our bank should sanction loan facility to
this company, as we at Super Asia Bank also look forward to cherish great honour in serving
potential clients.

Sincerely,

INFORMATIONAL MEMORANDUM (PERIODIC) REPORT

To: Danish Sulaiman

From: Laila Ghafoor
Subject: Season Ticket Sales for 1997
Date: 28 November, 1998
 Season ticket sales for 1998 increased 15.1 percent over last year. This
year we sold 18,366 tickets, as compared with last year’s total of 15,960.
This represents a healthy increase of 2,406, which will certainly boost our
operating budget as we begin the season.
Here are the season ticket sales results, as they were reported monthly,
for both years:

SEASON TICKET SALES

Comparison of 1997 and 1998
Month 1998 1997 Increase Increase
July 1134 845 289 34.2%
August 2456 1255 1201 95.7%
September 6110 5751 359 6.2%
October 8666 8109 557 6.9%
Totals 18366 15960 2406 15.1%
The renovation in our new water park has really increased our sales
considerably. The season ticket sales campaign has officially ended. I
hope you are as proud of the results as we are in the Marketing
department.

LETTER REPORTS
Letter report formats are similar to traditional business letters, more often sent
to persons outside the organisation. It includes all the parts of a typical business
letter. Often the letter report has a subject line and its length may vary from two
to five pages.
Typical letter reports are categorised as:
INFORMATIONAL LETTER REPORTS
Examples include:
• A staff report to financial officer regarding issues concerning personnel
turnover in the engineering department of a factory.
• A report in reply to inquiry about the products and services provided by
your company.
ANALYTICAL LETTER REPORTS
Short reports from overseas are in the form of letter reports. Often used in letter
reports is the problem-solution format. Examples include:
• An outside consultant to a company is asked to investigate an issue or a
problem.
• You represent your company abroad and would write an analytical report
in reply to their specific request.
• Calculation of financial ratios of a company in order to comment on its
financial condition.
EXAMPLE OF ANALYTICAL LETTER REPORT
XYZ Corporation received an urgent request from Grand Corporation to
upgrade their computers by installing RAM expansion cards. They complied
with this request promptly and sent the invoice after 30 days. However, no
response from the Grand Corporation was received after another 30 days. An
unofficial inquiry was made and found out that the management Grand
Corporation has been changed completely and the new management is not
willing to pay the bill since this order was placed by an unauthorised person
without following the prescribed methods.
You as the computer engineer are requested to submit a report to the General
Manager as to why you complied with this request and now what are the strong
points on which the payment can be claimed.
ANALYTICAL LETTER REPORT
The General Manager,
XYZ Corporation,
Lahore.
Subject: Outstanding Balance of Grand Corporation.
Dear Sir,
With reference to your letter no. 2456 dated June 29, 1997. I have
completed my report regarding the over-due account of Grand
Corporation.
The problem started when an unofficial inquiry was made to collect the
outstanding bill. It was found out the management of Grand
Corporation has been changed completely. The new management is
not willing to pay the bill on the following grounds:
1. An unauthorised person placed the order.
2. The prescribed method of placing the order was not followed.
The order was fulfilled because according to the track record of our
dealing with Grand Corporation, there has been no problem in
receiving payment from them. Moreover, their order was complied with
 and an invoice was sent 30 days later. We did not know that an
unauthorised person made the order without following the prescribed
methods mentioned in the purchase manual.
However, we can claim payment on the following grounds:
1. It was the general practice of Grand Corporation to place orders
in the usual fashion.
2. Thus, it was presumed that there would be no problem in receiving
payment.

3. The new management is liable to pay all the overdue accounts of

the previous management.
If there are any points which need further clarification, you are
welcomed to call me at any time convenient to you.
Sincerely yours,
Atif Faheem
Atif Faheem
Computer Engineer.

PARTS OF A FORMAL/ Long REPORT

PREFATORY TEXT OF THE PART SUPPLEMENTARY

Cover
Title Fly
Letter of Authorisation Introduction Index
Letter of Acceptance Body Glossary
Letter of Transmittal Conclusions Appendices
Table of Contents Recommendations Bibliography
Executive Summary or
synopsis or
abstract

ORGANISING LONG REPORTS

A long report is simply the expansion of the shorter report. It contains greater
length and depth of discussion of more complex problems. Some longer reports
are of a few pages others exceed several hundred pages.
A formal report as most “long reports” are called does not mean more formal
language. It means that the report is more detailed and more complex in
structure. A report is formal when it includes more detail, more prefatory
information, more visuals, supporting topics and supplementary information.
PARTS OF A FORMAL REPORT
COVER
Use a cover only for long reports. Use a sturdy, plain, light cardboard with good
page fasteners. With the cover on, the open pages should remain flat. Centre
the report title and you name four or five inches from the upper edge.
TITLE PAGE
The title page signals the readers by giving the report title, author’s name, name
of person or organisation to whom the report is addressed, and date of
submission.
TITLE
Your title promises what your report will deliver by stating the report’s purpose
and content. A title in order to be effective must be clear, accurate,
comprehensive, specific, concise and appropriately phrased.
PLACEMENT OF TITLE PAGE ITEMS
Do not number your title page, but count it as page (I) of your prefatory pages.
Centre the title horizontally on the page, three to four inches below the upper
edge, using all capital letters. If the title is longer than six or eight words, centre
it on two or more lines.
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
Your letter of transmittal usually come immediately after the title page and is
bound as a part of your report. Include a letter of transmittal with any formal
report or proposal addressed to a specific reader. Your letter adds a note of
courtesy besides giving you a place for adding personal remarks and opinions.
Depending on the situation, your letter might:
• Acknowledge those who helped with the report
• Refer readers to sections of special interest
• Discuss the need and approaches for follow-up investigations
• Discuss the scope and limitations of your study, along with any special
problems gathering data
• Suggest some special uses of the information
• Urge the reader to take immediate action
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Your table of contents serves as a road map for readers and an inventory
checklist for you. Derived from your outline, this part is easy to compose: simply
assign page numbers to your headings in your outline.
1. List preliminary items (transmittal letter, abstract) in your table of contents,
numbering the pages with small roman numerals. List items that appear at
the end of the report, such as glossary, appendix, notes and bibliography
section; number these pages with Arabic numerals, continuing the page
sequence of the report proper, where page no. 1 is the first page of your
report text.
2. Include no headings in the table of contents not listed as headings or
subheadings in the report; your report text may, however, contain certain
sub-headings
3. Use different types of styles and indentations to show the various levels of
heads.
TABLE OF FIGURES
A table of figures, if needed, follows your table of contents. When your report
contains more than four or five figures, place the table on a separate page.
SUMMARY
The summary is always written after you finish your report; it is, however, among
the first parts of the report to be read. Sometimes a busy person will read only
your summary. Follow these guidelines for writing your summary.
1. Make your summary able to stand alone in meaning – a mini-report
2. Make it intelligible to the general reader. Readers of summaries will vary
widely in expertise, perhaps much more than those who read the report itself.
So translate all technical data into plain English.
3. Add no new information. Simply summarise the report
4. Stick to the chronology of your report
5. Emphasise only major points.
INDEX
An index in a long report is a systematic guide that helps readers quickly find
specific information within the report. It is typically located at the end of the
report and lists key terms, topics, or names along with the page numbers where
they can be found.
A good index should be ,
 1. Comprehensive: Covering all significant terms and topics
2. Accurate: Correctly referencing page numbers
3. Consistent: Using a logical and consistent formatting style
4. Easy to read: With clear and concise headings and subheadings

GLOSSARY
A glossary is an alphabetical listing of specialised terms and their definitions,
immediately following your report. Many specialised reports contain glossaries,
especially when written for both technical and non-technical readers. A glossary
makes key definitions available to non-technical readers without interrupting
technical readers. Follow these guidelines for glossary:
1. Define all terms unfamiliar to a general reader
2. Define all terms that have special meaning in your report
3. List your glossary and its first page number in the table of contents
4. List all terms in alphabetical order. Underline each term and use a colon
to separate it from its single-spaced definition
5. Define only terms that need it.
APPENDIX
An appendix comes at the very end of your report. The appendix expands on
items discussed in the report, without cluttering the report text. Typical items in
an appendix include
1. Statistical or measurements
2. Maps
3. Complex formulas
4. Long quotations
5. Photographs
6. Related correspondence (letters of inquiry etc.)
7. Texts of law, regulations etc.
Do not misuse appendices by including needless information or by excluding
vital information from the report proper. Readers should not have to turn to
appendices every few seconds to understand the report itself. Follow these
guidelines for appendices:
1. Include only material that is relevant but difficult to fit into your report.
2. Use a separate appendix for each major item
3. Do not use too many appendices. Four or five in a ten-page report would
indicate a poorly organised report.
4. Mention your appendix early in your introduction and refer readers to it at
appropriate points in the report.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A bibliography is a list of source materials on a particular subject. In a formal
report it shows what books and other library materials were consulted and it
includes all the works mentioned in the footnotes. As a part of the reference
matter, it follows the appendix or appendices.
The bibliography lists all the works alphabetically by name of author, although
a long list may be divided by type of material, as for example books, articles
and miscellaneous sources.
FORMAL REPORT ON THE EFFECTIVE USE OF MICROFILM
TECHNIQUES AND EQUIPMENT

TITLE PAGE

EFFECTIVE USE OF MICROFILM

TECHNIQUES & EQUIPMENT

Prepared for:
Abdul Hadi
Vice President of Administration
ABC Company Ltd.

Prepared by:
Sara Shah
Cost Accounting Services
ABC Company Ltd.

May 23, 2018

 MEMORANDUM of Transmittal
TO: Abdul Hadi, Vice President of Administration
FROM: Sara Shah, Director of Cost Accounting Services
DATE: May 23, 1997

SUBJECT: Effective Use of Microfilm technique and equipment

Dear Sir,

Here is the report you requested on April 30, via your letter number
24/A256. Your suspicions were right; we are spending far too
much on storage equipment and stationery. Our control over these
costs is in jeopardy.

The solutions to the problem are obvious. We need to cut the

storage procedures to the maximum and obtain modern
equipment for storing our accounting records. In analysis of my
research, I recommend that we purchase the microfilm equipment
available and utilise it to our potential.

In case you have any question about the report please give me a
call.

Sincerely yours,
Sarah Shah

CONTENTS
Page
Introduction ....................... 1
 Summary of Recommendations ................... 1

Present Position ....................... 2

Scope of survey ....................... 4

Observations on recommendations .............. 4

Savings & Benefits ....................... 5

Conclusions ....................... 6

WRITING BUSINESS PROPOSALS

Imagine that you are interested in doing a project at work (for example, in the
merits of bringing in some new technology to increase productivity). Imagine
that you visited with your boss and tried to convince him of this. He might
respond by saying, "Write me a proposal and I'll present it to upper
management."
A proposal is an offer or bid to do a certain project for someone. Proposals may
contain other elements-technical background, recommendations, results of
surveys, information about feasibility, and so on. But what makes a proposal a
proposal is that it asks the audience to approve, fund, or grant permission to do
the proposed project.
If you plan to be a consultant or run your own business, written proposals may
be one of your most important tools for bringing in business. And, if you work
for a Government agency, non-profit organization, or a large corporation, the
proposal can be a valuable tool for initiating projects that benefit the
organization or you the employee-proposer (and usually both).
A proposal should contain information that would enable the audience of that
proposal to decide whether to approve the project, to approve or hire you to do
the work, or both. To write a successful proposal, put yourself in the place of
your audience-the recipient of the proposal-and think about what sorts of
information that person would need to feel confident having you do the project.
TYPES OF PROPOSALS
Proposals can be divided into several categories:
1. Internal, External
If you write a proposal to someone within your organization (a business, a
Government agency, etc.), it is an internal proposal. With internal
proposals, you may not have to include certain sections (such as
qualifications), or you may not have to include as much information in them.
An external proposal is one written from one separate, independent
organization or individual to another such entity. The typical example is the
independent consultant proposing to do a project for another firm.
2. Solicited, Unsolicited
If a proposal is solicited; the recipient of the proposal in some way
requested the proposal. Typically, a company will send out requests for
proposals (RFP) through the mail or publish them in some news source.
But proposals can be solicited on a very local level: for example you could
be explaining to your boss what a great thing it would be to install a new
technology in the office; your boss might get interested and ask you to write
up a proposal that offered to do a formal study of the idea. Unsolicited
proposals are those in which the recipient has not requested proposals.
With unsolicited proposals, you sometimes must convince the recipient that
a problem or need exists before you can begin the main part of the
proposal.
COMMON PARTS IN A PROPOSAL
The following is a review of the parts you'll commonly find in proposals. Don't
assume that each one of them has to be in the actual proposal you write, nor
that they have to be in the order they are presented here-plus you may discover
that other kinds of information not mentioned here must be included in your
particular proposal.
1. Introduction
Plan the introduction to your proposal carefully. Make sure it does all of the
following things (but not necessarily in this order) that apply to your
particular proposal:
➢ Indicate that the document to follow is a proposal.
➢ Refer to some previous contact with the recipient of the proposal or to
your source of information about the project.
 ➢ Find one brief motivating statement that will encourage the recipient
to read on and to consider doing the project.
➢ Give an overview of the contents of the proposal.
Now remember: you may not need all of these elements, and some of them
can combine neatly into single sentences. The introduction ought to be
brisk and to the point.
2. Background on the Problem, Opportunity, or Situation
Often occurring just after the introduction, the background section
discusses what has brought about the need for the project-what problem,
what opportunity there is for improving things, what the basic situation is.
It's true that the audience of the proposal may know the problem very well,
in which case this section might not be needed. Writing the background
section still might be useful, however, in demonstrating your particular view
of the problem. And, if the proposal is unsolicited, a background section is
almost a requirement you will probably need to convince the audience that
the problem or opportunity exists and that it should be addressed.
3. Benefits and Feasibility of the Proposed Project
Most proposals discuss the advantages or benefits of doing the proposed
project. This acts as an argument in favour of approving the project. Also,
some proposals discuss the likelihood of the project's success. In an
unsolicited proposal, this section is particularly important-you are trying to
"sell" the audience on the project.
4. Description of the Proposed Work (Results of the Project)
Most proposals must describe the finished product of the proposed project.
5. Method, Procedure, Theory
In most proposals, you'll want to explain how you'll go about doing the
proposed work, if approved to do it. This acts as an additional persuasive
element; it shows the audience you have a sound, well-thought-out
approach to the project. Also, it serves as the other form of background
some proposals need. Remember that the background section (the one
discussed above) focused on the problem or need that brings about the
proposal. However, in this section, you discuss the technical background
relating to the procedures or technology you plan to use in the proposed
work. Once again, this gives you, the proposal writer a chance to show that
you know what you are talking about, and build confidence in the audience
that you are a good choice to do the project.
6. Costs, Resources Required
 Most proposals also contain a section detailing the costs of the project,
whether internal or external.
7. Schedule
Most proposals contain a section that shows not only the projected
completion date but also key milestones for the project. If you are doing a
large project spreading over many months, the timeline would also show
dates on which you would deliver progress reports. And if you can't cite
specific dates, cite amounts of time or time spans for each phase of the
project.

8. Qualifications
Most proposals contain a summary of the proposing individual's or
organization's qualifications to do the proposed work. It's like a mini-
resume contained in the proposal. The proposal audience uses it to decide
whether you are suited for the project. Therefore, this section lists work
experience, similar projects, references, training, and education that shows
familiarity with the project.
9. Conclusions
The final paragraph or section of the proposal should bring readers back
to a focus on the positive aspects of the project (you've just showed them
the costs). In the final section, you can end by urging them to get in touch
to work out the details of the project, to remind them of the benefits of doing
the project, and maybe to put in one last plug for you or your organization
as the right choice for the project.
STEPS IN MAKING A PROPOSAL
As for the organization of the content of a proposal, remember that it is
essentially a sales, or promotional kind of thing. Here are the basic steps it goes
through:
1. You introduce the proposal, telling the readers its purpose and contents.
2. You present the background-the problem, opportunity, or situation that
brings about the proposed project. Get the reader concerned about the
problem, excited about the opportunity, or interested in the situation in
some way.
3. State what you propose to do about the problem, how you plan to help the
readers take advantage of the opportunity, how you intend to help them
with the situation.
4. Discuss the benefits of doing the proposed project, the advantages that
come from approving it.
5. Describe exactly what the completed project would consist of, what it would
look like, how it would work-describe the results of the project.
6. Discuss the method and theory or approach behind that method-enable
readers to understand how you'll go about the proposed work.
7. Provide a schedule, including major milestones or checkpoints in the
project.
8. Now list the costs of the project, the resources you'll need to do the project.
9. Briefly list your qualifications for the project; provide a mini-resume of the
background you have that makes you right for the project.
10. Conclude with a review of the benefits of doing the project (in case the
shock from the costs section was too much), and urge the audience to get
in touch or to accept the proposal.
Specimen proposal 1
In this proposal, an employee of a large state agency wants to propose the
study of a wellness program for that agency. Thus, it is an internal unsolicited
proposal. It proposes to do some research and then write up the results of that
research in the form of a report. (This proposal proposes, in part, to write a
report.)
MEMORANDUM
TO:Dr. Ahmad Ashfaq
FROM: Tahir Ashfaq
DATE: March 1, 2002
Subject: Proposal to Write a Feasibility Report for an Employee Wellness
Program

The following is a proposal to conduct a feasibility study for the personnel

section on the need for, and the benefits to be expected from, instituting an
employee wellness program for the Automation Division of the Highway
Department. The following proposal contains background on the need for and
benefits from a wellness program, an outline of the work I plan to do, my
qualifications, and a schedule. This study may have to be expanded to include
the entire department. I understand that the Automation Division cannot
arbitrarily make such a drastic policy change. I look forward for your ideas on
the scope of this feasibility report.
Need for a Wellness Program
Current work and home schedules prevent employees from physical exercising.
Current health insurance policies focus on curing illnesses rather than
preventing them. Medical research has proven that healthy choices can prevent
many diseases. The current system has resulted in steeply increasing group
health insurance costs. Also, current budget restrictions force us to think of new
ways to increase employee productivity.
Benefits of a Wellness Program
In the report, I will document the following:
(1) wellness programs produce healthier employees,
(2) healthy employees are more productive,
(3) healthy employees file fewer health insurance claims,
(4) healthy employees live longer, and
(5) employee group health insurance costs will decrease.
Report Audience
I will address the report to you. However, I will target the report to the
administration of the Highway Department and to the directors of the Employees
Retirement System.
My Qualifications
I have worked for the Highway Department for thirteen years. I have been in the
Automation Division for eight years. I have an eleven-year old son. I go to night
school at Austin Community College. Therefore, I have personal experience
with how difficult it is to find enough time during the day to exercise or to prepare
healthy, nutritious meals. I have no experience in the medical or actuarial fields.
However, I know that I can find documentation to support the establishment of
a wellness program.
Plan for Feasibility Report
I will deliver the report to your office on April 26, 2002. Here is my plan for
completing the project:
1. Library research through March 15
2. Correspondence through March 5
3. Review correspondence received finish March 23
4. Conduct interviews finish March 30
5. Write preliminary draft finish April 18
6. Produce graphics finish April
7. Finalize preliminary draft finish April 25
8. Deliver preliminary draft on April 2
Costs
There will be no costs involved in producing this study, other than the minimal
costs of an hour a day for the next four weeks to do the study and write the
report, and costs for typing, binding, and duplicating the report.

COMPONENTS OF A FORMAL PROPOSAL

Certain analytical reports are celled proposals, including bids to perform work
under a contract and please for financial support from outsiders. As Levi’s
Robert Hass can tell you, such bids and pleas are nearly always formal. The
goal is to impress the potential client or supporter with your professionalism,
and that goal is best achieved through a structured and deliberate approach.
Formal proposals contain many of the same components as other formal
reports (Fig- given below). The difference lies mostly in the text, although a few
of the prefatory parts are also different. With the exception of an occasional
appendix, most proposals have few supplementary parts.
Prefatory parts Text Of The Proposal Supplementary Parts
Cover Introduction Appendixes
Title fly Body
Title Page Summary
RFP (Request for
proposal)
Letter of transmittal
Table of contents
List of illustrations
Synopsis of executive
Summary
Prefatory Parts
The cover, title fly, title page, table of contents, and list of illustrations are
handled the dame as in other formal reports. However, other prefatory parts are
quite different:
• Copy of the RFP. Instead of having letter of authorization, a formal
proposal may have a copy of the request for proposal (RFP), which is a
letter or memo soliciting a proposal or bid for a particular project. The RFP
is issued by the client to whom the proposal is being submitted and outlines
 what the proposal should cover. If the RFP includes detailed specifications,
it may be too long to bind into the proposal; in that case, you may want to
include only the introductory portion of the RFP. Another option is to omit
the RFP and simply refer to it in your letter of transmittal.
• Letter of transmittal. The way you handle the letter of transmittal depends
on whether the proposal is solicited or unsolicited. If proposal is solicited,
the transmittal letter follows the pattern for good-news messages,
highlighting those aspects of your proposal that may give you a competitive
advantage. If the proposal is unsolicited, the transmittal letter takes on
added importance; in fact, it may be all the client reads. The letter must
persuade the reader that your have something worthwhile to offer,
something that justifies than time required to read the entire proposal. The
transmittal letter for an unsolicited proposal follows the pattern for
persuasive messages.
• Synopsis or executive summary. Although you may include a synopsis
or an executive summary for your reader’s convenience if your proposal is
quite long, these components are somewhat less useful in a formal
proposal than they are in a formal report. If your proposal is unsolicited,
your transmittal letter will already have caught the reader’s interest, making
a synopsis or an executive summary pointless. It may also be pointless if
your proposal is solicited, because the reader is already committed to
studying the text to find out how you propose to satisfy the terms of a
contract. The introduction to a solicited proposal would provide an adequate
preview of the contents.
Text of the Proposal
The text of a proposal perform two essential functions: It persuades the client
to award you a contract, and it spells out the terms of that contract. The trick is
to sell the client on your ideas without making promises that will hunt you later.
It the proposal is unsolicited, you have some latitude in arranging the text.
However, the organization of a solicited proposal is governed by the request for
proposal. Most RFPs spiel out precisely what you should cover, and in what
order, so that all bids will be similar in form. This uniformity enables the client to
evaluate the competing proposals in a systematic way. In fact, in many
organizations a team of evaluators splits up the proposals and looks at various
sections. An engineer might review the technical portions of all the proposals
submitted, and an accountant might review the cost estimates.
Introduction
The introduction orients readers to rest of the proposal. It identifies your
organization an your purpose and outlines the remainder of the text. If the
proposal is solicited, the introduction should refer to the RFP; if not, it should
mention any factors that led you to submit the bid. You might refer to previous
conversations you’ve had with the client you might mention mutual
acquaintances. Subheadings often include the following:
• Background or statement of the [Link] reviews the client’s
situation, worded to establish the need for action. In business selling
situations, the reader may not have the same perception of the problems
as the writer has. With unsolicited proosls, potential clients and other
readers may not even think they have a problem. You have to convince
then a problem exists before you can convince them to accept your solution.
You can do this by discussing the reader’s current situation and explaining
how things could be better – in a way that is meaningful to your reader.
• Overview of approach. Highlights your key selling points and their
benefits, showing how your proposal will solve the client’s problem. The
heading for this section might also be “Preliminary analysis” or some other
wording that will identify this section as a summary of your solution to the
problem
• Scope. States the boundaries of the study, what you will and will not do.
This brief section may also be labeled “Delimitations.”
• Report organization. Orient s the reader to the remainder of the proposal
and calls attention to the major divisions of thought.
Body
The core of the proposal is the body, which has the same purpose as the body
of other reports. In a proposal, however, the body must cover some specific
information
• Proposed approach. May also be tilled “Technical Proposal,” “Research
Design.” “Issues for Analysis,” or “Work Statement,” Regardless of the
heading, this section is a description of what you have to offer: your concept
product or service. If you’re proposing to develop a new airplane you might
describe your preliminary design by using drawings or calculations to
demonstrate the soundness of your solution. To convince the client that
your proposal has merit, focus on the strengths of your product in relation
to the client’s needs. Point out any advantages that you have over your
competitors. In this example, you might describe how your plane’ unique
wing design provides superior fuel economy, a particularly important feature
specified in the client’s request for proposal.
• Work plan. Describes how you will accomplish the work that must be done
(necessary unless you’re proposing to provide a standard, off-the shelf
item). For each phase of the work plan, describe the steps you’ll take, their
 timing the methods or resources you’ll use, and the person or persons who
will be responsible. Indicate any critical dates when portions of the or will
be completed. If your proposal is accepted the work plan will become
contractually binding. Any slippage in the proposed schedule may
jeopardize the contract or cost your organization a considerable amount of
money. Therefore don’t promise to deliver more than you can realistically
achieve within a given period.
• Statement of qualifications. Described your organization’s experience,
personnel, and facilities in relation to the client’s needs. If you work for a
large organization that frequently submits proposals, you can usually
borrow much of this section intact from previous proposals. Be sure,
however, to tailor any of this boilerplate material to suit the situations. The
qualification section can be an important selling point, and it deserves to be
handled carefully.
• Costs. Typically has few words and many numbers but can make or break
the proposal. If your price is out of line, the client will probably reject your
bid. However, before you deliver a low bid remember that you’ll have to live
with the price you quote in the proposal. It’s rarely worthwhile to win a
contract if you’re doomed to lose money on he job. Because it’s often
difficult to estimate costs on experimental projects, the client will be looking
for evidence that your costs are realistic. Break down the cost in detail so
that the client can see how you got your numbers; so much for labor, so
much for materials, so much for overhead.
In a formal proposal it pays to be as through and accurate as possible. Carefully
selected detail enhances your credibility. So does successful completion of any
task you promise to perform.
Summary
You may want to include a summary or conclusion section because it’s your last
opportunity to persuade the reader to accept your proposal. Summarize the
merits of your approach, reemphasize why you rand your firm are the ones to
do the work, and stress the benefits. Make this section relatively brief, assertive
and confident. To review the ideas and procedures presented in this chapter,
consult the Checklist for Formal Reports and Proposals.
PROPOSAL WRITING
Kiddie Corral, Inc.
1812 Shady Lane Abilene, KS 67410
July 14, 1997
Mr. Warren Downs, President
Plastic Castings, Inc.
2318 Industrial Parkway
Abilene, KS 67410

Dear Mr. Downs:

There have been several articles in The Gazette in recent months about the
high rate of employee turnover and absenteeism in the local work force.
According to authorities on the subject, turnover and absenteeism arc invariably
accompanied by increased training costs and lower employee morale. With
those thoughts in mind, I am pleased to present you with this proposal.
Problem Statement
During the past decade there have been dramatic changes in the work force.
The two-job family has become the norm, and finding satisfactory child care is
an ongoing concern. Fifty-one percent of all mothers of infants are now in the
work force. It is expected that throughout the late 1990s, fully two-thirds of all
new job recruits will be women.
Approximately 4½ billion hours are lost each year due to tardiness, sickness,
and absenteeism, much of it attributable to problems employees experience in
trying to balance their jobs with the demands of being a parent. During the last
decade, there was a 3,000 percent increase in the number of companies that
provide some form of help for employees' offspring as a means of stemming
absenteeism and turnover with its attendant skyrocketing cost of training new
employees.
Objectives
One objective of this proposal is to alert you to the wisdom of assisting your
employees in solving their child-care problems. A second objective is
lointroduce you lo Kiddie Corral as a possible solution. A third objective is to
help you to reduce the expenses incurred by such problems as absenteeism,
turnover, and dissatisfied employees, as well as the expense of recruiting and
training new employees.
Method
1. We will survey your full-time employees, both hourly and salaried, who
have children younger than age 16, concerning their current child-care
arrangements and how they think these arrangements could be improved.
2. Results of the survey will be compiled and presented to you within ten days
of the completion of the survey.
3. You and any associates you select will be given a lour of Kiddie Corral to
see what it has to offer to your employees.
Facilities and Personnel
The newly enlarged and remodelled Kiddie Corral has the equipment and
personnel necessary to provide for the comfort, security, enjoyment, and
intellectual stimulation for your employees' children. We have been in business
for 12 years and have earned a reputation for the highest quality in child care.
We always maintain a ratio of at least 1 adult for every 8 children, and there is
a registered nurse on site at all times.
Cost
The administration of the survey, the compilation of its results, and an extensive
lour of the facility will be provided at no cost to you. Should you choose to offer
our services as a fringe benefit to your employees, many options are available.
Enrolment costs are $ 125.00 per child for five 8-hour days. Some employers
offer the service to employees for free, believing that it is a fair price to pay for
reduced turnover and training costs, not to mention the heightened employee
satisfaction that accompanies such a benefit. Other employers share the cost
of the program with their employees, and satisfaction. Because Kiddie Corral is
located less than one mile from your plant, its convenience will also be
appreciated.
I am available to answer any questions you may have about this proposal.
Sincerely Yours,
Summary
By providing company-sponsored child care, an employer reaps the rewards of
increased employee loyalty, productivity.
➢ The writer provides a context for this unsolicited proposal and points out a
problem in the local business community to awaken the reader’s interest.
➢ The writer documents the problem, confirms that the problem is likely to
grow, and shows that a growing number of employers are addressing it.
➢ The objectives are written from the reader’s standpoint without predicting
possible survey results, and focus on how both the employer and
employees might benefit.
➢ The writer tells the reader specifically what kind of information will be
sought and how it will be used, including a time frame.
➢ This section justifies selecting, the writer to satisfy the need described and
details the resources that are most relevant for the task.
➢ The writer emphasizes the value of the service more than its cost. a
detailed budget is not necessary in an unsolicited proposal.
➢ The writer reminds the reader that accepting the proposal is the first step
to solving the problem.

Past exams questions

Read for understanding situations.
Follow the format that is taught on slides
Question No. 1
Read the following table which shows the market share of the products
sold by the company you work for. Having interpreted the given information
in the table, write a report to your boss explaining about the current market
share of each product. Moreover, make some recommendations to
improve the market share of your products where applicable. Remember,
it is not easy to persuade your boss. (You may assume the details where
appropriate)
Market share of each product
Your market Competitors' Your market
Products
share market share share (last year)
Lipsticks 20% 80% 50%
Fairness Cream 70% 30% 50%
Ladies handbags 50% 50% 40%
(b) You have been to USA on a business trip recently. Your boss has asked
you to write him the details of your trip. Write a memo to your boss
explaining about the trip. You must cover the following points: (assume
imaginary business details)
1. Meetings with clients
2. Survey of the USA Market
3. USA Culture
Answer No. 1
Report Writing Sample:
(Sample report format)
May 30, 2010
Mr. Zubair Ahmed
Joson& Co Head Office
Zamzama Street 21
Dear Sir,
 I am writing this report pertaining to your task to find out the market share
of our products. It is
satisfactory indication that despite the fact that our products have recently
been launched they
are capturing a reasonable share in the market. (Opening)
I personally with my team went to check the shelf share in three major
markets in the city and collected the data. The findings are quite
encouraging but for some products we need to improve our marketing
campaign.
(Body)
Findings and Recommendations:
1. On contrary to fairness cream, market share for lipsticks has dropped
by 30%. Penetration of two new brands with their outstanding range
of lipsticks has been the major reason for decline in our sales. I believe
we need to have a market research to carry out an effective market
campaign to increase the market share of lipsticks.
2. The most fascinating trend can be seen in fairness cream. You may
see, in the table (appendix A), that market share of fairness cream has
increased by 20%.Theforemost reason behind the improvement in the
market share of fairness cream is our best advertising campaign. It
has also been told that customers are quite happy about the results of
the fairness cream.
3. Another important trend is seen in the market share of ladies
handbags. The market share of ladies handbags has improved by
10%, which is a good indication. It has been observed that our
competitors are still capturing a reasonable market share, so we need
to have a very sound market campaign to trigger the market share of
our range of handbags.
In the end, I hope that my report will give you enough information to
understand the market share of our products. I would like you to contact
me for any further query.
(Ending)
Yours sincerely Kamran ALI
Assistant Marketing Manager
(b) Memo Writing
Memo is a written communication from one person to another (or a group
of people) within the same organization. Memo serves a variety of
purposes. It is important that the memo headings show the details of
sender and recipient as well as reference and date.
Following headings are suggested:
Memorandum Parts:
To ________________
From _____________
Ref. ______________
Date ______________
Main body of Memo:
Introduction__________________Background information
Details Facts and figures
Response An action statement
Close A relevant one-liner
Note: No fixed answer to this question can be framed. Various
examinees would treat the task differently.
(Sample Memo format)
Hilton
Internal Memo
To: Lauren Eastman
From: David
Date: June 11, 2009
Subject: Recent Business Trip to USA
I am writing this to apprise you with the details of my recent business trip
to USA. The trip was fantastic and mainly successful.
Meetings with the Clients
The foremost task I performed was meeting to our two major clients, Mr.
Jackson and Ms. Kate. My meetings with them have been so significant
and I believe we will receive orders from them for our new range of products
very soon. They have sent regards for you and are expected to visit
Pakistan very soon. Survey of the USA Market
I surveyed the USA market to explore opportunities and feel happy to share
the findings of my survey which are as follows:
1. Our competitors have still not reached the USA large market which
means that there is a bright chance for us to skim potential customers
from the market.
2. The local competitors have failed to offer quality products in affordable
prices.
 In the end, I would like to inform you about USA culture. The business
culture in USA is low context culture. Here we have to communicate
everything explicitly as they believe in exchange of information. I have also
attached the data I collected from the survey of USA market to support my
findings.
Please let me know if you want further information in this regard.
Question No. 2 Winter – 2012
(a) Report writing is a creative activity in any business. Different types of
reports are written to develop procedures, test products, explore markets,
or to share opinions. Distinguish among informational reports, analytical
reports and proposals. Also describe three basic categories of an analytical
report.
(b) 'Tradition Limited', a multinational company is famous for its high quality
products at low price in the market. It has been very difficult for the
company to maintain the popularity on this ground because of increasing
trend of manufacturing cost for the last few years. The management is
much worried about the situation and desires to know the cost reduction
methods e.g., alternate materials, incentive to labour force, automation etc.
Being a consultant of the said company you have been given a task to
prepare a short report on this trend of increasing cost. Your report should
comprise the following points, using imaginary description of the products:
➢ Description of products;
➢ Cost breakup of products;
➢ Increasing percentage of costs in tabular or graphical form;
➢ Factors affecting costs;
➢ Suggestions for cost controlling/cost reduction;

Memorandum
To: All Staff members Date: January 25, 2011
From: (Name), (Desig.) Ref: xy/12

Subject: Time Management Techniques

Introduction
In this modern era, it is difficult to manage time in organizations, where there
are multi-aspect tasks. By using effective time management techniques, this
problem can be solved up to a great extent.
Methodology
A workshop was attended for gathering relevant material, conducted at xyz
hotel, Mr. ABC was the honourable speaker over theme who have expertise in
time management.
Findings
Based on the methodology adopted, my findings for your good are as follows:
1. Planning of the assigned tasks
2. Scheduling of the assigned tasks
3. Prioritizing of the tasks according to their importance
4. Determination of most productive individual timing and shifting of difficult
task to that timing.
5. Shifting of left tasks to next day’s top of the list.
By following above-mentioned steps in an efficient way, time can be managed
up to great extent at work. In this way, the individual can also find some time for
the aspects other than work (personal).

Regards
Question No. 5
You are the Human Resource Manager at one of the leading commercial banks
in Karachi. Over the last six months, various clients have complained about the
rude and unacceptable behaviour of Mr Sultan Ahmed, the Customer Services
Manager of the I.I. Chaundrigar Road branch. Mr. Ahmed who has been an
employee of the bank for the past 7 years, has always had a clean record and
until recently has been one of the most valuable contributors to the bank. You
are required to investigate and prepare a short report to be submitted to the
Regional Manager, Customer Services. You may assume any necessary
details.
Answer No. 5
Commercial Bank
1.1 Chaundrigar Road Branch
Karachi
October 22, 2005
Regional Manger
Customer Services
Corporate Office Karachi

INVESTIGATION REGARDING RUDE & UNACCEPTABLE BEHAVIOUR

Reference to your directive in which I was asked to produce investigative report
concerning the rude behaviour of Customer Services Manager
Procedure:
➢ Consulted documents in the form of customers' complaints
➢ Interviewed some important clients.
➢ Interviewed Manger and Staff of the department concerned.
➢ Consulted some case studies and collected feed-back through
questionnaire.
To the best of my knowledge and experience, my findings are as follows:
Findings
Investigation reveals, such critical incident i.e. rude and acceptable behaviour
of the manger is result not lack of skill and negative attitude but pressure of
unmanageable workloads.
➢ Many members of his team have been away from work due to
discontentment and Mr. Ahmad has had to do their work also.
➢ Mr. Ahmad has tried explaining to his line manger but there is no response.
➢ All the workers have become the victim of role conflict as they are
overburdened.
Now Mr. Ahmad, owing to his passive attitude is a failure to resolve such conflict
and his aggression is being reflected through his rude behaviour as mentioned
by our customers. Sir, though, Mr. Ahmad has clean record and until recently
has been one of the most valuable contributors to the bank but our customers
are our real world and we claim one thing i.e. our customers' satisfaction. At our
earliest, not only we should resolve Mr. Ahmad's conflict by providing him
sufficient staff rather I would recommended training session for all such
managers just to plant assertive attitude in them so that they may overcome
crises.
Sir, I have completed this report to the best of my knowledge and experience
and if there is point that needs further clarification you may contact me anytime
convenient to you.

Sincerely,
Question No. 6
As an employee of the finance department at a leasing company, put up a
proposal to the senior management asking them to introduce a company funded
qualification enhancement program for employees who have served a minimum
of two years with the company and are grade 3 and above. This would not only
be beneficial for the employees but also help the company in achieving their
training and development goals. You may assume any necessary details.
Answer No. 6
October 22, 2005
Managing Director
Leasing Company Private Limited
Lahore
QUALIFICATION ENHANCEMENT PROGRAM
Sir,
Time and Trends are ever changing and within them we and our industry have
to keep peace with the changing Scenario. In this regards, Training and
Development are not only in the interest of employees but also help out
companies to materialize their objectives.
Problem Statement
If our people are lacking in skills or there is skill shortage and skill mismatch,
we have to reside more not only on outsourcing but it will create sense of
insecurity among employees. As their knowledge have become static and their
skill have grown outdated, this all will enhance the cost.
Objectives
One objective of this proposal is to highlight the significance of Training and
Development. A second objective is to motivate employees by securing their
jobs. A third objective is to help you reduce expenses incurred by such problems
as labour turnover, dissatisfied employees and outsourcing etc.
Method
➢ On-the-job instructions and coaching.
➢ Off-the-job courses may be advisable
➢ Video-based training packages
➢ To equip with latest resources and applied knowledge.
Proposal
Training and Development should be the regular feature of our organization. It
will confirm individual growth which ultimately leads towards the growth of our
organization.
Benefits for Employees
➢ Enhanced competence.
➢ Opportunities for greater contribution to customer satisfaction.
➢ Opportunities for increased rewards.
➢ Opportunities is to extend own interests and skills.
Benefits for Company
➢ Enhanced job performance
➢ Enhanced workforce flexibility and skills.
➢ Fewer complaints
➢ Less need for detailed staff supervision
I am available to respond to any question you may have about this proposal.

Sincerely
➢

Question No. 9
You are the Branch Manager of Super Asia Bank Ltd.., SITE branch, that has
been in business for the past 25 years. Fine Leather Ltd. (FLL), engaged in the
business of manufacturing leather garments has applied for a long-term loan
facility for import of machinery. Due diligence was made by your subordinates
and through reliable sources it was discovered that the company has already
availed long-term loans from 3 other commercial banks. However, the company
is in the process of expanding its operations and requires additional funds for
the export.
You are required to prepare a short formal report to be submitted to the Head
of Advances of the Bank with your suggestions on whether or not to sanction
the loan facility to FLL based on the findings of a site visit conducted by you to
the leather factory and a detailed analysis of the company's financial
performance in the past 5 years.
Answer No. 9
Super Asia Bank Ltd,
SITE Branch
Karachi
April 20, 2005
Head of Advances
Super Asia Bank
Karachi
SANCTIONING LOAN FACILITY TO FLL
Sir,
In response to your directive dated April 10th, 2005 in which I was asked to
produce report with suggestions on whether or not to sanction loan facility to
FLL.I personally visited the company site, having gone through bank statements
and liabilities, even collected report of the company's reputation from the market
and business circle, my suggestions are as follows:
➢ Fine leather Ltd. (FLL) is a thriving industry and it enjoys world wide
reputation.
➢ Though company has already availed long term loans from 3 other
commercial banks but company's business expansion, client age and
assets are enough to justify its position.
➢ Also the said loan facility is meant for import of machinery.
➢ The aforesaid company is going to import computerized, machines from
Germany, so their unit will be of unique nature in our country.
➢ The credibility of the company is also checked through its exports which is
the major chunk of its business.
➢ It can be also revealed through company's annual report that in the near
future, they are going to introduce Provaire Leather Technology which is a
major break through in the world.
On the top of all these, professionals consider FLL, a sound party. Their shares
are Blue chips and they are considered as the trend setter of the market.
Keeping all this in view, I would strongly recommend that our bank should
sanction loan facility to this company, as we at Super Asia Bank also look
forward to cherish great honour in serving potential clients.

Sincerely
Question No. 11 Autumn - 2004
You are the Country Manager of VODACOM Ltd. operating under the brand
name of Telelink. The government of Pakistan recently announced the issuance
of licenses to two more cell phone companies. Taking account of this
development, write a report to the board of directors of VODACOM Ltd.,
outlining the impact of new licenses on your company's business and your
recommendation for future strategy the company should adopt to withstand this
competition. [Hints: In your report, suggest measures related to quality of
service, connection charges, free roaming facility, 50% off on air time etc.

Answer No. 11
Board of Directors
VODACOM Ltd
Pakistan
28th October 2004
TO SEE TELELINK ON THE ACME OF GLORY
As you know Telelink is one of the major source of generating revenues by
providing quality services. It enjoys this status owing to its great client age but
with the advent of two more cell phone companies, Telelink will find itself at the
cutting edge of cut-throat competition. Through I am the firm believer of the
board's dynamic leadership and rational planning but my vision is to see Telelink
on the acme of glory which is quite possible even in the presence of more
upcoming companies.
Suggestions
➢ Telelink must accept the challenge of Quality Revolution i.e. TQM and
should provide quality services at cheapest rates.
➢ New connection process should be simplified and the procedure must be
compatible to world standards
➢ Connection as well as service charges should be introduced at competitive
rates and unnecessary surcharges / taxes should be abolished with
immediate affect.
➢ Free roaming facility and 50% off on air time must be advertised.
➢ Apart from mobile, internet services should be introduced at flat rates.
➢ Company must introduce special discount package on special / auspicious
occasions.
➢ Instead of imposing taxes on inflated bills, company should introduce some
incentives for potential clients.
➢ Company must tune electronic media, which is at present the most
powerful way of convincing people.
➢ Latest technology and highly skilled people should be hired.
➢ Employees must be highly motivated to observe this slogan "We sell one
thing i.e., our customers satisfaction".
I am available to answer any question you may have about these suggestions.
Question No. 12 Autumn - 2004
You are a Program Coordinator in a professional Institute. During last one week,
you have received complaints about the teaching qualities of a faculty member
and some students have also complained about the campus facilities.
On the basis of your investigation of two complaints, write a short formal report
to the Program Director about your findings.
Answer No. 12
28th October, 2004
The Program Director
XXX
Lahore

COMPLAINTS ABOUT TEACHING QUALITY & CAMPUS FACILITIES

Sir,
To investigate complaints about teaching quality as well as campus facilities
and to make recommendation as asked by Program Director, on 26th October
2004.
Procedure:
1. An interview was held with the faculty member, on 27 October.
2. Interviews were held with a cross-section of Students (40) who were taking
class of the same faculty member.
3. A questionnaire was designed to have immediate feed-back form students
concerning campus facilities.
Findings:
Teaching Quality
➢ The Subject assigned to the faculty member is not up to his choice and
qualification.
➢ He is over burdened as apart from teaching he has to cope with some
managerial assignments.
➢ He has no teacher assistant to take care of clerical work.
➢ Students attending this major course have some weak basis. Most of the
teacher time is spent on keeping them at power
Campus Facilities
Student are facing serious problems concerning cafeteria, parking and sitting
area like common rooms.
Recommendations:
Teaching quality
➢ Area of interest must be assigned to the faculty member so that he may
excel in his field.
➢ A teaching assistant should be provided immediately just to lighten his
burden.
➢ Faculty member must be released from extra managerial affairs. He should
only have concern with his teaching.
➢ Deficiency courses should be given to the student who are taking major
subjects.
Computer facilities
As we are a professional Institute student coming here, will spend most of the
time within campus premises. Places like cafeteria, sitting rooms and common
rooms are the hub of their activities. Also without parking, sense of insecurity
and deprivation will be enhanced. Therefore, with immediate effect, students
must be facilitated with their genuine demands.
Sir, I have completed this report to the best of my knowledge, and experience,
if you need any more information please let me know.

Sincerely
Question No. 13 Spring - 2004
You have resigned from the present firm after completing your training contract.
As per the firm's policy, an employee leaving the firm must submit a short report
to the Managing Partner of the firm. This report usually contains identification
of improvements needed with reference to the administrative policies,
marketing strategies, HR policies, etc.
Write a report covering above areas along with suggestions as to how to convert
weak areas into strengths of the firm.
Answer No. 13
May 03, 2004
Managing Partner
A.F. Ferguson & Co.
Lahore.
Subject: IMPROVEMENT CONCERNING ADMINISTRATIVE HR.
MARKETING POLICIES ETC
Sir,
This report is based on my close observation and practical experience, being a
trainee of this firm. I am well aware that my findings are based on professional
approach, neglecting any kind of prejudice.
Findings:
1. The company is overstaffed and distribution of work among the staff is
irrational.
2. Our new Business Manager is a very brilliant young sir with productive
ideas. But he does not seem to have much practical experience of his new
job.
3. Our offices are situated at very noisy places.
4. Though our offices are laced with latest IT facilities but most of our people
are not well conversant with office automation.
5. Even in the age of media display, our people are not paying heed to
advertisement and publicity.
6. There's little follow-up program to realize the outstanding debts of the office
with the result of that the circulation of money is hampered.
7. The office break for lunch is only 30 minutes which is too brief and there is
no lunching facility in the surrounding.
8. In the course of my experience, the most serious irregularity that came to
my notice was with regard to staff attendance.
Suggestions
1. Economy cut may be exercised in the staff by 20% and work load may be
rationally distributed among the members of staff.
2. Our new Business Manager may be transferred to our Faisalabad Branch
to make him conversant with extensive fieldwork. Also after 5 months he
may be posted back to the firm's Lahore Office.
3. The office should be immediately shifted to the quite and tranquil area like
Gulberg or Defence.
4. Employees must be well conversant with IT jargons so that they can make
proper use of online computing, auditing, banking and marketing, etc.
5. Our firm must use novel tools of advertisement to publicize our traits and
skills.
6. Vigorous drive may be launched to pursue old debts.
7. Our company should open a cafeteria of its own within the premises.
8. The department heads should be instructed to ensure attendance;
otherwise punch card system must be introduced to observe discipline.
Sir, I have completed this report to the best of my knowledge and experience,
if there is a point that needs further clarification, you may contact me any time
convenient to you
Sincerely
Question No. 14 Spring - 2004
You are head of marketing division in a large firm in Pakistan. You have been
given a task to establish an international office in Afghanistan. Please explain
what are the factors that contribute to a culture that you will consider for
preparing your report on Afghanistan.
Answer No. 14
Culture is a product of multiple social factors such as religion, economics,
educational standard, politics, language, law and social customs etc. Since
countries of the world may pointedly differ in these constituents of social
systems, different cultures come into being and the need for an understanding
of a communication travelling from one environment to another is underwritten.
Major factors contributing to a culture are briefly discussed below:
Religion
In several cultures religion may be more dominant than in others, as a result of
which influence of religion may proportionately be greater or lesser.
Economics
Economic status of a country has also a direct influence on its attitudes and
responses. In developing countries, pregnant with exchange control
regulations, the response in respect of placement of orders and remittances
may not be so prompt as in case of a country with little or no foreign exchange
restrictions.
Educational Standard
The educational level in a country has a direct bearing on its culture and
differing standards of education in different countries can give birth to different
attitudes. So, people belonging therein may interpret and react differently to a
communication received from a different culture.
Politics
Political systems governing countries would again be required to be properly
understood for creating a communicational rapport. Not only differences may
have to be understood in terms of different systems such as democracy and
dictatorship but even in terms of various kinds of democracy in vogue in different
countries.
Language
Though English language is practically a world language in the field of business,
in relation to a posting outside his own country, a foreigner must know some
tidbit of the native language of the country of his posting. It may not so much be
required to be of help in business communication as in the creation of an inter
personal bond between the guest and his hosts.
Law and Customs
Law and customs can also create a situation which affects business conditions.
A veil for females is essential in Iran. Beauty parlour products are not allowed
into the country and hence they also fall outside the range of advertising.
Social Rules
In personal conduct, several rules may exist which may be quite different
understood and appreciated. For example, in a number of countries, males are
more dominate than female in managing business and making business
decisions.
Question No. 15 Autumn - 2003
You are the Chief Executive of a major cement manufacturing company.
Keeping in view the recent budget incentives to the cement and housing
industries and the major reconstruction work to be undertaken in Afghanistan in
the near future, the chairman of your company has asked you to submit a report
to the Board of Directors underlining the prospects of the company, getting
major contracts for supply of cement in Afghanistan and for expected increase
in sale in local market. Draft such a report outlining the pricing and marketing
policy and the ways to counter the potential competition from other local firms.
Answer No. 15
ABC Cement (Pvt) Ltd.
3 September, 2003
The Board of Directors

Subject: FOREIGN CONTRACTS AND LOCAL SALE

Dear Sirs
Having analyzed the recent budget incentives to the cement and housing
industries and the major reconstruction work to be undertaken in Afghanistan in
the near future, I’m on the direction of the Chairman now reporting my findings,
which you may find helpful.
There are 21 cement factories in operation in Pakistan with total installed
capacity of 16.10 million tons of clinker/cement production per year. The
demand for cement was estimated to be 9.9 million tonnes at the end of the
year 2000. According to a recent report, the annual demand for cement may
increase at the rate of 7%. This indicates that the cement industry would have
enough installed capacity to cope with the assumed increase in demand up to
the year 2010.
Pakistan is surrounded by a number of countries which have to import cement,
either because they do not have limestone reserves or are short in limestone
deposits. Export potential in war ravaged Afghanistan is yet to be explored and
quantified. The general thinking is that the reconstruction work will need an
enormous amount of cement after the work on it starts.
At domestic level, enhanced private, commercial & industrial construction
including infrastructural and related activities will increase opportunities for our
company. A couple of leading companies, notably Cherat Cement, D. G Khan
Cement, Zeal Pak Cement, Chakwal Cement &Kohat Cement have already
opted for cheaper mode of locally available raw material and are expected to
switch over to the new system by the end of the next year and some more are
ready to follow them. Presently, price of cement per tonne in Pakistan is 3703
rupees. If the government of Pakistan reduces tax by 50% and if the said tax
relief is passed on to the producers and the consumers in an equitable manner,
the sale proceeding distribution scenario will change as 3085 rupees per tonne.
50 per cent reduction in government taxes will reduce the selling price to 22
percent.
In view of the aforesaid facts, I would suggest that our company explore the
potential market at home and abroad by offering competitive prices and come
forward with a dynamic vision to encounter aggressive campaign of local
companies.
Question No. 16 Autumn- 2002
Briefly answer the following:
(a) Distinguish between Letter and Memorandum Reports.
(b) As Director Sales Manager for Academic Publishers Ltd; write a negative
report in memo form on one of your Sales Representatives Mr. Nafees
Ahmed Mr. Ahmed is just beginning his third year with the company. In his
first year, sales in his territory dropped from Rs. 235,000/- (his
predecessor’s volume) to Rs. 195,000. Last year, the volume was done to
Rs. 150,000. After having various reports from the college professors in
Mr. Ahmed’s territory that they rarely see the man, you made some
personal checks.
 At Southern Campus you found that Mr. Ahmed worked on campus only
two of five days while his reports indicated he was there. You checked with
three of the fie professors he had reported as lunch guests on his expense
account and found that they had not see him.
At the Central District Campus you found that Mr. Ahmed made a brief
appearance one morning, saw only two professors and went to the village,
Clifton with two students. You found no evidence that he worked there for
three days just to check, you went to the East District Campus where he
was scheduled to work. He didn’t show up. When confronted with all this
evidence, he confessed his dereliction of duties. But he argued that he was
doing what others were doing.
You don’t buy his arguments. You have decided to report your findings to
the Director Sales with recommendation that Mr. Ahmed may be fired.
Answer No. 16(b)
Academic Publishers Ltd
1818 – Bond Ave
Date: September 2, 2002
To: The Director Sales
From: The Sales Manager
Subject: DERELICTION OF DUTIES
Mr. Nafees Ahmed, one of our Company’s Sales Representative, is just
beginning his third year. In his first year, sales in his territory dropped from Rs.
235,000. (his predecessor’s Volume) to Rs. 1,95,000. Last year the volume was
down to Rs. 150,000. After having various reports from the College Professors
of his territory, it has been confirmed that this is a sheer case of negligence and
breach of trust. I have completed my report in this regard to the best of my
knowledge and my findings are as follows:
➢ Al Southern Campus, he worked only two of five days, while his report
indicated he was there.
➢ His expense account showed that five professors were as lunch guests
while three out of five denied to see him.
➢ At the Central District Campus, I found him paying brief visit one morning,
having met with two professors and then sneaked away rather he payed
no visit in the coming four days and he reported to have worked there for
three days.
➢ As far as East District Campus is concerned, where he was scheduled to
work, he didn’t show up.
On the top of all these when confronted with all these evidences, though he
confessed his dereliction of duties, but argued that he was doing what others
were doing means he is not ashamed of his act that predicts he is incorrigible.
Sir, keeping all the above mentioned facts, it is quite clear that present case
depicts not only negligence of duties but breach of trust as well. Therefore, I
recommend such person may be fired.
Question No. 17 Spring - 2002
Habib Bank Limited wants to open a new branch in Gulistan-e-Johar. The
Management has appointed you as a Research Office to conduct a survey of
the locality and prepare a suitable report in the form of a letter of the Vice
President of the Bank. Write the report.
Answer No. 17
The Vice President
Habib Bank Limited

Subject: REPORT ON THE OPENING OF A NEW BRANCH IN

GULISTAN-E-JOHAR
Sir
In accordance with your instructions, I made a careful study of the benefits
arising out of opening a branch at Gulistan-e-Johar. Being a Research Officer,
I have dealt with the issue thoroughly and concluded.
The area selected for the opening of a new branch has got the potential
because it is surrounded by the head offices of the leading companies. Also it
is attractive for hometown residents. This locality requires new banking set-up
because already it has been facilitated by one or two foreign banks, but our
people do believe in having business with local banks. Sir, on the top of all
these, I have explored the building selected for this purpose. It is newly
constructed, enjoying prime location of the area. The rent of the building is quite
low compared to the similar buildings in the surroundings.
In view of these findings, I would suggest to open a new branch at Gulistan-e-
Johar, because in this way Habib Bank Ltd., will be able to pocket potential
market as well as hefty investment. Also, it will be a step ahead to strengthen
its claim of being the largest banking system in the country.

Sincerely yours
Question No. 18 Spring - 2002
You are working in a company which is dealings in Foreign Exchange. Your
company has seen the effects of recent exchange fluctuations and its impact
on business. Your Managing Director has asked for your advice in the matter
and has requested for a brief report on the subject. Write the report.
Answer No. 18
The Managing Director
Subject: EFFECTS OF RECENT EXCHANGE FLUCTUATIONS AND ITS
AFTERMATH
Sir,
This is in response to your directive, in which I was asked to produce a report
over the effects of recent exchange fluctuations and its impact on business.
Sir, I have completed this report to the best of knowledge and experience and
my findings are given below:
➢ The Terrorist act of 11th September on World Trade Centre has proved a
blow to the world economy.
➢ As US $ is the mother currency, its fluctuation has direct and indirect
influence on the world currencies like Pound Sterling, Japanese Yen,
Swiss Franc, Deutsch Mark etc.
➢ Another blow to the FOREX business is the advent of Euro currency,
posing threat to the US $.
➢ War like situation on the world scenario hampers business activities and
has created trade deficit.
In view of the aforesaid glaring facts, I would like to suggest that it is high time
for our company to buy US $ because still US is a potential capital market, and
it will ultimately experience retain after this period of slump and chaos. At the
same time Euro, the new emerging currency also belongs to the potential capital
market. Therefore, our company should explore the new avenues of Euro, and
may also make little investment.
At the present, the world business is facing slump, so it will be rational on our
part to make little investment and wait for the retaining phase of the market.
If there is any other point that needs further clarification, you may contact me
any time convenient to you.

Sincerely yours
Question No. 21 Autumn- 2002
The Managing Director of a listed manufacturing company has approached your
firm, a practising firm of Chartered Accountants, to assist them in improving
their Finance and Accounts Department, which is currently in total disarray.
There are several problems including lack of adequate Management
Information and Reporting System, poor Financial Management practices and
poor system of Record Keeping. You are required to develop a proposal
outlining the type of help you can provide (the scope of work), the time you will
require to complete the assignment and your professional fees for such work.
Also narrate the experience and capability of your firm. You can make
appropriate assumptions in making your proposal.
Answer No. 21
Ameen & Co.
Chartered Accountants
The Mall, Lahore
September 2, 2002
The Managing Director
Orson Medical Supplies

Sir

Subject: PROPOSAL REGARDING SYSTEM

Submitted for your review is our proposal regarding System Development (MIS,
MRS, Account System and Financial Management).
Problem Statement
Finance and Account Department is in total disarray like mismanagement of
Information and Reporting System, Poor Financial Management System and
poor system of Record Keeping, etc.
Experience & Capabilities
Our firm is keeping pace according to the ever-changing time and trends. We
the practicing firm of Chartered Accountants render Financial Management
advice. We especially believe in computerized Bookkeeping because of its
speed, accuracy, quality service and secrecy code. At present, if we have more
than 100 potential clients, it is simply because of our expertise in manual as well
as computerized Bookkeeping.
Services & Facilities
➢ Project appraisal facility.
➢ Forecast the financial needs.
➢ Working capital arrangement sufficient to the needs (debtors, Creditors,
Inventories)
➢ Cash Management.
➢ Budgeting & Project Financial needs (Borrowings)
Cost & Time
The administration of the survey, the compilation of its results, and an extensive
tour facility will be provided at no cost to you. As we are for System
Development means to establish MIS, MRS, Account System and Financial
Management System, this project will take at least six months. Also we have to
engage our experienced and high calibre experts. Therefore, we’ll charge you
Rs. 500,000 which is discounted one. Our pursuit is just to promote future
business. Also we cherish great pleasure in serving potential customers like
you.
I am available to answer any question you may have about this proposal.

Sincerely
Question No. 23 Summer - 2009
Suppose that you have been working as General Manager Human Resource
for a leading manufacturing company. Due to large number of staff-turnover and
labour unrest, you have been asked by the Chairman of the company to present
a report indicating real causes for staff-turnover and labour unrest. Your report
should include introduction, comparative studies, promotion policy, and
conclusions along with recommendations to redress the problem.
(Assume necessary details.)
Answer No. 23
The Chairman May 29, 2009
XYZ Company
Lahore

Dear Sir,

REPORT ON STAFF-TURNOVER AND LABOUR UNREST

This report outlines the result of my investigation into the recent increased
number of staff-turnover and the acute state of labour unrest. The situation is
highly affecting the company’s expenditures due to increased hiring cost and
losing the trained staff simultaneously.
I’ve studied thoroughly the past two-years records concerning this issue. I had
in-depth discussions with all regional managers, first as a group then
individually. I managed to conduct some exit interviews. I talked to the middle-
line managers, supervisors and lower staff as well. My findings are as under:
➢ Exportations are often raised too high during the recruiting process, leading
people to compete for and subsequently to accept jobs for which they are
in truth unsuited. Our organization does this in order to ensure that we fill
our vacancies with sufficient number of well-qualified people. However,
over the longer term the practice is counter productive as it leads to costly,
unavoidable turnover and the development of poor reputation in the local
labour markets.
➢ The labour class is highly unsatisfied and has low motivation forwards
work. They complain for lower wages and longer working hours. Close
supervision and the atmosphere of hostility and aggression pushes them
to leave and the offered better wage rates pull them to other competitors.
Recommendations
➢ Job previews - give prospective employees a 'realistic job preview' at the
recruitment stage. Take care not to raise 'expectations only to dash them
later. Advances in technology are increasingly presenting employers with
opportunities to familiarise potential candidates with the organisation
before committing themselves to joining the organisation.
➢ Make line managers accountable - for staff turnover in their teams.
Reward managers whose record at keeping people is good by including
the subject in appraisals. Train line managers in people management and
development skills before appointing or promoting them. Offer re-training
opportunities to existing managers who have a poor record at keeping their
staff.
➢ Career development and progression - maximise opportunities for
individual employees to develop their skills and move on in their careers.
Promotions are feasible but also look for sideways moves that vary
experience and make the work more interesting.
➢ Consult employees - ensure wherever possible that employees have a
'voice' through consultative bodies, regular appraisals, attitude surveys and
grievance systems. This will provide dissatisfied employees with a number
of mechanisms to sort out problems before resigning.
➢ Be flexible - wherever possible, accommodate individual preferences on
working hours and times. (Where people are forced to work hours that do
not suit their domestic responsibilities they will invariably be looking for
another job which can offer such hours).
➢ Avoid the development of a culture of 'presenteeism' - where people
feel obliged to work longer hours than are necessary simply to impress
management. Evaluation of individual commitment should be based on
results achieved and not on hours put in.
➢ Job security - provide as much job security as possible. Employees who
are made to feel that their jobs are precarious may put a great deal of effort
in to impress, but they are also likely to be looking out for more secure
employment at the same time. Security and stability are greatly valued by
most employees.
➢ Treat people fairly - never discriminate against employees. The overall
level of pay should not be below the market rate.
➢ Defend your organisation - against penetration by head-hunters and
others seeking to poach your staff. Keep internal e-mail addresses
confidential, refuse to do business with agents who have poached your
staff, and enter into pacts with other employers not to poach one another's'
staff.
➢ Make sure that new joiners have realistic expectations of their job and
receive sufficient induction training. Tools such as confidential exit surveys
and staff attitude surveys can help line managers understand why people
leave the business, so that action can be taken accordingly.
I may be sent up to have further discussion on any point mentioned above.
Yours Sincerely

ABC
Manager Administration
Question No. 24 Winter-2008
Suppose that you work as a freelance marketing consultant. Few months ago,
a reputed company, which deals in ready-made clothes requested you to
conduct a market analysis of Peshawar region and submit report as the
company intends to introduce its product(s) in that region if the market
conditions is favourable.
Required:
Draft a report for the company highlighting the market conditions and consumer
preferences about their product(s). Also give some recommendations which
may help the company make a decision.
Answer No. 24
The Chief Executive
Twinkling Stars
Chundarigarh Road,
Karachi

Subject: Feasibility of Opening New branch in Peshawar

Sir,
In accordance with your instructions, have concluded the market survey of
Peshawar region. My findings are given below:
Findings:
Peshawar [Link] the best place for our outlet. The readymade garments are
popular among the families of army officers. I’ve also found that the shops for
men’s and women’s wear are there but none deals in good quality kids
garments.
Near the market, Rehman Shopping Centre is under construction. At the ground
floor quite spacious shops are available.
Conclusion
After considering the above mentioned facts, I find the situation very favourable
for our business. As “Twinkling Stars” is a popular name for quality and
reasonable prices for kids’ wear, we’ll take a little time in establishing our
business at Peshawar.
I suggest that an advertising campaign may be started before opening our new
branch.
Sincerely,
XYZ
Market Consultant
.
Question No. 26
A garment manufacturing concern has been given a huge order to be supplied
in the next two months time. Assuming yourself as the production manager,
prepare a memo report for the CEO of the company, and share the plan to
manage this order timely covering necessary details and suggesting the need
for the second shift and increased workforce based (use imaginary details).
Answer No. 26
To: CEO Date: March 30, 2009
From: Production Manager
Subject:Huge Order Execution Plan
The direction, dedication, and teamwork spirit towards the achievement of our
goals have enhanced our credibility and goodwill not only in the country but
outside too. A huge order by the Dutch Company guarantees our quality and
standard.
As the duration for this order is only two months, we need extra efficiency and
planning to fulfil the demand. For your kind consideration, I’ve certain
suggestions:
➢ We need to induct more people and the workforce should be doubled.
➢ The existing staff should be divided into two and each half of the workers
should go for either morning or evening shifts.
➢ The new team of workers should be added temporarily to both shifts; so
that they do work with our experienced staff.
➢ For the appreciation and encouragement, incentives should be offered to
workers.
➢ I hope the above mentioned plan will enable us to manage the order timely.
Question No. 27
You work for M/s. Tariq Fashion. Your boss tells you that he is thinking of
allowing the staff in the shops to wear their own clothing instead of the staff
uniform. He asks you to seek opinion from the staff and prepare a memo report
for him. Write the required report.
Answer No. 27
M/S Tariq Fashion
Address: XXX
Phone: XXX
Fax No.: XXX
29th May, 2007
To: Sameer Shah
From: Kamran Khan

Subject: Opinion of Staff Regarding Change of dress on the workplace

Here is the report reflecting the opinion of the whole staff on the idea of quitting
uniform and wearing own personal clothing. Per your instructions I’ve completed
the report.
I designed a questionnaire to obtain opinion of the staff on this change. The
questionnaire is given, as under:
Name Male / Female, working in the shop:_____________________for
________________________years.
I am in favour of uniform / personal clothing.
Why?

Signature:
Date:
After collecting data from all the 12 shops, I’ve calculated:
Number of male workers: 70
Young and junior workers: 51
Old and senior worker: 19
Young staff was in favour of wearing own dress. They like variety and colours.
They think they’II be more comfortable this way. Most of old and seniors staff
members don’t want any change and they think, they are used to it and uniform
will make them appear more disciplined.
Number of female workers: 27
Young and junior workers: 19
Old and seniors: 8
Almost all were in favour of the change.
They believe they’II appear more attractive. They’II have chance to wear a
variety and up-to-date fashioned clothes.
Just 3 females wanted uniform as they need not bother themselves to change
according to the fast changing trends in dresses.
According to the calculation, it is concluded that a big majority of the staff is in
favour of changing the routine of uniform and world like to wear their own
dresses.
Question No. 28 Summer-2007
You have been working for a large manufacturing firm dealing in consumer
goods. One year ago, your company opened a branch in Peshawar and you
were posted there as Branch Manager. After the completion of one year, the
Head Office wants you to submit a report on the performance of your branch for
that year.
Required:
Draft a performance report focusing on progress and achievements of the
branch. (You may assume necessary details).
Answer No. 28
29th May, 2007
To: Head Office Personnels
From: Peshawar Branch Manager
Subject: Progress and Achievements of the Branch During March 2006 –
May 2007
This has reference to your letter No: 725 in which I was asked to compile a
performance report focusing on progress and achievements of the branch.
Ours is a large manufacturing firm dealing in consumer goods. It has its branch
office in other seven cities of the country including Lahore. I have been enjoying
the honour of serving this prestigious firm for the last 5 years. I was serving at
the Lahore branch office as a marketing manager. I belong to Peshawar. In
January 2006, I was asked to study the possibilities and feasibility of opening a
new branch in Peshawar; to which I presented a report based upon facts and
figures. On the decision of the Head Office I was posted as branch manager to
Peshawar on March 03, 2006.
Here I give details of the steps I under took to promote the sale of our goods
and to earn the expected and desired profits:
➢ Effective and viable sales promotional policies were exercised. It included
publicity, advertising and public relationing.
➢ To meet the competition, first the prices were reduced but quality was
maintained. When the goods got popularity, a little revision of prices was
made but it did not affect the sales volume.
➢ Due to the personal knowledge about the creditor, 30% of the business is
done on credit and there is not a single evidence of bad debt in the record.
➢ Sales promoting tactics like pair pairing or pairing products with the most
selling products is done. This is how our products earned great popularity
and demand among the customers.
➢ It was calculated that within first five months, our branch showed 10%
increase in the profit and till April 2007, it has risen to 13%. In the year to
come we hope to promote it and achieve greater progress.
➢ I am sure, the report will show the satisfactory performance, progress and
achievement of the branch. If you have further queries, I’II be glad to
discuss any matter concerned.
Question No. 30 Winter -2006
A firm has secured the agencies of various products such as radios, cameras,
motorcycles etc., and wishers to sell these products on installment basis to the
local customers. You are appointed as a business development executive
authorised to investigate and report on the feasibility of opening branches or
appointing sub-agents in Pakistan
Required:
Write a convincing memo report to your boss expressing your views:
(i) regarding opening of branches.
(ii) on appointing sub-agents.
Answer No. 30
Company Name
Address
26 November, 2006

To: The Chief Executive

From: Business Development Executive
Subject: Expanding our Sales Market – Opening New Branches and
Appointing Sub-Agents
This report is submitted in response to your telephone instructions to the
undersigned to send you my findings on feasibility of opening new branches of
our company and appointing sub agents in Pakistan.
Introduction:
Our firm started its business in Lahore in October 2004. We have been selling
products on cash payments to customers and on convenient credit terms to
retailers.
Background:
With the fast inverse in prices of all commodities and with low incomes, it has
become hard for the buyers to buy the products. The products on one hand are
getting out of their reach and on the other hand the needs are extensively felt.
So to make products of daily use, within the reach of our customers, our firm
has decided to sell the products on installment basis. At the same time, to
enhance our business and the circle of sale, we are in dire need of opening
branches in different cities of Pakistan and to appoint sub-agents to promote
the sale.
Procedure:
The survey of busy commercial areas of the following cities have been made:
Faisalabad, Karongi, Peshawar, Gujranwala Multan, Bahawalpur, Gujrat and
Aboatabad. The demographics of the areas and the market trends were
calculated. Local customers of the related areas were interviewed.
Findings:
It has been found that a favourable market is available in all the mentioned
cities. The statistical data and the detailed information of the particular market
areas of all above mentioned cities have been enclosed.
Recommendations:
I therefore recommend that our firm will certainly do well if it opens its branches
and appoint sub-agents. I am confident that in all these areas, the business will
go very successful. It will trigger a network of our products’ sale all over the
country.
I’II be glad to discuss this matter fully with you if you so desire.
Question No. 31 Summer - 2006
A company after its expansion has been facing financial crunch due to mounting
bad debts. The top management is considering to make a sound policy of credit
sales. The bad debts have been fluctuating between 5 to 10% of net sales
bringing a sizable decline in the forthcoming revenue. As a result the company
has to borrow funds from financial institutions on hard terms.
Required:
Assume yourself as an internal auditor of the company, write a letter style report
on reasons of and remedy for increasing bad debts to be submitted to Finance
Manager. (Assume necessary facts and figures).
Answer No. 31
Finance Manger May 28, 2006
Star line Industries
73 – Iqbal Road
Sheikhupura
Dear Sir.
Subject: Reasons of and Remedies for Increasing Bad Debts
This report is submitted to your telephone instructions to the undersigned to
send you my findings on the above mentioned issue.
I have studied the problem thoroughly and found the following facts:
1. About four years age, our company, in order to beat the competition in the
market, had introduced relaxed credit terms. It, no doubt, increased the
sales rate at once but now it is suffering due to bad debt. It is an alarming
situation as the estimation shows that the bad debts have been fluctuating
between 5 to 10% of net sale bringing a decline in forthcoming revenue.
2. The company is facing a very critical situation as it has to borrow funds
from the banks on strictly hard terms.
Suggestions
1. Three-months-interest-free credit policy, that was introduced to increase
sale, should now be cancelled.
2. Credit period should be decreased from 8 months to 3 months.
3. Credit rating should be done strictly to evaluate the credit worthiness and
credibility of the buyers and firms buying on credit.
4. The cases of bad debts that are severe in nature should be handed over
to factoring agencies.
I am sure after following these suggestions the company will successfully come
out of this financial crunch.

Yours faithfully

Zohaib Raza
Internal Auditor
).
Answer No. 32(a)
The key to productive meeting is (1) careful planning of purpose, (2)
participants, (3) agenda and (4) location. The purpose behind is to bring the
right people together in the right place for just enough time to accomplish the
desired goals.
The above mentioned four aspects are discussed as under:
1. Determining the Purpose:
 The basic purpose of meeting is either to get information or to make a
decision. Many meetings comprise both purposes.
(a) Informational meetings:
The purpose of these meetings is that the participants can share
information and coordinate actions. These meetings may require
individual briefings by each participant or a speech by the leader
followed by queries from the attendees.
(b) Decision-making meetings:
The purpose of such meetings is mainly concerned with persuasion,
analysis, and problem solving. The often include a brainstorming
session that is followed by a debate on the alternatives.
2. Selecting the Participants
The number of participants should reflect the purpose of the meeting. The
numbers must be limited but all key people must be included.
3. Setting the Agenda:
Agenda is the item wise list of all the points to be discussed during a
meeting. Although the nature of a meeting may sometime prevent from
developing a fixed agenda, still at least a list of matters should be chalked
down. This list should be distributed to the participants several days
before the meeting. It is done to make them know ahead of time about the
purpose of the meeting and they would be ready to respond to the issue
at hand.
4. Preparing the Location:
The most appropriate time, the place, the physical setting and the
required aids (i.e. Audio, Visual aids) must be making a favourable setting
for a specific meeting.
.
Question No. 33 Summer - 2005
You are an officer in the Admin. Department of an oil company. The company
operates a subsidized cafeteria for its employees. However, it has been noticed
that employees are not too satisfied with the services provided in the cafeteria
land have started making alternative lunch arrangements. This is a matter of
concern for the management. You have been asked by the Admin Manager to
submit a report on this issue giving your findings, conclusion and
recommendations for improving the services. (Assume necessary
details)
Answer No. 33
May 24, 2006-07-02
The Admin Manager
Pak Oil Company Ltd.
Lahore.
Dear Sir,
Report on Unsatisfactory Services Provided in Cafeteria:
In accordance with your instructions to the undersigned, I have analysed the
whole situation and conducted a thorough enquiry to find out the reasons. My
findings are given below:
1. The cafeteria manager has hired the new staffs that is untrained. The
customers have to wait long for food to be served. The so called waiters
are just new to this work and they don’t even know how to take orders,
serve foods on the tables, set tables and attend on the customers. In some
cases, I saw that due to miscommunication, wrong food is served and the
orders get shuffled.
2. The quality of the food cooked is deterioted. It is not that was at the time
when the company subsidized the cafeteria. The menue is out dated, as
other cafeterias in the close vicinity are offering better options with a variety
of combinations. There is no difference in charges even.
3. This cafeteria started its services in December 2001. The furniture, the
curtains, table covers, crockery, even the framed pictures on the wall are
the same. This atmosphere is quite unpleasant for the customers.
4. The employees when find all things better at another places, they make
alternative arrangements for their lunch.
5. After interviewing the staff at cafeteria and the manager, I’ve concluded
that it is all due to saving expenditures of the cafeteria.
In view of my findings, I suggest that:
➢ The company should increase the budget for cafeteria as to make food
available to the customers at rates cheaper then those of other places and
pay the profit per food item to the owner of cafeteria.
➢ The profit earned would enable the cafeteria management improve the
standards in every aspect.
➢ A monitoring committee must be established that visit and inspect the
performance of cafeteria at a defined frequency of time like monthly or fort
nightly.
➢ Quality standards must be defined.

I may be sent up if you wish to have further discussion on any point mentioned
above.
Yours truly,
(Signature)
FaranSamad
Manager HR.
Question No. 34
(b) ABC Corporation, interested in the acquisition of a running business
concern, placed the matter before the shareholders for the final decision.
The opinion of the shareholders was divided and it was resolved that the
Director Finance should make an objective appraisal of the proposal and
send his report to the shareholders for study.
Required:
Write a letter form report assuming the role of Director Finance.
Answer No. 34(b)
Letterhead
Address
Gentlemen,
Reference to proposal 372/A to acquire business operations of XYZ Pvt. Ltd, a
manufacturing and distributing food products entity, the undersigned has
studied in detail the proposals and have made an objective appraisal. Findings
of the review are:
• XYZ [Link], is in the food product business for the last 20 years. Its
markets share is estimated to be 20% of the total market shares.
• Due to lesser technology advancement, the products are cheap and low
quality.
• Distribution network of XYZ [Link], is not strong due to scarce resources.
Based on above findings, conclusions and recommendations for acquisition of
[Link]. Ltd, are as under:
• Addition to 20% market base in our lot will not only reduce our competition
but will also give us a leading edge over our main competition.
• Our latest technical equipment will improve quality of acquired products.
• Improved quality of subject products will increase brand image amongst
consumers.
• Our economy of scale and large distribution network will help penetrate in
the market more systematically and assertively.
• I hope these recommendation will be helpful. If there are any points which
need further clarification, you are welcomed to discuss.
Question No. 36 Winter - 2003
Assume that you are the Manager of the Gulshan-e-Iqbal Branch of a Fast Food
Chain. Profits have been low in the past few years and this year you have barely
managed to break even. Write a short report to the Managing Director,
explaining the reasons behind this downward trend giving suggestions for a
turn-around. (Assume necessary details).
Answer No. 36
Foods & Foods
Gulshan-e-Iqbal
Karachi

To: Asif Naqvi, The Managing Director

From: R. A. Khan, Manager
Date: 23 December, 2004
Subject: Report on Decline in Profits
As desired in your memo No. 513 dated 14 December, 2004, I have studied the
problem of decline in profit. My observations and findings are as under:
Introduction:
Our restaurant which had earned a huge profit over last seven years has been
suffering a loss for the last three years. A minimum of 10% annual increase in
profit is the general yardstick against which businesses measure their
performance. Previous three year records exhibit that the annual profit rate was
running between 4 to 5%. The situation may get worse in the years to come.
Reasons:
(i) Severe Competition:
Ten years ago when our restaurant started it business, there was no other
fast food restaurant in this area. By the passage of time, the number of
restaurants on kept adding and at the same road, and there are seven
more restaurants. Now Customers find a great variety of foods. In our
restaurant, there is no change in the variety. Even the furniture the colour
scheme and sitting arrangement, etc. are all old fashioned. The
atmosphere doesn’t seem appealing for the customers.
(ii) Untrained Staff
 Most of newly-hired staff, as I noted down, is untrained. Their service is not
satisfactory. They don’t notice the need and requirement of the customers
and don’t put much efforts to entertain them.
(iii) Increase in the cost of Distribution
The salaries, commissions and other benefits do not match with the total
profit we are acquiring. The cost is on increase without bringing better
results.
Suggestions
i. The restaurant must be renovated and modernized.
Ii The quality and variety of the food should be improved.
iii Some effects should be put for the publicity of the changes project.
iv Efficient and trained staff must be hired.
v The management must take active part to check the efficiency of the staff.
vi The customers must be given some attractive packages.
I am sure after following these recommendation, our restaurant will obtain the
goal of attracting more customers and earning great profit.

Set 11

Meetings

• Meeting

A meeting is a purposeful discussion between two or more people.

A meeting is when two or more people come together to discuss one

or more topics, often in a formal or business setting,
but meetings also occur in a variety of other environments.

Meetings range between the more formal board meetings and annual general
meetings with shareholders to much more informal team meetings, problem
solving and brainstorming meetings. Delegates need to be conscious of
adopting the appropriate style and tone depending on the type of meeting.
Types of meetings

Informational meetings: These meetings clarify the topic under

discussion and provide information. In such meetings participants learn, ask
questions and try to understand the information being provided. Here
problems are not solved, no recommendations are made. Participants attend
these meetings with the sole objective of being informed and assimilate the
information. e.g. announcement of new mission statement.
Suggested solution meetings: Here the core purpose is to find
suggested solution to some core issue. Recommendations are sought for and
comments are made on the options recommended. Often no decision is
made, meeting tends to remain explanatory and informational. A final
suggested solution is worked out and forwarded for approval either from
higher authorities or is kept for overall group’s consensus.

Problem-solving meetings: The purpose of these meetings is to work out

some solution. The problem is presented, then suggested solutions are
gathered, these recommendations are evaluated and then final decision is
made for further action.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE GROUP

OR

Stages in problem solving meetings

You probably have had experience of being put into a group of people you do
not know. Many groups are set-up this way and it takes some time for the
team to become effective.

1. Forming

The group is just coming together. Each member wishes to impress his/her
personality on the group. The individuals will be trying to find out about cash
other and about the aims and norms of the group. The objectives being
pursued may as yet be unclear and a leader may not yet have emerged. At
this stage, there will be awareness about introducing new ideas.

2. Storming
This involves open conflict between group members. There may be changes
agreed in the original objectives, procedures and norms. This is a fruitful
phase as more realistic targets are set and trust between the group members
increases.

3. Norming

When a team enters the norming state, team members adjust their behaviour
to each other and agree on how to work together. A period of settling down;
there will be agreements about work sharing, individual requirements and
expectations of output. Norms and procedures may evolve which enable
methodical working to be introduced and maintained.

4. Performing

The group sets to work to execute its task. The difficulties of growth and
development no longer hinder the group’s objectives.

Documents of a meeting:

Notice

Agenda

Minutes

Definition: Agenda
A list of items to be discussed at a formal meeting

In the business environment an agenda is used to communicate the items to

be discussed at a formal meeting.

The order of the agenda specifies the order in which topics are to be
addressed.
Responsibilities can be assigned to individuals to specify what people are
expected to contribute. It is good practice to get participants’ confirmation that
they acknowledge (and agree) their responsibilities.

Agendas should be agreed and circulated to all participants in advance of the

meeting allowing sufficient time for participants to prepare for the meeting.

3.2 Layout and contents of an agenda

The contents of an agenda for a formal meeting would include the following:

Title, date, time and place of the meeting;

Purpose of the meeting;

Minutes of the previous meeting (see previous section):

Are they accurate? In very formal meetings there is a vote cast to either
accept or reject the minutes of the previous meeting as being an accurate
record (or not) of proceedings; and

Matters arising from the last meeting – how any action points or outstanding
issues have been resolved.

Apologies for absence – participants who know in advance that they will be
unable to attend a meeting should apologise in advance for their absence.
These apologies are communicated at the meeting and recorded in the
minutes.

Main body – for example for a monthly audit team meeting this might
include:

Changes in personnel;

Update on key clients and current projects;

Brief review of performance for the month – targets, billable hours etc.; and

Summary of technical audit updates this month.

Any other business – for example social and philanthropic topics or

corporate messages from management;

Date of next meeting;

 Agenda

Team meeting
Main conference room
Monday 5 July 20XX 08:00-09:00

Purpose of the meeting: Monthly client review

Chairperson: Mr. ShayanAftab

Agenda

1. Minutes of the prior meeting

2. Apologies
3. Summary of last month’s performance – Masood
4. New client review – Tufail
5. Watch list review – Salim
6. New computer system – Yasir
7. Any other business
8. Date of next meeting: Monday 2 August 20XX 08:00-09:00

Definition: Notice of a meeting

A notice is a written call to a meeting

A notice of a meeting is an official communication that invites the

recipient to the meeting to be held at some point in the future.

Notices of meetings should be sent to the prospective attendees

sufficiently far in advance to ensure all required attendees will be able to
attend. The period of time before the meeting occurs when the notice is
distributed is called the notice period.

*Notice distributes……………notice period………….. *Meeting time

The minimum notice period for formal meetings such as shareholder

meetings, Directors meetings and the annual general meeting is often
stated in law or the company’s own rules of operation.

The notice of a meeting will include either a summary or detailed version

of the agenda.
 Notice of the Annual General Meeting
APCI Lahore Ltd.

Notice of Annual General Meeting 20XX

Notice is hereby given that the 20XX annual general meeting of the
company will be held at [address] on [date] at [time].

The agenda for the annual general meeting is as follows:

Agenda
1. To receive the report of the directors and the accounts for the year ended
20XX
2. To accept the proposed directors remuneration package for the next year
3. To re-elect the following directors who offer themselves for re-election as
directors
3.1 Director 1
3.2 Director 2
3.3 Director 3
4. To re-appoint [auditor name] as the company’s auditors until the
conclusion of the next annual general meeting
5. To declare a final dividend of [amount] per ordinary share to be paid on
[date] to those shareholders on the register of members as at [date]
6. Any other business

By order of the board

[Signature of the company secretary]
Dated [date]
Registered office address
Minutes
Minutes are a formal record of the facts of a meeting.

The reasons why they are prepared are:

to form the basis of discussion at the next meeting;

to inform those who could not attend what was discussed;

as a reminder to those present what was discussed; and

to remind everyone of the action points that were agreed – by whom

and by when.
Minutes should be taken at both internal and external meetings. Follow
the golden rule that if it is worth holding a meeting, it is worth writing
minutes!

Structure

The structure of the minutes should include the following:

Name – e.g. board meeting, team meeting, client liaison meeting;

Purpose;

Location, time and date;

Names of:

the chair person;

attendees (list in order of priority, most senior first); and

absent attendees who have sent their “apologies for absence”.

Whether a voting quorum was present (for formal meetings);

Whether minutes from a previous meeting were approved and where

necessary corrected;

Topics discussed and points made:

Note – for formal meetings such as a shareholder or board meeting

this should not include judgments, criticism, accolades or general
discussions but rather the formal motions passed and formal reports
delivered.

Minutes of less formal meetings might, however, make reasonable

reference to the above.

Decisions made;

Actions agreed including who is responsible for each action and when
it must be completed by; and

For formal meetings the Secretary or Chair person should sign the
minutes of the previous meeting once they have been approved.
Writing effective minutes

Challenges

Some common problems include:

How to actually take the minutes during the meeting

What style to adopt

How much information to include

How to lay them out

To help address these problems you should answer the following

questions:

When are the minutes needed by

Who they will need sending to

What level of detail should be included

This will depend on the type of meeting

The more formal a meeting (e.g. legal proceedings) the greater the
level of detail that will be required in order to protect all participants and
comply with formal rules of the meeting

For an informal meeting, summaries or a simple list of action points

may well be sufficient – e.g. for an internal meeting or small informal
client meeting.

The minute-taker

The minute-taker is the person responsible for recording the minutes.

This will involve:

recording attendance – it will help if you know in advance who is

supposed to be attending

writing notes during the meeting – this becomes more difficult if you
are to be part of the meeting discussions too. Plan in advance exactly
how you are going to do this. Techniques include:
 use shorthand, or at least lots of acronyms

make lots of rough notes – don’t write sentences

use a bound notebook so pages do not get out of order

use a tape recorder – check attendees do not mind being recorded if

you do

split the page into three columns: Speaker / Item / Action

pencils are less messy than pens

writing minutes as soon as possible after the meeting

getting the minutes approved (for a formal meeting) –with an informal

meeting you should still always have the minutes reviewed by another
(senior) colleague prior to circulating them.

circulating the minutes

Some of the common problems the minute-taker might face include:

people speaking too quietly or quickly – ask the chair to summarise

what they have said

the chair not following the agenda – double check with the chair if this
happens and remember that the minutes should follow the order of the
meeting rather than the agenda (if different)

distractions such as traffic, phones and interruptions – pre-empt this

by ensuring an appropriate location has been found and asking for
phones to be switched off

being involved in the meeting as well as tasked with writing the

minutes – if it will be impossible to do both effectively then someone
else should take the minutes

meeting moves to the next point before you have finished taking notes
– ask the chair to summarise, or sit next to someone who can help

Tips for writing effective minutes

As with letters, memos and reports, think ‘Big you, little me’ when
writing the minutes. Once again the reader of the minutes is the most
important person – if they cannot understand the minutes then they are
worthless.

With the minutes of a meeting being the official and permanent record
they must be:

Accurate

Be definite about facts and figures – times, dates, values etc.

If you do not understand something or cannot quite remember

something, ask a colleague for help

When referring to something someone said ensure you convey the

tone in which it was originally said. For example: Expression Impression
it gives

Minutes of a meeting

A number of different types of minutes can be used:

1. Action Minutes

Action Minutes represent future tasks that are agreed and

committed to during a meeting. As people subsequently
complete action items, the items are documented as
having been completed and the item removed from the list
of outstanding actions.

Minutes of action items should include brief details of the

action agreed, who is responsible for the action, and the
time/date by which the action should be completed.

2. Resolution minutes (also called ‘decision minutes’)

Resolution minutes record decisions reached, for example

to record the results of a vote to accept the re-appointment
of the external auditors.
3. Narrative minutes

Narrative minutes provide a record of the decision-making

process

Additional Reading

Formal Meetings
In larger organisations formal meetings are usually held at regular intervals and
are conducted by the groups elected officers. The major officers are:
• President.
• Vice President.
• Recording Secretary (responsible for minutes).
• Corresponding Secretary (responsible for sending and receiving and
sending correspondence on behalf of the organisation).
• Treasurer.
Formal meetings follow strict parliamentary procedure, which is a set of rules
for conducting meetings.
Informal Meetings
Informal meetings, such as committee meetings, are held, as they are needed.
These meetings follow a discussion format, with one person serving as co-
ordinator or discussion leader and someone serving as recorder.
PURPOSES & KINDS OF MEETING
Informational Meetings
Informational meetings seek only to clarify, to make something clear, to give
information. In such meetings, the members learn, ask and understand various
questions. No problems are solved and no recommendations are given. The
basic purpose of such meetings is to inform the participants and make them
understand that particular information.
Examples:
• Changes in reporting procedures in the purchasing department.
• Report on the company’s strategic plans for the next fiscal year.
• Retirement planning for those over the age of 50.
Suggestion Giving Meetings
In this type of meeting, various preliminary views prior to the final
recommendation are brought together and discussed. In short, all the
suggestions to solve a particular problem are collectively discussed in the
meeting and comments on different suggestions are made. The meeting is
exploratory and informational. In the end, a final recommendation is prepared
either for higher approval or group consensus.
Problem-Solving Meetings
These meetings as evident from the name are used to solve the problems
generated from previous meetings. The steps involved include:
1. The major problem is presented early in the meeting.
2. Participants suggest solutions, discussing and evaluating them.
3. Participants arrive at a decision for further action.
METHODS OF SOLVING PROBLEMS IN MEETINGS
The following approaches are used to solve problems in meetings.
1. INTUITION – It refers to rapid insight to the problem.
2. RATIONALISATION – justification of the solution over a certain period of
time.
3. REFLECTIVE THINKING – logical progression to arrive at a particular
answer.
The last approach is most often used in business. Four steps involved in
Problem Solving Meetings are:
• BACKGROUND ANALYSIS
• DISCOVERY OF SOLUTION
• EVALUATION OF SOLUTION
• IMPLEMENTATION OF SOLUTION
Background Analysis
First, state the problem or question in an affirmative tone, because negative
wordings create anxiety and could imply a preliminary judgement.
 E.g. NEGATIVE PREFERRED AFFIRMATIVE
WORDING WORDING
Which kinds of in which related businesses should
business should we we Consider expansion?
avoid?
The next step is to define and limit the problem. As in the example above;
By related business we mean only those which have at least 50% relationship
to our manufacturing process.
Then, collect facts on the history of the problem, by analysing questions such
as for:
• How long the problem existed?
• The symptoms of the problem?
• The extent of the problem?
• The possible causes and effects of the problem?
• How do other companies handle the problem?
The background material gained will form a basis for the discovery of the right
solution.
Discovery of Solution
A definite criteria for the solution must be set up. The criteria place each
participant on the same platform; otherwise each participant may assess
solutions using their own criteria. Some criteria may change during the course
of a meeting. However, different weights may be assigned to them.
The next step is to allow the participants interested in solving a problem, to
present their ideas without any prejudice, hindrance or criticism. After everyone
has presented their views, a list is made and amended according to the defined
criteria.
Evaluation of Solution
The next step, involved is to evaluate all the suggestions in light of the
established criteria. During this process you explore every aspect of the
proposed solution and check for its viability. Finally, a consensus, or a formal
vote is conducted to determine which solution is to be accepted.
Implementation of Solution
In the last stage, before implementation of the proposed solution certain factors
are kept in mind, these include costs of implementation, Period of
implementation, Review at various intervals, and other similar requirements.
LEADERSHIP RESPONSIBILITIES IN MEETINGS
The meeting leader must focus the energy and attention of participants and
keep them moving toward the meeting’s objectives.
Before The Meeting
• Determine the meeting’s objectives.
• Work out an agenda that will achieve your objectives.
• Decide on who should participate.
• Select participants.
• Arrange date, time and place for the meeting.
• Arrange for light refreshments, if appropriate.
• Determine seating requirements.
• Distribute Notice/Announcement for the meeting.
During The Meeting
• Begin and end the meeting on time.
• Begin with an opening statement.
• Control the meeting by following the announced agenda.
• Encourage full participation by involving all members in the discussion.
• Encourage members to evaluate all options before making a decision.
• Interpret data for solution & evaluation.
• State individual’s responsible for specific actions
• Indicate the time by which a task is to be completed.
• Sum up decisions, actions and recommendations as you move through
your agenda and restate main points in the end.
• Thank all the participants for their presence and help.
After The Meeting
• Distribute the meeting’s notes or minutes on a timely basis.
• Take the follow-up action agreed to.
PARTICIPANT’S RESPONSIBILITIES IN MEETINGS
Everyone is a meeting participant at one time or another. An effective meeting
depends on productive participants. As a participant, you are in a position to
make a significant contribution to the success of meeting you attend. All you
need is a tactful way to ask questions and offer suggestions.
A productive participant does the following things.
Before The Meeting
• Collect relevant information.
• Check your data.
• Confirm your conclusions.
• Be on time.
During The Meeting
• Tactfully, bring back the group to the central topic if the group wanders
away.
• Clarify, ask a question, if the issue is not clear.
• Contribute by giving accepted facts and opinions.
• Try to keep the discussion moving, by keeping persons interested and
motivated.
• Tactfully suggest new ideas containing correct information.
• Try to avoid deadlocks, by suggesting possible compromises.
• Help others, invite participation and ask for contributions from those who
are more silent.
After The Meeting
• Fulfil the responsibilities placed upon him.
PURPOSE OF MEETING
The first consideration when planning a meeting is whether or not one is
required. Whether or not to hold a meeting should start with a statement of
objectives. What is the end result you expect to achieve through a meeting? Is
a meeting the best way to achieve this objective?
Examples of Meeting Objectives
• To inform our department of changes in the holiday pay policy.
• To decide the best way to solve the Chamber of Commerce budget deficit.
• To determine realistic sales goals for each district based on the company’s
overall sales goals for next year.
With the objectives clearly stated, you can then determine the best way to
achieve them. It may turn out that a meeting is appropriate. Or, it may turn out
that a memorandum, bulletin board posting, or series of phone calls would be a
better means of conveying information.
MEETING NOTICES
Meetings may be called on short notice, depending on the urgency and the
number of attendees and their accessibility; or they may be set well in advance
to stimulate attendance and to allow preparation time.
Attendees may be notified in advance of the meeting by a written notice or
through their computer’s electronic mail system. For especially important
meetings, a reminder may follow a notice a few days before the meeting.
The meeting notice and reminder should contain the:
• Day and date of the meeting.
• Time of the meeting.
• Place meeting will be held.
• Purpose of the meeting or an agenda.
• Any other applicable information such as material to bring.
Notices and reminders may be in the form of:
• An announcement.
• A letter.
• A memo.
• A postcard.
• A meeting request on an electronic mail system.

Set 12
Filler Topics you need to study Part A

1. Paralanguage

Definition: Paralanguage
 Paralanguage describes the vocal yet non-verbal part of communication.
Variances in speed, tone, volume, voice and stress on words can convey different
meanings to the recipients in spite of using the same words.

2. Communication media

Different situations will lend themselves to a different choice of communication medium. The types
of medium include:

Medium When most appropriate

Telephone
Ideal for most informal and some formal communication.

Teleconference
When more than two individuals in remote locations need to share a
telephone conversation.
Often used for internal communication (common) and sometimes for
external communication too (less common).

Fax
Copies of documents need sending to a different physical location.
Note that faxes have largely been superseded by the sending of emails
with electronic copies of the documents attached.

Letter
Formal external communication that requires an audit trail (proof).

Advertisement
Designed primarily for external individuals and groups.

Videoconference
An upgraded version of teleconferencing that includes vision with the
voice.
Frequently used for internal meetings between groups of employees in
remote locations.

Drawings, graphs and

charts Used to enhance information and make complicated information easier
to understand.
Typically used as part of another medium – e.g. reports or presentation.

Face-to-face
Appropriate to a multitude of situations occurring both internally and
externally, formally and informally.
Examples might include a formal internal employee appraisal or an
informal external client meeting.

Memoranda
Normally restricted to internal use for disseminating infromation to staff
by memo.
 Financial documents
These documents can include both internal (e.g. forecasts and analyses
for assisting with purchasing and sales strategies) and external (e.g.
annual report and accounts, or business plan for a bank loan application).

E-mail
E-mail is widely used (arguably over-used
leading to ‘drowning in email’!)
throughout organisations both internally and externally, formally and
informally.
Often used internally for ‘posting’ information such as instruction
manuals and policies and procedures.
Could also be adopted for external use for keeping customers up-to-date
with product offerings, technical updates and other company information.

3. Improving communication in an organization

To improve the employees’ ability to communicate more effectively in a business environment we

can very briefly introduce some key strategies here for improving business communication:

Encourage, facilitate and reward effective communication through the appraisal system.

Provide training and guidance in effective communication

Minimise potential for misunderstanding by embedding guidelines and expected best practice
within a firm’s policies and procedures.

Adopt technology, systems and procedures that reflect current best practice and keep the
business up-to-date.

Manage conflict and politics both internally and externally

Establish communications channels and mechanisms again within a firm’s policies and
procedures. Ensure these are communicated to staff in a timely and effective manner.

4. An organisation may be considered as an information processing system

An organisation may be considered as an information processing system that collects and screens
information, processes it, deduces it, transforms it and finally acts upon it. Information within an
organisation flows through regular patterns of person-to-person interactions. Organisations develop
structured communication channels, in which individuals occupy responsible positions for effective
communication process. The flow of information is organised, managed and controlled

5. Systems of communication
There are two key systems of communication:

Internal: Internal communication links the day-to-day operations in a business entity. This type of
communication occurs within the same organisation, i.e. between or among officials and employees
of the same organisation.

External: External communication or exchange of information and messages takes place

between organisations and the individuals outside its formal structure.

6. Organizations and stakeholders

Introduction

The effectiveness of an organisation depends to a large extent on the effectiveness of

communication by its managers and employees.

What is an organisation?

Definition: Organisation

An organisation is a social arrangement for the controlled performance of

collective goals that has a boundary separating it from its environment.

For example a car manufacturer, a grocery store and a golf club.

7. Definition: Stakeholder

A stakeholder is a person, group or organisation that has a stake in the organisation – i.e. an
interest to protect in respect of what the organisation does and how it performs.

Understanding who the stakeholders are and what motivates them is another important contextual
perspective in promoting effective communication.

For example one particular stakeholder may not be motivated by saving money but rather achieving
a 99.9% safety critical service (e.g. when buying an emergency fire alarm system). In this case we
should ensure that communication appropriately reflects the importance of the safety critical
objective. Therefore when marketing the fire alarm system the focus should be on safety features
and saving lives rather than low cost and bargains.

The table below identifies common stakeholders and the interests that they have at stake

Stakeholder What is at stake?

Shareholders Funds invested

Directors, managers, employees and Livelihoods, careers and reputations

trade unions
 Customers Their custom, continued supply of
goods, replacement parts and after-
sales service
Suppliers and other business partners The items they supply, continued sales
Lenders (e.g. banks) The capital and interest that needs to be
repaid
Government and its agencies National infrastructure, employee
welfare, tax
Local community and public at large National infrastructure, employee
welfare, social sustainability and
corporate responsibility
Natural environment The environment shared by all

8. Information is the need of organisations

As we saw in the previous section organisations must be aware of a broad range of stakeholders
each of whom has differing (and often competing) objectives.
This ultimately manifests with organisations forming key strategies covering:
Finance – raising capital to run the organisation
Investment – where to invest the capital – people, machines, new factories
Human resources and material resources
Competitive – how to compete – e.g. highest quality (premium), lowest cost (bargain), mass
market or specialist, which countries

Each organization has a unique mission and objective.

ICMAP Mission statement:

To develop Business Leaders through imparting quality education and training in financial and non-
financial areas to bring value-addition in the economy

Emirites Airlines Mission statement

to deliver the world's best in flight experience

Oxford University Mission statement

The advancement of learning by teaching and research and its dissemination by every means

Once the leaders of the organisation (e.g. the directors of a business, or board of trustees in a not-
for-profit organisation) have agreed the mission and objectives of the organisation:

1. The leadership team must communicate the objectives and strategies across the organisation.
2. Subsequent communications within and external to the organisation should always be
appropriate in the context of those organisational objectives whilst accounting for the needs of the
various stakeholders.

The above model creates an organisational landscape that gives credibility, justifiability,
accountability and a benchmark against which organisational communication can be measured.
9. Financial Systems

Fundamentally the organisation will need financial systems containing information that needs to be
shared and communicated to support:

Planning – resource and timing

Control – has the implementation proceeded as planned?
Recording transactions – evidence in a dispute, legal requirements (accounting and audit),
profitability assessment, analysis of the efficiency of labour utilisation
Performance measurement – comparison of actual versus planned;
Decision making – a basis for informed decisions

Financial information

Financial information is critical to the operation of virtually all organisations. Information is needed at
varying degrees of aggregation for varying levels of users covering elements such as revenue,
costs and capital.

Good financial information embedded in communication should demonstrate the following

fundamental characteristics:

Relevant – i.e. it will impact decisions by either helping forecast the future or confirming past
activity

Complete (as above)

Neutral – i.e. unbiased

Free from material error

10. Levels of information

There are three broad levels at which messages are communicated:

Level Impact

Strategic Long-term decision making e.g. 3-5

year plan including opening a new
factory in

3 years-time.
 Tactical Short-term issues and opportunities
e.g. 1 year plan including switching a
key supplier in 6 months-time.

Operational Day to day activities e.g. weekly

ordering of new supplies.

11. Factors that contribute to how valuable information is when communicated include:

Its source

Ease of assimilation

Accessibility

Relevance

Further to the above the sender should always check that information included in communications
has the following qualities:

Quality Explanation

Accurate State any assumptions and be careful when rounding.

Complete Include everything that the recipient needs for a complete

picture.

Cost-beneficial The benefit from collating and communicating the

message must be greater than the cost.

User-targeted Consider the needs of the user.

Relevant Omit irrelevant information however ‘interesting’ it may

be. Extra information simply dilutes the key message that
the sender is attempting to send.

Authoritative Information should come from a reliable source.

Timely No matter how accurate or perfect information may

appear to be its use is limited to the time that the recipient
can use it. Therefore be aware of the decay associated
with the usefulness of information over time.
 Easy to use Consider the presentation and length of the
communication.

12. Sources of information

Information can originate from numerous different sources which might include the following:

Source Examples

Internal Accounting records, HR and payroll records,

operations and production systems, timesheets and
staff themselves.

External Tax specialists, new legislation, the internet,

newspapers, television, suppliers and customer
correspondence, the government and information
bureaus such as Reuters and Bloomberg.

13. Goals of business communication

Effective communication at work is the exchange of information that individuals need to do their
work properly. As we have already established, communication needs to be clear (understandable),
relevant, reliable and timely.

Effective communication is essential so that:

Instructions and guidelines are properly understood.

Individuals know what they are expected to do.

There is better co-ordination between people and groups in the organisation.

Managers are able to plan and control operations more effectively.

Individuals are more willing to work together in teams or groups because they are being told what
is happening and where their contribution fits in.

Secrecy, misunderstanding and mistrust are eliminated. Open communication increases trust.

Arguments and conflicts in the work place are reduced.

Example Scenario:

Company: Zing limited

Tahira sends an email to Uzma as follows:

“Hi Uzma,

Please can you prepare a cash-flow* forecast for Zing limited?

Thanks,

Tahira”

*the total amount of money being transferred into and out of a business

business communication flaws in the above example:

There is no request for feedback

There is no context to justify why the forecast is required

No deadline has been given

The exact parameters of the forecast were not communicated such as the level of detail
required and any assumptions that should be embedded

So to achieve the goal of the communication a more effective message may have been
written as given below:

“Hi Uzma,

Kindly prepare a monthly cash-flow forecast for the next 12 months for Zing limited in the
same format as that of the budget.

We need to review this internally on Thursday ahead of the client meeting we have next
Tuesday.

Please use the following assumptions:

Sales growth 5%

Bank interest 6.25%

Employee bonus 10% of base

All other costs in line with budget

 Please let me know if this makes sense and is also achievable.

Thanks,

Tahira”

14. More about Formal and informal communication

Information is exchanged in two ways – formally and informally.

Formal communication is passed through official ‘channels’ established by the organisation.

Examples of formal communication are reports and instructions by a manager to a subordinate
such as organisation charts, manuals and job descriptions. Formal communication passes through
the formal management structure and ‘chain of command’. Individuals receive and give information
because of their position in the organisation.

Informal communication is communication between individuals in an organisation that does not

pass through an official channel. Instead the information is passed by individuals in general
conversation, sometimes as gossip or as rumor. Often informal communication passes as unofficial
e-mails between colleagues. This is called the grapevine.

Example: AGEM Company

AGEM Company dismisses its finance director on Monday. It makes a formal
announcement to staff about the dismissal on Friday of the same week. However,
most people had already heard about the dismissal.

In this example the informal communication system has operated more quickly than the formal
communication.

If it is accurate it is therefore more efficient. Unfortunately, informal communication can be

inaccurate and potentially, incredibly harmful.

Comparison of formal and informal communication

All organisations rely on a mixture of formal and informal communication to operate effectively.
Arguably, formal patterns of communication are always supplemented by informal patterns.

Formal information is often slow in arriving. Organisations therefore often rely on informal
communication for the transmission of information when the formal system is slow and
bureaucratic, or where senior managers are autocratic and do not believe in sharing information
with subordinates.
Informal information usually passes between individuals very quickly. A problem with informal
information is that management has no control over it. They control formal communication channels
but not informal communication. With informal information it is sometimes a matter of chance who
gets the information and who does not; some individuals might be totally ignorant of what most of
their colleagues already know.

Furthermore, informal communication may be malicious and at least in part, inaccurate (or at worst,
completely speculative).

In an effective organisation, there should usually be an efficient formal communication system so

that accurate information is passed in good time to everyone who needs it. When formal
communication is reliable, relevant and timely, employees will trust it.

However, even with the most efficient formal communication system, informal communication
systems always exist. People talk to each other unofficially and socially; they exchange stories,
rumours, gossip and so on, plus they do not always communicate with each other in their ‘official
capacity’. Even in their work, individuals often prefer to communicate informally, in face-to-face
conversations, or by telephone or e-mail, rather than by more formal methods such as memos and
reports.

15. Networks of middle managers

One area where formal and informal communication models blend into one is networks. A network
is a group of managers, for example middle managers, whose daily roles involve the
implementation of corporate plans, strategies and tactics. These managers are decision makers.

Networks typically exist to identify problems and share information and experience across an
organisation using both formal and informal communication.

16. INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES

ICT stands for “information and communication technologies’. This refers to technologies that
provide access to information through telecommunications.

ICT is similar to IT (information technology) but with a primary focus on communication

technologies such as cell phones, wireless networks and the Internet.

In recent years the world has become irreversibly reliant on ICT for conducting both personal and
business activities. Significant developments that have driven this reliance on ICT include:

Increased bandwidth – the amount of information that can be communicated at any one time
continues to grow rapidly.

Sophistication and versatility of technologies –multi-use technologies are becoming main-stream

in many markets. Examples include tablet computers that can be used as telephones, smartphones
with built-in cameras that can be used for video-conferencing and hands-free communications
available in most vehicles.

New business models – for example:

1. Off-shoring helpdesks - the improvement in technological capability combined with reduced cost
of telecommunications and local labour costs has seen a trend in traditional home-country based
telephone help-desks being moved offshore to east European and central Asian locations.

2. Growth of automated call-answering. A number of menu and sub-menu options are offered which
are then accessed through the telephone keypad. As a last resort the caller is connected to a live
person.

3. Supporters of this system say that it saves costs and filters high volume of callers so that firms
can focus on providing real help efficiently to those who genuinely need it.

(However, others say that the initiative alienates and frustrates customers to the extent that some
custom is actually lost.)

E-commerce – Developments in ICT including speed, bandwidth, security and accessibility have
meant that the world is genuinely becoming a global market-place which changes the way
businesses compete.

Challenges

Despite the trends described above a number of challenges remain that limit the use of ICT in
communications:

Both personal and business expense may be prohibitively high to keep pace with rapidly
changing technologies. This relates to both initial purchase and subsequent development and
maintenance costs.

People and customers may simply prefer face-to-face communication.

People and businesses may lack the necessary skills and knowledge about what to buy and how
to use it.

The strength and quality of Internet connections varies substantially around the world.

Significant (and justifiable) concerns exist around trust and security. This relates both to the loss
of money as well as confidential data.

Set 13
Filler Topics you need to study Part B

.
1 business messages

Business messages are distinguishable from social communications between friends through a
number of characteristics including:

Lack of spontaneity (deliberation)

Impersonality

Formality
 Brevity (short)

There are a number of key elements for their style:

Authority – the formal tone demonstrates a respect of superiors and acknowledges the reporting
hierarchy within an organisation;

Objectivity – the organisation must appear impartial, particularly when dealing with sensitive
issues;

Regulation – organisations often need to formally word and carefully plan communications to
avoid misunderstanding as they are constrained by legal and regulatory requirements such as when
contracting with customers or employees;

Effectiveness – business communications are more likely to convey the message effectively
when targeted and brief rather than excessive or inappropriate;

Efficiency – succinct and focused messages avoid wasted time for both sender and receiver;

Public relations – it is important for organisations to maintain an appropriate corporate image and
communicate externally in a style regarded as business-like, respectful, impersonal and consistent.

2 Planning a business message

Many organisations, particularly larger organisations, will have a suite of standardised ‘house style’
template documents. However, there will still be circumstances when employees need to use
significant judgment when creating truly original business communications.

Where possible it helps to plan the communication. This is easier for written messages which can
be drafted and re-drafted before a final version is sent. Spoken communication lends itself less well
to such careful planning although it is still possible.

The four key elements of communication planning are:

1. Objectives – what are you trying to achieve

2. Audience – consider situations specific to the audience that may impact how they interpret the
message

[Link] – consider the content – order, format and emphasis

[Link] – given the audience factor, what language, sentence structure and visual aids will best
achieve the purpose of the message

1. Objectives

The general purpose of most business communications:

to build a relationship – mutual trust, respect and loyalty;

 to confirm

to request

to persuade

to inform

Example: A letter of complaint

Yasmeen recently purchased a food blender which unfortunately broke after only one week. She
wishes to communicate with the supplier to achieve the following objectives:

Receive a replacement food blender

Receive an explanation of how the fault occurred and assurance it will not reoccur

Be compensated for the cost of returning the blender and her inconvenience

When planning the communication Yasmeen will need to factor in the following objectives:

Inform the supplier of the faulty blender

Persuade them that she has a legitimate claim

Request redress

Business communications will always have at least one primary objective but may also include a
number of secondary objectives.

Example: Advertising a chocolate bar

The primary objective is to persuade consumers to purchase your company’s chocolate bar.
However, the secondary objectives are:

A. to convince the consumer they need a chocolate bar; and

B. to convince the consumer that your brand is the one they should buy.

Each of these objectives could be broken down into further objectives:

A. i. The consumer is hungry and lacks energy; and

ii. Buying a chocolate bar would boost energy and satisfy the hunger.

B. i. Demonstrate that the advertiser has experience in judging taste – e.g. share results of a
laboratory test or a consumer ‘taste test’; and

ii. Associate the advertiser’s chocolate bar with value for money, trend and providing energy.

[Link]
As the sender of a business message you want to ensure that your message is received,
understood and acted upon, if necessary, having connected with the receiver’s motives and
expectations.

You should also consider personal factors such as:

Relationship – are you a known and trusted colleague or is the relationship more distant and
formal? Also consider where in the reporting hierarchy the recipient sits.

background (profession, experience, knowledge and skills) – specialists are likely to respond
better to the use of technical jargon.

Education

Attitudes and interests

Age – remember that people’s attitudes vary with age and experience.

Contextual factors to consider include both physical and psychological factors:

Physical contextual factors

Place facilities atmosphere etc

Faults in the communication medium – Background noise – Distractions –

Psychological factors

Preoccupations and very busy schedule

Pressures and stress –

The need for privacy and sensitivity with confidential and potentially embarrassing messages.

Will the presence of others impact the recipient –

Concentration and energy levels –

Structure

Structuring a message involves deciding what you are going to say and how you say it. Key
considerations include:

Volume

Only include relevant (but enough!) information.

For large communications (e.g. a report):

Keep the main body of the communication short and to-the-point.

 Include supporting data and examples (such as director’s CVs, or detailed financial statement
extracts) as an appendix.

Split the main body of the communication into logical units

Use frequent headings and summaries.

Selection and grouping of material (relevance and importance)

The primary message for the communication will be the point that directly furthers the objective of
the communication and stands alone as a point on its own.

Analyse a topic into sub-topics

Classify ideas and group them into logical categories.

Ordering the message

Remember clear message which shows a logical progression of ideas in a balanced fashion.
Consider the following:

If you need to deliver both good news and bad news always start with the good news. This places
the recipient in a more amenable state of mind for receiving the bad news.

Chronological (time/date).

Importance (descending order) or ascending order)

Style

Communication style can be described as using the right words in the right order to achieve your
message objective.

Selection of Media and channels according to situations

Within the business context there are a number of key factors that will drive the most appropriate
selection of media and channel:

Factor Considerations
Time Urgency and time available to prepare
and transmit

Complexity Use of diagrams and combination of

media

Written record Consider the need for an audit trail

Sensitivity How would a letter be received

compared to face to face discussion,
particularly when delivering bad news

Cost Employee time is expensive

 Interaction Is there a need for instant feedback and
spontaneity?

3. Humour

Be careful when employing humour within a message. On the positive side it can increase
attention and awareness and also gain acceptance by bringing the ‘human touch’ to an argument.
On the negative side it may distract attention from the main message, may not appeal to all cultures
and moods and may also undermine credibility (seriousness).

4. Oral and face to face communication

The benefits of effective face to face communication include the generation of new ideas, instant
feedback and exchange of views, co-operation and the rapid dissemination of information.
However, for it to work people need to know the reason for the discussion, actually be able to
communicate and also have the discussion effectively led.

Listening skills, presentation and body language all impact on face to face communication,
particularly between unfamiliar people. Good listeners demonstrate the following:

Retain an open mind avoiding bias and judgment.

They try to avoid distractions and are aware that attention is typically greatest at the start and end
of discussions.

They are interested and make an effort.

Have a radar for picking up the main ideas by distinguishing between supporting evidence and
the key issue.

They wait before interruption.

Critical listening – i.e. assess what the other person is saying by identifying potential bias,
omissions and assumptions.

They are prepared to listen and have made an active decision to focus on grasping the main
concepts.

They often take notes.

Committees

A group of people appointed for a specific function by a larger group and typically consisting of
members of that group

Many organisations also employ committees with specific responsibilities such as:
 New product committee – responsible for analysing and assessing suggestions for new products.

Remuneration committee – a sub-committee of the board of directors responsible for advising on

and setting executive remuneration

Executive committee – the board of directors or trustees responsible for governing and leading
organisations

Committees benefit from the consolidation of power and authority and the ability to share
responsibility for making decisions. It is a source of brainstorming when the committees bring
together different abilities and skills.

Successful committees typical demonstrate the following qualities:

Benefits outweigh the costs

Members collectively have the appropriate experience and skills

Chairman is an effective leader

The committee has well-defined areas of authority, time scale and scope which is specified in
writing

Appropriate size – not too large, not too small

Minutes are taken and circulated promptly

Team briefings

Team briefing brings managers together with their teams on a face-to-face basis so that information
can be delivered, questions asked and feedback collected. A team briefing system is an excellent
way to enable communication upwards, downwards and sideways throughout an organisation.

Team briefings are common in the modern working environment as an aid to increasing
commitment and understanding of the workforce. They are also used to communicate management
decisions in the hope that this will reduce disturbance and limit rumours with respect to policies,
plans, progress and personnel issues.

Many teams will have a weekly team meeting.

Conferences

Conferences are useful as a way for bringing together a large membership spread over a wide
area such as a trade union, professional body or accountancy network.

Advantages and disadvantages of oral communication:

 the advantages of oral communication include it’s timeliness (swift and immediate), interaction,
flexibility, generates instant feedback and combines non-verbal signals with verbal signals.

the disadvantages can include misperceptions and lack of audit trail (memory can be
untrustworthy), the need for spontaneity (less planning time), the fact that dominant personalities
can prevail rather than the most logical and objective outcome and the fact it can be more difficult to
control the process with large numbers of individuals

5. CONFLICT

A conflict is a state of opposition between ideas, interests, etc; disagreement or controversy.

Conflict – this is the behaviour that occurs between groups when participants of one group perceive
that other groups may block their goal. i.e. a harmful expression of difference. An example could be
trade union action in response to management plans to cut costs.

Views of conflict

The traditional view expresses the belief that every type of conflict is harmful therefore must be
avoided.

The human relations view is established on the belief that conflict is a natural and inevitable
outcome in any group, therefore it should be accepted.

The interactionist view argued that conflict is not only a positive force rather is extremely
necessary for a group to perform effectively.

Constructive and destructive conflict OR Functional and dysfunctional conflict

Constructive conflict

Introduces new information to a discussion

Helps define a problem

Encourages creativity

Releases hostile feelings

Destructive conflict
 Distracts attention from the organisation’s goals

Inhibits communication

Results in blame, denial and scapegoats

Actions and symptoms of conflict

Actions Symptoms of conflict

Withholding important information Poor communication

Deliberately distort information Lack of trust is generated which manifests

as friction between employees

Empire building Rivalry and jealousy develops

Office politics Can lead to low morale, frustration and

feelings of favoritism

Fault finding Employees defend themselves through

arbitration and appeals

Methods of Resolving conflict in organizations

Effective communication lies at the heart of resolving any conflict.

Managers should use incremental approach to handle conflict. It is given below:

Informal face-to-face conversations

Formal verbal warning

Formal written warning

Fines, demotion or dismissal

Tactics for addressing general organisational conflict may also include:

Alter the individuals

Alter the context

Alter the relationship

Alter the issue

Change the attitudes and behaviour of individual

Conflict Management Techniques

Conflict management is a process meant for settling any conflict. There are five widely accepted
ways to manage conflicts.

Avoidance: It is also known as withdrawing. Here a party neither pursues its concerns nor those
of the opponent party. It does not address the conflict rather simply runs away from it. A party may
recognise that the conflict exists but wants to either withdraw from it or suppress it. It makes the
party to avoid the other party it has conflict with and simply ignores whatever and whoever it
disagrees with. LOSE –LOSE sweeping under the carpet

Competition: In this strategy one party wins and the other loses. One party firmly pursues its
concerns despite the resistance of the other party. Here the winner is very obvious and clear and
ends up making gains out of the situation. However this strategy might set precedence for future
such conflicts. WIN -LOSE

Accommodation: It is also known as smoothing, it is about accommodating the concerns of the

other party first rather than Here one party loses or gives in to accommodate the other party. This
practice encourages the other party and conflict situation is defused. This can be regarded as an
appeasing effort by a party towards its opponent. It is self-sacrificing in nature.

WIN -LOSE

Compromise: In this strategy both the parties get something by letting go of something. It goes for
a mutually acceptable solution that partially satisfies both the parties. This improves the relationship
between both the parties. However none of the parties get what it actually wants, both sacrifice.
There is no clear winner or loser and the compromised outcome leads towards an incomplete
satisfaction. LOSE -LOSE

Collaboration: Here both the parties enjoy win-win situation. It makes everyone win. It sees
conflict as an opportunity to arrive at a mutually beneficial result for the parties involved. It identifies
the principal concerns of the opponents and arrives at a solution that meets each party’s concerns.

This state is pretty difficult to acquire as two parties can hardly find a way where both can remain
absolutely happy, and also someone might end up winning something he/she never wanted.

WIN -WIN

Forms of resolving conflict through speech communication strategies

Common forms of resolving conflicts include:

1. Negotiation: refers to the discussion among two or more people with an objective of reaching
an agreement. It is all about the interaction of influences.

Mediation: is a deliberate and confidential process in which an impartial third-party mediator helps
people discuss difficult issues and settle an agreement. Fundamental steps in the process include
gathering information, framing the issues, constructing alternatives, bargaining, and formalizing

agreements. Parties in mediation create their own solutions and the mediator does not have any
decision-making power over the outcome.

Conciliation: is the least intrusive of third-party processes. A neutral person to everybody’s liking
is selected to serve as conciliator. The conciliator serves as a go-between. Typically the conciliator
meets independently and separately with each party in order to convince the parties to proceed with
each other. Thus, the conciliator’s primary role is to re-establish or get better the communication
between the parties. When the parties are too angry to speak with each other, a conciliator may be
all that is needed. INTRUDE INTRUSION
 Arbitration: is a process in which a neutral, third-party, after reviewing evidence and listening to
arguments from both sides, issues a decision to resolve the case. Arbitration is often used in
commercial and labour/management disputes. Judge Jury

Communication patterns

Patterns of communication describe the direction (horizontal, vertical or diagonal) and frequency of
communication, who the sender is and who the receiver is.

Within teams one of the tasks of the leader should be to ensure that everyone in the team
communicates as they should and that communications are not dominated by a relatively small
number of individuals in the group.

When leaders are autocratic, most communication tends to be downwards. With democratic leaders
communication tends to be more two-way.

The purpose of vertical communication is typically:

To give instructions and directions

To delegate responsibilities

To control activities of subordinates

The purpose of horizontal (lateral) communication is typically:

To co-ordinate the activities of different individuals and groups

To develop and maintain social relationships at work

VISUAL COMMUNICATION

It is famous saying that “the more you see, the more you know”. Visual communication is defined as
the process of sending and receiving messages with the help of displaying information visually.
Associated with this is another term that is visual literacy, and it may be defined as the ability to
construct meaning from visual images. It makes use of a set of skills that are meant to interpret the
content and purpose of the message being conveyed. It helps judging the accuracy and worth of
messages and is heavily influenced by the personal experiences of each individual.

It is an established fact that we learn better from words and pictures together than from words or
pictures alone. Visual communication is valid for both written and oral communication. Effective
communicators make use of visuals to better present their messages.

Graphics commonly used by organisations for communication purposes

Computers have facilitated businesses to enhance written and oral presentations.

The graphic forms described below can easily be created by computers using the available
softwares.

Outline charts: An outline chart can also be termed as a presentation outline. These charts
function as speaker’s notes. It is common to have found the suggestions by such packages that you
begin with the title, then the body text and finally the conclusion. Readers and listeners can view an
outline of major points. However the presenters or speakers must be highly organized and skilled in
using the program otherwise all efforts can end up in smoke and the readers might find these lines
too brief, dull, uninteresting or incomplete.

Tables: Tables follow outline formats. A table represents a numbered list; here quantitative and/or
qualitative information is presented in rows and columns. They facilitate comparative analysis as
well. Precise figures are permitted and in-depth review is facilitated. However if not used properly,
they can appear visually dull. It is too argued sometimes that they are more useful in written
communication than oral presentations specially when they are too detailed and include too many
items, the excessive detail might get the reader distracted.
 Bar graphs: Bar graphs are also commonly termed as bar charts and are widely used for multiple
purposes. These are graphs with horizontal x axis and vertical y axis. Often y axis represents units
of measure and x axis explains the data classification or units or dates being used. They are best
for making comparisons and trends. Colours and cross-hatching increase visual appeal, however
this visual appeal may overwhelm the content. Care should also be taken while including detail as
too much of information might force lettering to be small to read.

It makes use of bars to exhibit comparisons between different categories of data.

There are many different types of bar graphs which are not always interchangeable. Each type is
good for a different type of comparison. The comparison you intend to make would determine the
type suitable for your analysis.

The major kinds of bar graphs include; vertical bar graphs, stacked vertical bar graphs, three
dimensional, stacked vertical bar graphs and horizontal bar graphs.
 Pie charts: These are special charts that use ‘pie slices” to show relative sizes of data. Pie chart
represents a circular graph that is divided into parts to show the proportion in numerical terms. The
arc length of each slice is proportional to the quantity it represents. It satisfies the need to show
relative sizes of different categories and the percent that each category adds to the whole. One
specific segment of pie can be lifted out in order to put emphasis on that specific category. They are
commonly used for both oral and written presentations. However data should be picked up carefully
as use of too many values may blur distinctions.

Line graphs: The major objective of a line graph is to indicate trends over time. The distribution of
two variables over time can be easily compared using a line graph. However while drawing a line
graph one should avoid adding up too many variables and too many time periods otherwise it would
lose clarity. A typical line graph has a time component expressed along x-axis and the magnitudes
are shown along the y-axis.
 Area graphs: Area graphs are similar to line graphs, rather can be termed as an extension of line
graphs. The major difference worth mentioning is that the area under the line is filled in. The area
between the line and the axis is emphasized with colours etc. when multiple attributes are included,
they are plotted one by one with colours filled in.

Illustration: Area graphs

Pictograms: Pictogram can be defined as a symbol that represents an idea. Presenters/speakers

make use of pictograms where data is presented in the form of small pictures.

Illustration: Pictograms
Set 14
INTERVIEWING
INTRODUCTION

An Interview is any planned conversation with a specific purpose involving two or more people.

An interview is essentially a structured conversation where one participant asks questions, and
the other provides answers. Commonly, the word "interview" refers to a one-on-one
conversation between an interviewer and an interviewee.

When the Interviewer and the Interviewee achieve their purpose, the interview is a success.

PURPOSES & KINDS OF INTERVIEW

[Link] INTERVIEWS

The job candidate wants to learn about the position and organisation. The employer wants to
learn about the applicant's abilities and experience. Both hope to make a good impression and to
reach an agreement.

Your role is to provide adequate and accurate information to assist the interviewer in evaluating
your skills, education, experiences, goals, objectives and personality for the position in question.
You should also listen and obtain information from the interviewer bout the employer, your
position, the work environment and the company.

Types of job interviews

a. SCREENING INTERVIEWS
In the screening interview the interviewer determines whether you are viable candidate to invite
for a follow-up interview. You have few minutes to convince the interviewer that you have the
skills, education and experience to be successful in the position.

Remember you are a salesperson selling yourself to the interviewer as the best person for the
position. Know yourself, your goals, your objectives and your skills. Research and analyze the
company and its industry. Present an attitude and appearance that will allow the interviewer to
be proud to present you to his fellow employees during follow-up interviews.

The interview may have three parts, introduction, interview and close. The introduction is the
ice-breaker to set the tone of the interview and put you at ease. You only get one chance to
make a first impression -Do it well' During the body of the interview, the interviewer will
evaluate your self-confidence, motivation, attitudes, skills, knowledge, experience, initiative and
responsibility.

Remember that the 'interviewer Is comparing you to an "ideal" candidate. Be positive! Be

prepared to discuss the organization, job responsibilities. operations, policies, your career
objectives. geographical preference and mobility. Don't be "weeded out!" Only the interviewer
should bring up salary and benefits. During the close. express a sincere interest in the job and
leave knowing who contacts whom.

b. Traditional Interview

You are usually asked many of the questions from the Common Interview Questions section and
possibly a few behavioral questions related to the job.

c. Panel Interview

In a panel interview, you will be in the room with several people, usually three to five, but it
could be as many as ten. Sometimes each person will ask you a series of questions, and other
times a few people will ask questions while the rest listen. The purpose of having many people
sit in on the interview is sometimes so several staff members can meet the candidates and also
to keep the number of interviews a candidate has limited to one or two. The questions could be
traditional, behavioral or a combination.

d. Serial Interview

This type of interview consists of a series of interviews on the same day. For example, if you are
scheduled for an interview from 1:00 -to-3:30, you may have 5 half-hour interviews with
individual people. Each interviewer will most likely ask you different questions. Question types
may vary. If your interview is during a mealtime, like 10-2, most likely, someone will take you to
lunch. Do not let down your guard; this is still part of the interview. A “lunch interview” is more
common for upper-level positions.

e. Behavioral Interviews

Behavioral interviews are designed to provide the interviewer with information about how you
think and behave in situations. Hiring managers are interested in your method of thinking and
about doing a task as well as how you respond in difficult situations. An effective way to answer
behavioral questions is to provide the interviewer with four pieces of information known as the

STAR (acronym) Method:

Situation,

Task,

Action,

Results.

f. Case Interview

Your whole interview could be made up of case interview questions, or you could be asked 1-2
case questions. You will be given a problem or scenario related to the industry and asked to solve
it or describe the process in detail.

The interviewer is not necessarily looking for the “right” answer, but wants to evaluate your
problem solving skills. If you do not have adequate information to determine a solution, you may
need to ask the interviewers questions. Case interviews are more commonly used by investment
banks, consulting firms, technical positions, and for upper-level management positions. You may
be asked to provide a detailed financial analysis, to plan an event or to develop a marketing
campaign.

Examples of Case Interview Questions:

1. A chain of grocery stores currently receives its stock on a decentralized basis. Each store
deals independently with its suppliers. The president of the chain is wondering whether
the company can benefit from a centralized warehouse. What are the key considerations
in making this decision?
2. A magazine publisher is trying to decide how many magazines she should deliver to each
individual distribution outlet in order to maximize profits. She has extensive historical
sales volume data for each of the outlets. How should she determine delivery quantities?
3. A personal finance and loan company that currently targets low-middle class people is
expanding to the Philadelphia market. They need to know how many financial centers the
 area can support and where they should be located. What kind of information would you
need in order to determine the number of centers?

g. Phone/Skype Interview

To save the company time and money, many interviewers will schedule phone interviews as an
initial screening of potential candidates. This may be an interview with a human resources
representative or a hiring manager. Since this is typically your first interaction with the company,
it is also their first impression or you.

Set up a specific time for the call so you will be fully prepared.

Treat the phone interview just as you would a face-to-face interview. Just because it is over the
phone does not mean that you should take it less seriously!

Have your resume, company research, notes, and questions to ask spread out for the interview.
Make sure your information is well-organized and legible. Make sure the phone/computer you
are using works well and avoid cell and portable phones if possible.

If you have call-waiting, turn it off if possible. At least, DO NOT answer it during an interview.

If you have a bad connection or have difficulty hearing the interviewer, offer to call them back.

Get yourself water beforehand.

Stand up during the interview (for phone interview). You will sound more expressive and alert.

Smile. Your enthusiasm and happiness will show through in your voice.

Establishing rapport is an important aspect of interviewing. On the phone, one way to establish
rapport is to “match” the interviewer’s tone of voice and rate of speech. This will make you seem
“like” him or her.

Before you get off the phone, ask about a time to meet face-to-face. Do not be afraid to ask! The
worst thing that can happen is they tell you ‘no’ or say they will get back to you.

h. Lunch Interview

Job interviewers take candidates to lunch to evaluate your business etiquette, communication
and interpersonal skills, social skills and table manners. DO NOT let your guard down. This is no
time to act like you would with your college buddies. This is still a part of your interview.
Following are tips to help you while dining.

If you are a picky eater, check out the restaurant ahead of time. That way you’ll know exactly
what’s on the menu, what you might want to order and where the rest rooms are located.
 1. Make sure your cell phone is turned off
2. Don’t order messy food (pasta with lots of sauce, chicken with bones, ribs, big
sandwiches, and lobster).
3. Don’t order the most expensive entree on the menu. Opt for moderate priced items like
chicken or fish.
4. Avoid foods that have a strong or unpleasant order (garlic and onions).
5. Consider staying away from things that are crunchy. If may affect how well you hear
someone.
6. Do order food that is easy to cut into bite-size pieces.
7. If you can, avoid soup. It is harder to eat than you think.
8. Eat your entire meal if possible. It may seem disrespectful if you leave a large amount of
food behind.
9. Consider water. Most other beverages stain if spilled.
10. Interviewing is hard enough without adding alcohol to the mix.
11. Be polite. Remember to say “please” and “thank you” to your server as well as to your
host.
12. During conversation, remember to listen and participate.
13. Stay away from sensitive subjects like religion and politics.
14. Do not talk with your mouth full.
15. Do not complain about the food.
16. Keep your elbows off the table, sit up straight and don’t talk with your mouth full.
17. You are not expected to pay for your meal or tip when invited to lunch. It would be
inappropriate to [Link] ask for a doggy bag.
18. Remember to say thank you and tell the interviewer you enjoyed the meal.

2. INFORMA TION INTERVIEWS

The interviewer seeks facts that bear on a decision or contribute to basic understanding. One
person asks a list of questions and the other supplies answers to them.

3. PERSUASIVE INTERVIEWS

One person tells another about a new idea product, or the recommendation. Persuasive
interviews are usually associated with selling.

4. EXIT INTERVIEWS

The interviewer tries to understand why the interviewee is leaving the organisation or
transferring to other organisation or department.
5. EVALUA TION INTERVIEWS /appraisals

A supervisor periodically gives an employee feedback on his or her performance. The supervisor
and the employee discuss progress towards predetermined goals and evaluate areas that require
improvement.

6. COUNSELING INTERVIEWS

A supervisor talks to an employee about personal problems that are interfering with work
performance. The goal is to help the interviewee and work for the welfare of the employee and
the organisation.

7. CONFLICT-RESOLUTION INTERVIEWS

Two competing people or groups of people explore their problems and attitudes. The goal is to
bring the two parties closer together and create a more productive climate.

8. DISCIPLINARY INTERVIEWS

A supervisor tries to correct the behaviour of an employee who has ignored the organisation's
rules and regulations. The interviewer tries to get the employee to see the need for compliance.

[Link] INTERVIEWS

A supervisor informs an employee of the reasons for termination. The interviewer tries to avoid
legal action and tries to maintain a positive relationship with the interviewee.

INTERVIEW STRUCTURE

There is no necessary or required structure for interviews that employers must adopt. However,
that said, usually they will include:

A PRELIMINARY OR WARM-UP PHASE

During this phase the interviewer will be trying to do two things. Firstly, to tell you more about
the position and the company so that you know more about what you are getting yourself in for
and can therefore make an informed decision, and secondly, they are generally using this time to
allow you to relax (if that's possible) and gather your thoughts.

AN INFORMATION OBTAINING PHASE

After the warm up phase, the interviewer is likely to progress to asking you specific questions
about yours skills and abilities, both technical (e.g. Computer, research, accounting, engineering
skills, etc) as well as social (e.g. Leadership, negotiation, presentation skills, etc). When trying to
predict what will be asked, you should try to place yourself in their shoes. If you were them what
information would you want to know about this person?
A WIND UP OR CLOSURE

This is your chance to ask questions about information that hasn't been covered in the interview
but which is important to you It is therefore important that you have thought about what is
important to you before you enter the interview. It is also your chance to quickly reiterate the
positive aspects of your candidature for the position.

INTERVIEW STYLES

DIRECT INTERVIEW STYLE

The directed interview is the most frequently used style for the first interview. The interviewer
using this style works from an outline and asks specific questions within a certain time frame. He
or she usually has a predetermined checklist on which he or she notes each candidate's
responses This predominate style is impersonal but challenging to the interviewee.

NON-DIRECTIVE STYLE

The second type of interview style is the non-directive. It usually is unstructured and allows the
interviewee to talk about his or her choice of topics. The questions are broad and general. It is a
format which allows you to take control of the interview, stressing your strengths and avoiding
your weaknesses.

STRESS STYLE

The third style is the stress interview. If you understand the purpose of this type of interview, it
will help you feel more at ease. In this interview, the interviewer may lapse into long periods of
silence or have an unfriendly or harsh attitude. Sometimes the interviewer stares at you without
blinking an eye, but at other times he or she simply ignores you and concentrates on taking
notes. The purpose of this type of interview is that the recruiter is trying to find out one of two
things: (1) How far you can be pushed before you assert yourself? Or (2) how do you assert
yourself?

INTERVIEWER'S RESPONSIBILITY

All employers or recruiters know the schools and institutions and know the calibre of the
students that graduate from there. The interviewer's preparation can be summarised under the
following heads.

• PREPARA TION BEFORE THE INTERVIEW

• DURING THE INTERVIEW

• EVALUATION AFTER THE INTERVIEW

PREPARA TION BEFORE THE INTERVIEW

• Decide on the purpose and goals of the interview.

• Outline your interview based on your goals.

• Determine the needs of your interviewee.

• Read the applicant's resume prior to the meeting.

• Focus on core information desired: for instance, Character, Personality, Work Experience,
Training, Motivation, Interests.

• Formulate questions as clearly and concisely as possible, and plot their order according to
your purpose and the interviewee's needs.

• Omit personal bias from your prepared questions.

• Project the outcome of the interview, and develop a plan for accomplishing the goal.

• Select a time and a site.

• Inform the interviewee of the nature of the interview and the agenda to be covered.

DURING THE INTERVIEW

• Be on time for the interview appointment.

• Remind the interviewee of the purpose and format.

• Try to avoid controversial topics.

• Greet the candidate with a firm handshake and warm smile.

• Suggest a degree of enthusiasm by being sincere and friendly.

• Encourage the applicant to do most of the talking.

• Ask appropriate questions at the right time.

• Avoid putting the Interviewee in a embarrassing situation.

• Use ears and eyes to pick up verbal and non-verbal cues.

• Follow the stated agenda, but be willing to explore relevant sub-topics.

• Close the interview on an appreciative note, with thanks to the interviewee for his time,
interest and co-operation.
EVALUATION AFTER THE INTERVIEW

• Immediately write notes or a paragraph on all interviewed candidates.

• Assess and categorise the performance of the candidates.

• Review the questions asked and the answers received from the candidates. Check for all
the important aspects before finalisation of the right candidate.

• Write a thank-you memo or letter that provides the interviewee with a record of the
meeting.

• Provide the assistance that you agreed to during your meeting.

• Monitor progress by keeping in touch through discussions with your interviewee.

INTERVIEWEE'S RESPONSIBILITY

The interviewee's Responsibilities in undertaking an interview are summarised under the

following heads:

• PREPARATION BEFORE THE INTERVIEW

• PRESENTATION DURING THE INTERVIEW

• FOLLOW-UP AFTER THE INTERVIEW

PREPARATION BEFORE THE INTERVIEW

• Do the following things to prepare yourself for an interview:

• Dress appropriately and have several copies of your resume and cover letter

• Practice responding to sample questions.

• Maintain a positive attitude (Very important. Don't get discouraged)

• Record the exact time, place and directions to the interview (don't be late!).

• Record the interviewer's name and know how to pronounce it.

• Do research on the company to show your knowledge (Besides large, public companies'
annual reports, there are a number of publications that can help you research a company. See
the reading list at the end of this section):

PRESENTATION DURING THE INTERVIEW

Follow these basic guidelines during any interview:

• Don't be late! And if you are unavoidably detained, CALL to let the interviewer know and
reschedule as necessary.

• Check your appearance before greeting the interviewer.

• Greet the interviewer by his/her last name unless asked not to.

• Introduce yourself in a confident manner and express your interest in being there. Shake
hands firmly, but no "death grips".

• Remain standing until offered a seat.

• Sit erect, not rigid, with your arms in your lap.

• Avoid writing notes during the interview if possible.

• Be friendly: honest and sincere to make a good impression.

• Use your voice and gestures to avoid a boring presentation.

• Present yourself in a logical, capable, confident manner.

• Avoid being sidetracked off the topic at hand.

• Avoid answering questions in a negative manner.

• Avoid talking ill of anyone, especially a past employer -always be positive!

• When finished, shake hands again and thank them for their time and consideration. This is
a good moment to ask when you might expect to be hearing from them again, or if they would
prefer you to get back to them.

FOLLOW-UP AFTER THE INTERVIEW

IMMEDIA TEL Y review the interview

• Who did you meet (names and titles)?

• What does the job entail?

• What are the first projects you want to tackle?

• Why can you do the job?

• What went poorly? Why?

• What is the next step in the selection process?

Write a follow-up letter.

• Express appreciation of the interviewer's time and comments.

• Make it clear that you are excited about the job, can do it, and want it.

• Keep it short, type it and proof it carefully.

If you don't hear anything after a reasonable time period (one to two weeks) make a call to the
lead interviewer and restate points made in the cover letter.

TYPES OF INTERVIEW QUESTIONS

The purpose of interview and nature of the participants determine the type of questions to be
asked When you plan the interview, bear in mind you ask questions:

1. To get information.

2. To motivate the interviewee to respond honestly and appropriately.

3. To create a good working relationship with the other person.

There are four basic types of interview questions:

• OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS

• DIRECT OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS

• CLOSED-ENDED QUESTIONS

• RESTATEMENT QUESTIONS

OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS

These invite the interviewee to offer an opinion, not just a YES, NO, or one-word answer. Use
open- ended question to warm up the interviewee and to look for information. Such questions
may lead to deviation from the main track, as the interviewee will try to put his idea through
which may not be relevant to your question.

E.g., "What courses were the most useful in your degree program? Why?" "Which courses did
you like best? Least? Why?"

DIRECT OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS

These are used to suggest a response. With this form you try to understand the reasons behind a
decision or an event, to better understand a complex issues, or to get a specific conclusion or
recommendation from someone.

E.g., "What have you done about... ?"

"What's your reaction to the favourable (unfavourable) ruling of the Supreme Court on the issue
of…… "

CLOSED-ENDED QUESTIONS

These usually ask for only YES, NO or other one-word answers. Such questions produce specific
information, save time, require less effort to answer and eliminate bias and prejudice in answers.
However, they limit the interviewee's initiative and may prevent important information from
being revealed.

E.g., "How many accounting courses did you have in college?"

"Which course was the most difficult. "

RESTATEMENT QUESTIONS

Questions that mirror a respondent's previous answer are restatement questions. They invite the
respondent to expand on an answer. Restatements provide opportunities to clarify points and
correct misunderstandings. Use them to pursue a subject further and encourage the person to
explain further.

E.g., "You said you dislike completing travel vouchers. Is that correct?"

Additional
POSSIBLE INTERVIEW QUESTIONS (LISTED B CATEGORY)

PERSONAL AND FAMILY DATA

• What are/were your parent's occupations?

• How far do you live from this company?

• Is your spouse employed? Will there be a conflict?

EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND

• Why did you attend a particular college/university?

• What was your major?

• Do you feel you made the right choice?

CHARACTER, INITIATIVE, AND CREATIVITY

• What is your idea of success?

• How do you cope with stress and pressure?

• What did you do in your last job to make it more effective and more challenging?

• How do you go about making important decisions? "

MANAGEMENT ABILITY

• How do you go about establishing rapport with staff?

• Have you ever been in a position to delegate responsibility?

• How well do you manage people?

CAREER OBJECTIVE AND SUITABILITY FOR TARGET JOB

• What do you picture yourself doing five to ten years from now?

• Would you be in a position to work overtime if required?

• Why are you interested in this job?

SALARY HISTORY AND REQUIREMENTS

• What salary are you worth?

• What is your salary history? ,

EXPERIENCE AND TRAINING

What do you see as the biggest rewards in your career?

In what areas of your present job are you strongest?

What specific strengths/skills do you think you can bring to this position?

OUTSIDE INTERESTS

• What are you leisure time activities?

• What sections of the newspaper do you read first?

• What do you plan to do to improve yourself?

QUESTIONS TO ASK THE INTERVIEWER

• What are the most important skills for this job?

• What are the job responsibilities?

• How would my performance be evaluated?

• How would I be supervised?

• What advancement opportunities are there?

• How much travel is required? .

• What is the last person who had this job doing? Where is she/he now?

• What are the company's goals?

• How does your division fit into the organization?

• What is the management style of the company?

• Why did you decide to go with this company?

• Who was, in your opinion, the best person who ever held this position?

• What did he/she do that made you remember him/her so favourably?

• Tell me about your opportunities for additional training?

• Are new services or programs planned?

• What is atypical day for this job?

• With promotion, are transfer (overseas) opportunities available?

• How long will it take to make a hiring decision?

• What does the company consider the five most important duties of the position?

REASONS WHY POTENTIAL EMPLOYEES ARE REJECTED

• Inappropriate background

• Poor personal appearance

• Lack of interest and enthusiasm

• Failure to keep eye contact

• Late for the interview

• Asks no questions about the job

• Too overbearing

• Inability to express self clearly

• Poor communication skills

• Lack of pose or self-confidence

• Unrealistic salary demands

• Lack of maturity -no leadership potential

• Lack of extra-curricular activities

• Know nothing about the company

• Unwilling to relocate

• Excessive interest in security and benefits

OTHER INTERVIEW QUESTIONS

Whether you have a direct, non-directive, or stress style interview, every question is important,
Study the following list of "Frequently Asked Interview Questions," as reported by Dr. Frank S.
Endicott, Director of Placement (Emeritus), North-western University.

• What are your future vocational plans?

• In what school activities have you participated?

• Why? Which did you enjoy the most?

• In what type of position are you most interested?

• Why do you think you might like to work for our company?

• What jobs have you held? How were they obtained and why did you leave?

• What courses did you like best? Least? Why?

• Why did you choose your particular field of work?

• What percentage of your college expenses did you earn? How?

• How did you spend your vacations while in school?

• What do you know about our company?

• Do you feel that you have received a good general training?

• What qualifications do you have that make you feel that you will be successful in your
field?

• What extracurricular offices have you held?

• If you were starting college all over again, what courses would you take?

• How much money do you hope to earn at age 30? age 35?

• Do you think that your extracurricular activities were worth the time devoted to them?
Why?

• What do you think determines a person's progress within a company?

• What personal characteristics are necessary for success in your chosen field?

• Why do' you think you would like this particular type of job?

• Do you prefer working with others or by yourself?

• What kind of boss do you prefer?

• Are you primarily interested in making money or do you feel that service is your prime
concern?

• Can you take instructions without feeling upset?

• How did previous employers treat you?

• What have you learned from some of the jobs you have held?

• Can you get recommendations from previous employers?

• What interests you about our product or service?

• Did you ever change your major field of interest while in college? Why?

• When did you choose your college major?

• Do you feel you have done the best scholastic work of which you are capable?
• How did you happen to go to college?

• What do you know about opportunities in the field in which you are trained?

• Which of your college years was the most difficult?

• Did you enjoy you four years at this university?

• Do you like routine work?

• Do you like regular hours?

• What size city do you prefer?

• What is your major weakness?

• How would you define cooperation?

• Do you demand attention?

• Do you have an analytical mind?

• Are you eager to please?

• What job in our company would you choose if you were entirely free to do so?

• What types of books have you read?

• Have you plans for graduate work?

• What types of people seem to rub you the wrong way?

• Have you ever tutored an underclassman?

• What jobs have you enjoyed the most? The least? Why?

• What are your own special abilities?

• What job in our company do you want to work toward?

• Would you prefer a large or small company? Why?

• Do you like to travel?

• How about overtime work?

• What kind of work interests you?

• What are the disadvantages of your chosen field?

• Are you interested in research?

• What have you done which shows initiative and willingness td work?

REVIEW QUESTIONS

• Define an interview?

• What are the aims and functions of an Interview? How can these be achieved?

• What guidelines exist for the Interviewer and Interviewee?

• What are the essentials for an interview?

• What are the advantages and disadvantages of the various types of interview questions?

SET 15 Employment Communication

JOB APPLICATION and Resume/CV

CV vs Resume

A resume is a one page summary of your work experience and background relevant
to the job you are applying to.

A CV is a longer academic diary that includes all your experience, certificates, and
achievements etc.

A resume is the shorter version of a CV

DEFINITION OF RESUME

Your resume is a summary of your experiences, qualification, skills and aptitudes. The
resume typically provides background information to support your application letter.
You application letter, in turn emphasizes specific parts of your resume and shows
how your background is suited to a particular job.

JOB PROSPECTING (Searching) – PRELIMINARY (initial) STEPS

If you do the job search systematically, you can make looking for – and getting – the
job you want.

1. Evaluate Your Skills

Before beginning your job search, evaluate your skills, interests, aptitudes, and
preferences. The major cause of worker dissatisfaction results from people disliking
their jobs. Unless you plan carefully, you could well be another frustrated worker
doing a job you don’t enjoy.

Ask yourself:

• What specific skills have I acquired in college?

• What skills have I learned through part-time or full-time jobs?

• What skills have I acquired through hobbies and other interests?

Omit no skill you might have, no matter how little it appears to relate to the job you
want.

Once you have listed all your skills, concentrate on your aptitudes:

• What do I enjoy doing?

• What courses have I enjoyed? Why?

• Do I have talent for leadership? What proof do I have?

• Do I work well with groups?

• Am I good at analysis?

• Am I self-motivated?

• Do I speak a language other than English or my mother tongue?

• Can read with comprehension?

• Do I write fluently? Speak fluently?

• Do I respond well to other people’s ideas?

This analysis helps you focus on the right career as well as writing your resume and
prepare for interviews.

2. Evaluating Your Interests and Preferences

Once you’ve compiled your list of skills and aptitudes, you will know more about your
interests and preferences. In addition, ask yourself the following questions:

• Do I prefer working with data, people or things?

• What would I like to be doing 5 or 10 years from now?

• Where would I like to live?

• What am I look for in a job: security, travel, money, power, prestige or

something else?

• Do I prefer working with others or by myself?

• Do I prefer a large company or a small one?

• Do I prefer dealing with people or machines?

LEARN ABOUT THE JOB MARKET

1. Read occupation handbooks, government publications, newsletters and

magazines or journals in your field.

2. Speak with someone in your field to get an inside view and some practical
advice.

3. Establish contacts; don’t be afraid to ask advice. Make a list of the names,
addresses and phone numbers of people willing to help you.

4. Matching your Abilities with a Job

5. Be Realistic

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD RESUME

Although no set rules exist for resume length, try to limit it to one page. Today's
recruiters skim resumes for an average of 7.4 seconds.

PREPARING THE RESUME

The following classes of information are required while preparing an effective

resume.

1. Name and address

2. Career objective

3. Educational background

4. Work experience

5. Personal data

6. Personal activities, interests, awards and special skills

7. References

Note:

Red color text for your guidance only; you can skip it

Name and Address: Under your first heading, include your full name, current address
and full telephone number.

Career Objectives: Your statement of career objectives should show you have a clear
sense of purpose and have given serious thought to your future.

Educational Background: If your education is more substantial than your work

experience, place it first for emphasis. Begin with your most recent school and work
backward, listing degrees, diplomas and schools attended beyond high school.

Work Experience: If you have solid work experience that relates to the job you are
seeking, place it before your education. Begin by listing your most recent job and
work backward, listing each significant job you have held. But as with all parts of the
resume, rearrange items or sections to emphasise on your best qualifications.

For each job provide the following information:

1. Name and address of employer

2. Dates of employment (month and year)

3. Job title

4. A brief description of specific duties and your contribution to the company

5. Promotions or added responsibilities if any

When listing experience arrange the information in the order that creates the most
favourable impression of your experience and qualification. You may use your job
title as a heading, the company name, dates of employment or your job functions or
duties as in the following examples.

JOB TITLE

Stenographer: Duties: Handling customer correspondence, filing and finding

customer records, keeping records of claims paid and denied, answering telephone.

Sales Clerk: Duties: Selling dresses and accessories, handling merchandise

exchanges, keeping sales records.

COMPANY NAME

Prudential Insurance Co. Worked as a stenographer in the Claims Department. Main

duties included handling customer correspondence, filing and finding customer
records, keeping records of claims paid and denied, answering telephone.

Sheila Boutiques Ltd. Worked as a Sales Clerk in the Departmental Store. Main
duties included selling dresses and accessories, handling merchandise exchanges,
keeping sales records.

EMPLOYMENT DATES

2018 to present Chief Accountant ABC Ltd address

Responsibilities:

Maintenance of Accounting records,

 Preparation of Bank Reconciliation Statements and Payroll

2015 to 2018 Assistant Accountant ABC Insurance Co. Ltd.

Responsibilities:

Helping the Chief Accountant in preparation of Financial Statements

PERSONAL INTERESTS, ACTIVITIES, AWARDS AND SPECIAL SKILLS

Although grades, qualification and work experience is important, employers want

balanced employees. That is, they seek applicants who demonstrate responsibility,
leadership qualities, adaptability, initiative and an ability to work well with others.
Job candidates can demonstrate these qualities through personal interests and
activities.

Evaluate yourself thoroughly, list hobbies, sports and other pastimes; memberships
in teams and organisations; offices held and any recognition for outstanding
performance.

REFERENCES

Your list of reference names at least two or three people who have agreed to write
strong, positive assessments of your qualifications and personal qualities. Thought
and care should enter into your selection of references.

Select references who can speak with authority about your ability and character.
Avoid members of your family, neighbours and close friend not in your field. Instead
choose amongst your previous employers, processors and respected community
figures who know you well enough to write on your behalf.

HOW TO CHOOSE AN ORGANISATIONAL PLAN FOR YOUR RESUME

Type of Resume When to Use When not to Use

CHRONOLOGICAL • Your last employer is
• You have changed jobs frequently.
• Lists work experience or well known and highly
• You are changing your career
education in reverse respected.
goals.
chronological order, • You plan to continue
• You have not progressed in your
describes responsibilities and along your established
career.
accomplishments associated career path.
with each job or educational • Your job history shows • You have been away from the job
experience. more progressively market for sometime.
more responsible • You are applying for your first job.
positions.
• You are applying to a
traditional organisation.
FUNCTIONAL • You want to emphasise
capabilities not used in
recent jobs. • You want to emphasise your career
• You are changing progress.
careers. • You have performed a limited
Lists functional experience • You are entering the job number of functions.
separately from employment market for the first time • Your most recent employers are
history. or are re-entering after well known and prestigious.
an absence. • You are applying to a traditional
• Your past career organisation.
progression has been
disappointing.
• You have held a variety
of unrelated jobs.
• Your work has been a
freelance or temporary
nature.
TARGETED • You are clear about
your job target.
Lists capabilities and
• You have several • You want to use one resume for
accomplishments pertaining to
career objectives and several applications.
a specific job briefly lists work
want a separate • You are not clear about your
experience in a separate
resume for each. capabilities or accomplishments.
section.
• You want to emphasise • You are just starting your career
capabilities that you and have little experience.
may have not
performed for a regular
employer.

JOB-APPLICATION LETTERS OR LETTERS OF APPLICATION OR

COVER LETTER

Solicited= in response to an ad or opportunity announced

JOB APPLICATION – SOLICITED

25–ABC Housing Colony
Some Area, Some City
 September 25, 2019

Mr. ABC, HR Manager

XYZ Company Limited
Some Commercial Area
Some City

Dear Sir,

Today, my need for accomplishment was sparked by your employment

advertisement in The News. I understand that you require a thoroughly competent
person with practical experience. Based on this information, I believe that my
knowledge and skills could be beneficial to your esteemed organisation. Please
consider me as an applicant for the post of a Chief Accountant.

The kind of work in which your company is engaged particularly interests me, and
I would welcome the opportunity it would afford to use my computer skills, which
are not utilised in my present post.

Enclosed is my resume which will reveal that I have been an enthusiastic worker
and that my practical experience has refined my abilities. Moreover, I can handle
office work independently and efficiently.

If you feel I measure up to your standards, I look forward to the pleasure of having
a personal interview at your convenience.

Sincerely yours,
Signature

LMN Name

Enclosed

JOB APPLICATION – USING AN INTRODUCTION

25 – ABC Housing Colony
Some Area
Some City

September 25, 2019

 Mr. ABC, HR Manager
XXYZ Company Limited
Some Commercial Area
Some City

Dear Sir,

Mr. Farooq Khan, CFO at Hamburg Ltd. told me that you are setting up a new
branch in Lahore. May I be considered as an applicant for the post of a Chief
Accountant.

Enclosed is my resume which will reveal that I have been an enthusiastic

worker and that my practical experience has refined my abilities. Moreover, I
can handle office work independently and efficiently.

If you feel I measure up to your standards, I look forward to the pleasure of

having a personal interview at your convenience.

Sincerely yours,
Signature

LMN Name

Solicited APPLICATION FOR POST OF SALES MANAGER

Dear Sir,

I was very interested to see your advertisement for a Sales Manager in

yesterday’s The News and should like to be considered for this post.

My full particulars are shown on my enclosed curriculum vitae, from which

you will see that I have had 10 years’ experience in the sales departments of
two well-known companies. My special duties at XYZ Ltd include the training
of sales personnel, dealing with the company's foreign correspondence and
organisation market research and sales promotion programmes. I thoroughly
enjoy my work and am very happy here, but feel that the time has come when
 my experience in marketing has prepared me for the responsibility of full
sales management.

I shall be pleased to provide any further information you may need, and hope
I may be given the opportunity of an interview.

Yours faithfully,
Signature

ABC Name

Samples from foreign correspondence

11944 West 112th Street

Denton, TX 77892

December 11, 2018

Mr. Oscar Holway

Valley Telephone Cooperative, Inc.
Raymondville, TX 78580
Dear Mr. Holway:

I am responding to your advertisement in the November 24, 2018, issue of

Telephony jobs for an accounting office supervisor. Because of my five years’
experience in the telecommunications industry and my B.S. in Electrical
Engineering, I believe I have the skills you require.

Although I have enclosed a resume, let me elaborate on my achievements. While

working for South-western Telephone Company, I have managed their
accounting activities for forecasting, expense, and non-regulated FCC accounts.
As listed in one of your requirements, I have a working knowledge of FCC Part 32
accounts. In fact, my current project involves converting our Part 32 accounts. In
fact, my current project involves converting our Part 31 accounts to the Part 32
uniform system of accounting. Furthermore, my engineering education has
enabled me to develop mechanized office functions. In one year, I implemented
three systems which reduced southwester’s expenses and saved the company
$50,000.

I would like to meet with you and discuss employment possibilities at your
company. Please call me at (913) 469-8500 so that we can set up an interview at
your convenience. I appreciate your consideration.

Sincerely,
Signature

Leonard Liss
Enclosure
4628 Little Avenue
Coral Gables, FL 33133

September 9, 2019

Ms. Karen Pechis

King Petroleum Company
Oakland Division
P.O. Box 189924
Oakland, CA 94610

Dear Mr. Pechis:

The September 4, 2019, Oakland Voice contained an advertisement from King

Petroleum Company for an environmental protection Specialist. After reading the
qualifications, I believe I can meet King’s needs.
As my enclosed resume indicates, I have an M.S. in Groundwater Chemistry. I
currently work for a country environmental agency where I have gained six years’
experience with the various applications you mentioned in your advertisement. I
have performed landfill groundwater monitoring at regional and national parks
and supervised a team of twelve solid waste disposal monitoring specialists. In
addition, I coordinated spill cleanups off the Atlantic and Gulf costs and reported
hazardous waste disposal procedures for local, state, and federal environmental
agencies. In each of these instances, I successfully achieved governmental
compliance. In fact, my supervisors cited my works as exemplary and entrusted
me with training our new personnel.
I welcome the challenge of working with King Petroleum as an environmental
specialist. So that I can answer any of your questions, I would appreciate your
calling me at (312) 555-2121. I look forward to interviewing with you.

Sincerely
Glen Pfeiffer
Enclosure: resume
 RESUME

Rayan Ahmed
Telephone: 92-0342-7569460
e-mail: DecentBoy1@[Link] ****

52 West 85th Street, *****

BirdWood Road,
Lahore – 54700.

JOB OBJECTIVE:
Audit Management: Auditing Department, Analysis of financial statements.

PERSONAL DATA
Date of Birth: 8 December 1969
Marital Status: Single
Religion Islam
EDUCATION
1994 – 1996 LEEDS University, London, UK
Management Accountancy
1992 – 1994 Hailey College of Commerce, Lahore, PAKISTAN
Bachelor of Commerce
1990 – 1992 Beacon House School, Lahore, PAKISTAN
Intermediate & Secondary Education.
Major Courses: Principles of Accounting, Management Accounting, Auditing
and Financial Statements
Related Courses: Business Finance, Corporate Financial Management, Law
and Business Enterprise, Business Communication.
WORK EXPERIENCE
Din Financial
Corporation
1992-1995 Financial Research and Miscellaneous Clerical Duties.
Tampa Cigar
Company.
1989-1992 Salesman, Survey Taker and warehouse supervisor.
ACTIVITIES
University Chairperson of the Advisory Committee,
Member of Management Training Program
 College Member of Bridge Club and President of Debating Society.
REFERENCES
Mr. Abdullah Din General Manager.
Din Financial Corporation.
250 State Street, Lahore, 606583
Mr. Khawaja Ali
Usman Manager.
Tampa Cigar Company.
Moon Street 2, Karachi - 50268

INVITATION FOR INTERVIEW

Dear Mr. Rayan Ahmad,

CHIEF ACCOUNTANT – ACCOUNTS DIVISION

Thank you for your application for the above post.

You are invited to attend for an interview with Mr. Abdullah Din, Accounts
Manager, on Friday 29 May at 3.30 pm.

Will you please let me know either by letter or telephone whether this
appointment will be convenient for you.

Yours sincerely,

OFFERS OF APPOINTMENT
Letters appointing staff should state clearly the salary and any other conditions of
appointment. If the duties of the post are described in detail on a Job Description and
enclosed with the letter, it will not be necessary to duplicate such details in the letter
itself.

ETTER CONFIRMING OFFER OF EMPLOYMENT

Dear Mr. Atif Waheed,
I am pleased to confirm the offer we made to you
yesterday of the post of chief accountant of our Accounts
Division.
Your duties will be as outlined at the interview, and as
described on the attached Job Description. In particular,
you will report directly to the Accounts Manager, with
overall responsibility for the compilation of financial
statements.
This appointment carries a commencing salary of Rs.
10,000 per month, rising to Rs. 11,500 per month after one
year’s service, and thereafter by annual review. You will
be entitled to 4 weeks’ annual holiday.
The appointment may be terminated at any time by either
side giving 2 months’ notice in writing.
Please confirm that you accept this appointment on the
terms stated, and that you will be able to commence your
duties on 1 August.

Yours sincerely,

EMPLOYEE’S LETTER OF RESIGNATION

Dear Mr. Abdullah Din,

I regret to inform you that I wish to give 2 weeks’ notice of my resignation

from the Company. My last day of work will be 30 June 1998.

I have been very happy working here for the past 2 years, and found my work
challenging and enjoyable. However, I have obtained a post where I have
wider responsibilities and greater career prospects.

Thank you for your help and guidance during my employment and best
wishes for the future.
Sincerely yours,

EMPLOYER’S LETTER TERMINATING EMPLOYMENT

Dear Mr. Atif Faheem,

Following our discussion earlier this week, I regret to inform you that your
services with the Company will not be required with effect from 31 August,
1998.
 As you know, there have been a number of occasions recently when I have
had to point out the unsatisfactory quality of your work. Together with your
persistent unpunctuality in spite of several warnings, this has led me to
believe that you will perhaps be more successful in a different kind of work.

I hope you will find suitable employment elsewhere, and if another employer
should wish you to start work before the end of the month, arrangements
can be made for you to be released immediately.
Yours faithfully,

Report on Introducing Pearl Dental Powder

July 7, 20X2

The Sales Manager

Pearl Dental Powder

Illama Iqbal Town Lahore

Subject: Report on Introducing Pearl Dental Powder

Dear Sir,

1. Introduction:

This is with reference to your letter No. 345 dated July 3, 20X3 in which I was required to report on
introducing pearl Dental Powder in the market. The report also includes the findings and
recommendations regarding the present issue.

2. Methodology:

(1) I, accordingly, visited different medical and general stores.

(2) I also discussed the new product with people of different ages. They liked the idea of medicated
tooth powder. They also appreciated its curing effects.

3. Findings:

Now I have completed the report which is discussed here:

a. There is no dearth of tooth powders and tooth pastes in the market. But they are costly and have bad
effects too.
 b. Some tooth powders leave bad taste and unpleasant smell in mouth. If the people are offered a less
costly and pleasant smelling tooth powder with curing effects, they will certainly prefer it to others
available in the market.

c. Most of the dental powders are not attractively packed.

d. Most dental powder companies are not conducting effective advertisement campaign.

e. Most companies are not hiring and consulting any experienced dentists. I am sure that because of its
qualities, Pearl Dental Powder will find a favorable market.

4. Conclusion:

The principal conclusions drawn from the investigations were that most of the companies are selling
poorly packed and bad quality Dental Powders at a very high price.

5. Recommendations:

In view of these findings I recommend that:

[Link] introductory price of Pearl Dental Powder should be fixed very low.

b. A reasonable discount should be offered to the retailers and wholesalers.

c. It should be attractively packed.

d. All publicity measures should be used to popularize it.

e. It should also be backed by expert opinion of some experienced dentists.

I hope this report covers all the aspects of sale of the product. However, if any point requires
clarification, I may be called at any time convenient to you.

Truly yours,

ABC

COMPLETED