1) Pressure Measurement: Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge

PRINCIPLE :

Bourdon tubes are radially formed tubes with an oval cross-section. It essentially
consists of a C-molded hollow tube, whose one endpoint is fixed and connected to
the pressure tapping, whereas the other end is left free, as displayed in the figure.
The cross-sectional part of the tube is elliptical. At the point when pressure is
applied, the elliptical tube (or Bourdon tube) attempts to obtain a circular cross-
segment. Thus, stress is created and the tube tries to straighten up. Subsequently,
the free end of the tube moves in an upward direction, depending upon the
magnitude of the pressure. The C-shaped Bourdon tubes, formed into an angle of
approx. 250°, can be used for pressures up to 60 bar. For higher pressures,
Bourdon tubes with several superimposed windings of the same angular diameter
(helical tubes) or with a spiral coil in the one plane (spiral tubes) are used.

The Bourdon gage, shown, works on the principle that pressure in a curved tube
will tend to straighten it. Thus, as shown in the figure, pressure acts equally on
every square inch area in the tube, 1. Since the surface S1 on the outside of the
curve is greater than the surface area S2 on the shorter radius, the force acting on
S1 is greater than the force acting on S2. When the pressure is applied, the tube
straightens out until the difference in force is balanced by the elastic resistance of
the material of the tube. The tube is bent into a circular arc and it becomes oval in
cross-section. Therefore, it tends to straighten more easily under pressure. The tube
works by differential areas, since the area on which the pressure acts outward is
greater than the area on which the pressure acts inward. The open end of the tube
passes through the socket 2, which is threaded so that the gage can be screwed
into an opening in the hydraulic system. The closed end of the tube, 9, is linked to a
pivoted segment gear, 3, meshed with a small gear, 4, to which a pointer, 5, is
attached. Beneath the pointer there is a scale, 6, reading in pounds per square inch.
The gage is calibrated against known pressures to ensure accurate readings. Under
pressure the tube tends to straighten and the segment moves around its pivot, 8,
rotating the gear and the pointer. The pointer assembly is usually pressed on the
shaft in such manner that it is removable for resetting when the gage is calibrated
against a master unit. Electronic pressure indication may be obtained by means of
a piezoelectric sensor that transforms a pressure-induced force into an electric
charge that is electronically transformed by a coupler into a voltage that is
proportional to the pressure. The active element in a piezoelectric sensor is the
piezoelectric crystal, whose structure causes it to produce opposite electrical
charges on its upper and lower surfaces when it is subjected to a compressive
force perpendicular to those surfaces.

USE :

Bourdon tube pressure gauges are used for the measurement of gauge pressures
from 0.6 ... 7,000 bar (8.7 ... 101,526.4 psi). They are classified as mechanical
pressure measuring instruments, and thus operate without any supply voltage.
Pressure gauges are vital for monitoring and maintaining pressure within a desired
range in various control systems. They provide real-time feedback for adjustments
to valves, pumps, or compressors to ensure optimal process efficiency and safety.
The construction and operation of the Bourdon tube is quite simple and thus does
not require any skilled operator for its handling.

• The most unique advantage of Bourdon tube over other types of pressure
gauges is its application at both low as well as high-pressure systems.
• The Bourdon tube doesn’t require any kind of electrical power for its
operations.
• It also provides you with good accuracy in real-time applications as well.
• Cost is comparatively on the lower side than other types of pressure gauges
and also has a long life as well.
APPLICABILITY : Bourdon tube gauges are widely used across numerous industries
due to their simplicity, affordability, and reliability. Applications include:

• Industrial Processes: Monitoring pressure in pipelines, tanks, and vessels in

manufacturing, oil and gas, chemical, and petrochemical industries.
• HVAC Systems: Monitoring pressure in heating, ventilation, and air
conditioning systems to ensure proper operation and safety.
• Automotive: Monitoring tire pressure to optimize fuel efficiency and ensure
vehicle safety. They are also used to measure engine oil pressure for
maintenance and diagnostics.
• Aerospace: Monitoring cabin pressure in aircraft to maintain a safe and
comfortable environment for passengers and crew.
• Medical Equipment: Monitoring pressure in medical devices such as
anesthesia machines, ventilators, and dialysis machines to ensure proper
functioning and patient safety.
• Research and Development: Bourdon tube pressure gauges are used in
laboratories and research facilities for experimentation, testing, and data
collection involving pressure-sensitive processes.
• Water Management: Monitoring water pressure in municipal water supply
systems, irrigation systems, and water treatment plants to ensure efficient
distribution and operation.
• Fire Protection: Monitoring pressure in fire suppression systems, including
sprinkler systems and fire hydrants, to ensure readiness for emergencies.
 2) Flow Measurement: Coriolis Mass Flowmeter

PRINCIPLE : In the Coriolis flow device, an actuator allows a small tube to vibrate
continuously around its natural frequency. Two sensors positioned along the tube
measure the deflection of this vibrating tube in time. Without a fluid flowing through
the tube, both sensors measure the same deflection at the same moment in time.
However, when a gas or liquid flows through the tube, the mass of this fluid poses an
additional twist to the tube due to the fluid’s inertia. The difference between the two,
known as the ‘phase shift’, is a direct measure of the mass flow through the tube.
This phase shift is proportional to the mass flow rate: a larger phase shift is the result
of a higher mass flow rate.

When a fluid is flowing in a pipe and it is subjected to Coriolis acceleration through

the mechanical introduction of apparent rotation into the pipe, the amount of
deflecting force generated by the Coriolis inertial effect will be a function of the mass
flow rate of the fluid. If a pipe is rotated around a point while liquid is flowing through
it (toward or away from the center of rotation), that fluid will generate an inertial force
(acting on the pipe) that will be at right angles to the direction of the flow.

With reference to Figure, a particle (dm) travels at a velocity (V) inside a tube (T).
The tube is rotating about a fixed point (P), and the particle is at a distance of one
radius (R) from the fixed point. The particle moves with angular velocity (w) under
two components of acceleration, a centripetal acceleration directed toward P and a
Coriolis acceleration acting at right angle to ar:

ar (centripetal) = w2r
at (Coriolis) = 2wv

In order to impart the Coriolis acceleration (at) to the fluid particle, a force of at (dm)
has to be generated by the tube. The fluid particle reacts to this force with an equal
and opposite Coriolis force:

Fc = at(dm) = 2wv(dm)

Then, if the process fluid has density (D) and is flowing at constant speed inside a
rotating tube of cross-sectional area A, a segment of the tube of length X will
experience a Coriolis force of magnitude:

Fc = 2wvDAx
Because the mass flowrate is dm = DvA, the Coriolis force Fc = 2w(dm)x and,
finally:

Mass Flow = Fc / (2wx)

This is how measurement of the Coriolis force exerted by the flowing fluid on the
rotating tube can provide an indication of mass flowrate. While rotating a tube is not
necessarily practical standard operating procedure when building a commercial flow
meter, oscillating or vibrating the tube – which is practical – can achieve the same
effect.

Mass flow devices according to the Coriolis effect do even more – they measure
fluid density. While phase shift is a measure for mass flow rate, the vibration
(natural) frequency is a measure for fluid density. The density of a fluid affects the
vibration frequency of the tube: denser fluids vibrate with a lower frequency than less
dense ones. So this vibration frequency is a direct measure of the density of the
liquid or gas. Mass flow rate and density are measured independently of each other
using the same device, illustrating the versatility of Coriolis flow meters.

Transmitters can operate on either AC or DC power and require separate wiring for
the power supply and for their output signals. The Coriolis flow meter transmitter can
be integrally or remotely mounted. The transmitter controls the operation of the driver
and processes and transmits the sensor signals. The calibration factor (K) in the
transmitter’s memory matches the transmitter to the particular flow tube. This
calibration factor defines the constant of proportionality between the Coriolis force
and the mass flow rate for the dynamic spring constant of the particular vibrating
tubes.
USE :
• Accuracy
The main reason for the choice of a Coriolis flow meter over other types of
meters for mass and density measurement is their accuracy, which is 0.1 of a
percent. This one factor has been the reason for their rapid growth over the last
decade.
• Adaptability
There are few limits to the types of substances a Coriolis flow meter can
measure. Since they are not influenced by ambient conditions, they can be used
to measure a wide assortment of gases, liquids, and fluids including high
viscosity fluids, liquid-solid two-phase fluids, liquid-gas two-phase fluids
containing trace gases, and dense high pressure gases.
• Flow Effect
When the flow of the material has a non-uniform or varying velocity from
upstream and downstream pipelines, such disturbances and changes do not
have an effect on the ability of the meter to take flow readings. This can be
further improved by installing the meter on a straight line pipe as seen in the
diagram below.
• Viscosity
One of the more difficult characteristics to measure in a fluid is viscosity, the
thickness or texture of a material or the rate at which it deforms. This particular
characteristic of fluids can be a challenge for standard meters but does not
affect the readings of a Coriolis flow meter. Viscosity readings provide data on
the thickness of a fluid as well as how easily it flows.
• Data
A Coriolis flow meter is a multifunctional device that provides a set of readings
regarding the movement and motion of a material through a pipeline. Though its
primary function is to provide mass flow readings, it produces data regarding
volume, density, temperature, and various other types of signals. The types of
readings may vary across the different types of Coriolis flow meter producers
but have basic similarities regarding measurements of mass, density,
temperature, and viscosity.
• Bidirectional Flow Measurement
Bidirectional flow is not a very common factor in production operations but
requires the same measurement as normal one directional flow. In bidirectional
flow, the piping is used for flow in opposite directions. For most meters, a great
deal of adjustment is necessary to measure flow in an opposite direction. This is
not the case for a Coriolis flow meter due to its adaptability and ease of
adjustment.
• Unique Fluid Measurement
Certain types of fluids are a mixture of fluids and gas. Measurement of such
substances with these unique characteristics can be difficult due to their unusual
nature. The ability of Coriolis flow meters to adapt to this type of unusual
condition is another example of the meter’s ability to perform regardless of the
material being measured. Coriolis mass flow meters can be used to monitor the
movement of asphalt, molasses, syrup, glucose, and slurry, which is another
reason for the rapid growth of their use.
APPLICABILITY :
• Raw material handling
The accuracy requirements of pharmaceutical processes differ depending on
total batch size. For example, scaled down processes tend to have much higher
accuracy requirements than larger batches. Raw material handling is often
measured out by weight, using lower accuracy methods. However, when batch
sizes or SOP dictate higher accuracy measurement methods, Coriolis meters
can be easily used to flow and measure raw materials. A lower-accuracy flow
meter may also be sufficient, however Coriolis meters have the added benefit
that their measurements are not affected by changes in flow composition.
• Water for injection
The water used to clean and disinfect skids between batches has high purity
requirements, necessitating the use of a meter which can be easily cleaned and
sterilized. Additionally, flowing large amounts of water has the potential to lead
to a lot of waste of both energy and the water itself – which lead to higher
process costs. Using a higher accuracy flow device can reduce waste and lead
to lower overall process cost. Considering both purity and process efficiency, a
Coriolis is a practical solution for water injection.
• Pill coatings
Pill coating requires accurate, repeatable application of small amounts of paint
to pills, and also monitoring of airflow to pill coaters. Coriolis meters are able to
meet the high-accuracy, low-flow requirements of these various pill finishing
processes.
• Filling
Coriolis meters are useful for filling applications in pharma (and a host of other
industries). Because they function independently of conductivity and viscosity
without losing any precision, Coriolis meters are more widely applicable and
reliable than alternatives including measurements by weight, volumetric flow, or
electromagnetic flowmeters. Because it is simple to design Coriolis meters
with hygienic connections and without any crevices inside the device, they are a
useful pharma technology even in a downstream process.
 3) Level Measurement: Ultrasonic Level Transmitter

PRINCIPLE : Ultrasonic level transmitters emit a sound pulse towards the liquid
surface. The time it takes for the reflected pulse to return is measured. Knowing the
speed of sound, the instrument calculates the distance to the surface, which
corresponds to the level. An ultrasonic level transmitter is fixed at the top of a tank
half filled with liquid. The reference level for all measurements is the bottom of the
tank. Level to be detected is marked as “C”, and “B” is the distance of the
ultrasonic sensor from the liquid level. Ultrasonic pulse signals are transmitted from
the transmitter, and it is reflected back to the sensor. Travel time of the ultrasonic
pulse from sensor to target and back is calculated. Level “C” can be found by
multiplying half of this time with the speed of sound in air. The measuring unit final
result can be centimeters, feet, inches etc.

Level = Speed of sound in air x Time delay / 2

Ultrasonic Sensor is the heart of the ultrasonic level Transmitter instrument. This
sensor will translate electrical energy into ultrasound waves. Piezoelectric crystals
are used for this conversion process. Piezoelectric crystals will oscillate at high
frequencies when electric energy is applied to it. The reverse is also true. These
piezoelectric crystals will generate electrical signals on receipt of ultrasound. These
sensors are capable of sending ultrasound to an object and receive the echo
developed by the object. The echo is converted into electrical energy for onward
processing by the control circuit.

A micro-controller based Control Circuit monitors all the activities of the ultrasonic
level transmitter. There are two Pulse Transmission Circuits, one for transmitter
pulse and the other one for receiver pulse. The pulse generated by the transmitter
pulse is converted to Ultrasound pulses by the Ultrasonic Sensor (Transmitter) and
targeted towards the object.

This ultrasound pulse is reflected back as an echo pulse to the Ultrasonic Sensor
(Receiver). The receiver converts this Ultrasonic pulse to an electrical signal pulse
through the pulse generator. The time elapsed, or the reflection time is measured by
the counter. This elapsed time has relation to the level to be measured. This
elapsed time is converted to level by the Control Circuit. There is a Timing
Generator Circuit which is used to synchronize all functions in the ultrasonic level
measurement system.

The level is finally converted to 4-20mA signal. 4mA is 0% level, and 20mA is the
100% level. This 4-20mA output signal carrying the level data can be transmitted to
long distance to Process Control Instruments.
USE :
Ultrasonic level sensors are a powerful tool for measuring the level of liquids and
other materials, offering several key advantages, including:
• Accurate and Reliable Measurement: Ultrasonic level sensors use advanced
technology to determine the level of liquids with high precision, ensuring
accurate and reliable measurements.
• Non-Contact Measurement: Ultrasonic level sensors use sound waves to
determine the level of liquids, eliminating the risk of contamination through
direct contact with the material.
• Immunity to Dust, Vapors, and Liquids: Ultrasonic level sensors are immune
to dust, vapors, and liquids, making them ideal for use in challenging
environments.
• No Maintenance Required: Ultrasonic level sensors require very little
maintenance, making them a low-maintenance solution for accurate level
measurements.

APPLICABILITY :
• Liquid Level Monitoring in the Food and Beverage Processing:
Ultrasonic Level Sensor, which is non-contact and pollution-free, has been paid
more and more attention as an important part of food equipment. As a liquid level
measurement and control instrument—Ultrasonic Level Sensor, it truly protects
food. In the beverage industry, strict hygiene testing is a basic requirement for food
and beverages. Ultrasonic Level Sensor can solve the monitoring of beverage
storage, including the detection of containers such as wine and fruit juice. The non-
contact measurement method ensures a good production environment. The
integrated design of Ultrasonic Level Sensor is convenient for installation and
maintenance, and also brings great convenience to the production and monitoring
process. At the same time, with the improvement of living standards, our
requirements for food packaging are gradually increasing. Ultrasonic Level Sensor
is used to detect whether the packaging box is full, quantify the packaging volume,
control the filling liquid level, etc. Improve production efficiency above 50%. And
provide continuous monitoring data for production enterprises. The timely sharing
of data has a very positive impact on food accident handling and food risk
assessment and judgment. Ultrasonic Level Sensor’s diverse installation methods,
beam angle design of less than 9°C, and response time of less than 200ms to
ensure higher accuracy make Ultrasonic Level Sensor more important in Liquid
Level Monitoring in the Food and Beverage Processing.

• Tank Level Monitoring in the Oil and Gas Industry

The oil and gas industry is all about efficiency, accuracy, and safety, and ultrasonic
level sensors play a crucial role in achieving these goals. Ultrasonic Level Sensors
are used in a variety of applications, from measuring the level of liquids in tanks to
monitoring the flow of liquids in pipelines. One of the main advantages of using
ultrasonic level sensors in the oil and gas industry is their ability to measure liquids
with high precision. Another advantage of ultrasonic level sensors is their non-
contact measurement method. Unlike other sensors that come into direct contact
with the material being measured, ultrasonic level sensors use sound waves to
determine the level, which eliminates the risk of contamination. Finally, ultrasonic
level sensors are also low-maintenance, which is an important factor in the fast-
paced and demanding environment of the oil and gas industry.

• Level Measurement in Waste Water Treatment Plants

Ultrasonic Level Sensor is widely used in liquid level measurement projects in
waterworks, wastewater treatment plants, chemical reagent factories, dye factories,
pulp mills and other factories. It is one of the main liquid level measurement
methods in the modern intelligent automation industry. The composition of sewage
is complex and corrosive, and floating objects are easy to form on the surface of
the liquid. Therefore, the required Level Sensor is sensitive and reliable. Ultrasonic
has the characteristics of strong signal penetration and sensitive response, and is
the recommended choice for sewage level measurement. Judging from the actual
application effect of the sewage treatment station, the workers on duty can obtain
accurate sewage water level conditions through the LED display. The frequent
measurement work of manual ruler inspection is saved. Save a lot of manpower and
improve work efficiency. At the same time, the Ultrasonic Level Sensor can reflect
the water level in a timely manner, which is conducive to the real-time and
reasonable management and control of the dispatching room according to the
water level. It effectively solves the problem of data deviation caused by inaccurate
measurement data and ensures the smooth progress of operations.

• Level Measurement in Reservoirs

Reservoirs play a very important role in water conservancy projects. The
construction of reservoirs is a hydraulic engineering building for flood storage and
regulation of water flow. It can be used for water storage, irrigation, power
generation, flood control and fish farming. Ultrasonic level gauges can measure
changes in content in rivers, lakes, seawater, reservoirs, canals, and pools.
The level of liquids in reservoirs is an important indicator of the amount of resources
available, and it is used to optimize the production process and minimize waste.
Ultrasonic Level Sensors use sound waves to determine the level of liquids,
providing accurate measurements even in challenging environments where
traditional sensors may fail.

Reference : Coulton Fuji Electric Instruments and Control

4) Concentration Measurement: Near-Infrared (NIR) Spectrometer

PRINCIPLE :
Underpinning all spectrophotometric techniques, including near-infrared (NIR)
spectroscopy, lies the fundamental principle known as the Beer-Lambert Law. This
law establishes a direct correlation between the concentration of a solute within a
solution and the light absorption at specific wavelengths.
In simpler terms, as the concentration of the solute increases, the solution absorbs
more radiation at characteristic wavelengths. NIR spectroscopy, however, diverges
from other spectroscopic methods in the underlying mechanism of light-matter
interaction.

Unlike techniques such as ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) spectroscopy that excite

electrons within atoms, NIR spectroscopy interacts with entire molecules. More
precisely, it influences the vibrational motion of the bonds that hold these
constituent atoms together. Upon exposure to near-infrared radiation, a molecule
absorbs the impinging electromagnetic photons, initiating a process known as
vibrational transition.

This transition manifests as a change in the molecule's vibrational state, prompting

it to stretch, shrink, bend, or rock back and forth. Due to this specific mechanism,
NIR spectroscopy is aptly termed vibrational absorption spectroscopy. The unique
vibrational modes exhibited by a molecule based on its constituent elements are
key to determining a material's chemical composition through NIR spectroscopy.

For instance, a water molecule, comprised of two partially positively charged

hydrogen atoms bonded to a partially negatively charged oxygen atom, can adopt
specific higher-energy vibrational modes when exposed to certain infrared radiation
frequencies. These modes include the asymmetric stretch, where one hydrogen
bond shrinks while the other extends; the symmetric stretch, where both hydrogen
bonds undergo simultaneous contraction or extension; and the scissoring bend,
characterized by the rocking motion of both hydrogen atoms towards each other.

Identifying the vibrational mode a molecule enters upon infrared radiation exposure,
along with the specific frequency required for excitation, forms the core operational
principle behind NIR spectroscopy. This technique offers a powerful analytical tool
for elucidating the chemical composition of various materials.

USE :
NIR spectrometers offer a rapid, non-destructive method for real-time concentration
measurement in various processes. This information can be used in control systems
for:
• Maintaining consistent product quality: By monitoring the concentration of
key components throughout the production process, adjustments can be
made to ensure final product quality meets specifications.
• Optimizing process efficiency: Real-time concentration data allows for
control adjustments to optimize the use of raw materials and minimize waste.
• Ensuring process safety: NIR spectroscopy can be used to monitor for the
presence of hazardous materials or contaminants within a process stream,
triggering alarms or safety protocols if necessary.
• Rapid testing process: NIR testing takes less time than other non-
spectroscopic chemical analysis methods that require extensive preparation
and manipulation.
• High accuracy and sensitivity: Compared to other spectroscopy methods
and UV-Vis spectroscopy in particular, NIR spectroscopy can be accurate
and sensitive Second, a NIR spectrophotometer features gratings that help
precisely select specific wavelengths during the testing process. As a result,
NIRS can accurately determine even the smallest amount of a chemical
compound in the sample.
• High versatility: The fact that NIR spectroscopy depends on the presence of
hydrogenated compounds in the sample might seem like a limitation at first.
However, this is not the case, as hydrogen bonded compounds are present
in most organic and inorganic materials. As a result, it can be useful for both
quantitative and qualitative analysis in a wide range of scenarios.

APPLICABILITY :
Because of its non-destructive nature, high speed, and accuracy, NIR spectroscopy
is commonly used in a variety of scientific and industrial applications.
Most of these applications are motivated by the NIRS’ outstanding ability to detect
the presence of water or other organic chemicals in a sample. Here are just a few
examples.
• Petrochemical Analysis
Crude oil and its byproducts are nothing more than a collection of hydrocarbon and
organic compounds arranged in specific quantities and proportions. This makes
petrochemical analysis at different stages of oil refining a perfect application for NIR
testing.
The most common application of near-infrared spectroscopy in petrochemical
analysis is determining the octane number of refined gasoline in real-time, during
production. The octane number of gasoline is defined as the proportion of 2,2,4-
trimethylpentane (iso-octane) to heptane in a refined gasoline mixture.
Both these materials are alkanes based on carbon-hydrogen bonds (C—H), which
are very receptive to near-infrared radiation within the 900nm–1700nm wavelength
range. The same applies to other components of petroleum and petroleum-based
fuels, such as the PIONA (Paraffins, Isoparaffins, Olefins, Napthenes, and
Aromatics).
Compared to conventional in-engine testing, determining the octane number of
refined gasoline using near-infrared spectrophotometry is faster, cheaper, and less
invasive.
• Beverage Production
The unique interaction between near-infrared radiation and carbon-hydrogen bonds
makes near-infrared spectroscopy useful for determining the presence and quantity
of two particular chemical compounds — sugar and ethanol.
As a result, NIR testing is commonly used for quality control during the production
of beverages that incorporate sugar, ethanol, or both. The best example of the latter
is beer. In beer brewing, the quality of the end product depends on maintaining the
right proportions of alcohol, fermentable sugar, non-fermentable sugar, diacetyl,
and alpha acids that are responsible for the beer’s bitterness.
All of these components are organic compounds that can be accurately measured
at any point during the fermentation and brewing process using NIR testing.
• Food Production
Considering how useful NIR testing can be in beverage production, it only makes
sense that it is equally useful in the quality control of food products.
That’s because near-infrared spectroscopy is capable of identifying and measuring
essential food components and nutrients, from the sugar that we mentioned to fats,
proteins, carbohydrates, and more.
Near-infrared light is not blocked or interrupted by translucent materials, such as
glass. This is not the case with UV-Vis spectroscopy or other types of infrared
spectroscopy. As a result, NIR spectrophotometry can be used to evaluate the
quality of food products without disturbing the final packaging.

Reference : tec5 USA