CHAPTER – I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Education is a dynamic process through which individuals gain
knowledge, experience and skills. Its goal is to make an individual perfect.
This process is ongoing can take various forms, including formal, informal and
non-formal. In formal education, teacher plays a crucial role in the progress of
students. It serves as a foundation for a developed and powerful country
being a vital element for the growth and prosperity of a nation. Broadly sense,
education encompasses any experience that shapes an individual’s mind,
character and physique abilities. More technically, it refers to the way society
intentionally passes down transmit its accumulated knowledge, skills and
values from one generation to another. Since dawn of humanity, education
has been essential for survival. It is a powerful tool that contributes too many
areas of a person’s life, enabling them to take advantages of what has been
learnt and how to productively use it either in personal or professional life.
Education is the most effective weapon which can used to change the
world. It serves as the fundamental resource for individuals that facilitate
learning continuous and thus improve knowledge, skills and behaviour. It
trains head, hand and heart has placed him in the position of leadership on
earth. It gives understanding and enlightenment. Education spreads
awareness in society about how we can be a good social being and help
people knowing them their fundamental rights. It helps in imparting moral
values which is missing in our youth and needs to be address to change the
world, as he is brimming with confidence and assured of making right moves.
In today’s world having good education is always important so as to have a
brighter life style, better ability to adjust to new environment, which ensures
brighter future for everyone.
As society changes, education system, which is the backbone of
society also changes and thus teaching-learning process also undergoes
changes. It is regarded as important criteria for the progress of individual day

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to day activities. It is education where the body and mind have been
strengthened through better understanding. Dr. Kalam (2006) stated that
mission of education in 21st century is crucial for fostering enlightened citizens
who will make a prosperous, joyful and powerful nation. This mission is
essential which is why education has taken on a more significant role in future
plans, particularly for young people. Through education we gain skills and
knowledge necessary to thrive in various competitive fields. Higher levels of
education often lead to increased income, a more prestigious career, lower
risk of unemployment and enhanced well-being. In the world of science and
technology, it is education that determines well-being and prosperity of
people. While much of this learning occurs under the guidance of educators,
self-directed learning is also a valuable path. Living a life filled with happiness
and prosperity is essential, as it empowers the mind to generate positive
thoughts and ideas. It also enables student to take decisions in life. It guides
human to fight with failure and get progress in life. It enables individuals to
achieve the best of his abilities and become valuable contributors of society.
Thus education is the key to a healthy mind and successful life.

1.1.1 EDUCATIONAL ASPIRATIONS

Educational aspirations combine two key concepts: education and
aspirations. Education is vital for shaping an individual’s unique identity and
fostering overall all personality development, while aspirations represent the
goals one aims to achieve the over time. These aspirations can also serve as
benchmarks evaluating performance, helping individuals assess whether they
are successful or not. The word educational aspirations reflect desire for
something greater. They are essential for reaching one’s targets. Aspirations
are goals that have not yet been realized but are attainable in future. They
involve the abilities to set future objectives based on an understanding of
personal needs and interests. These aspirations are not only reflect an
individual’s potential but also embody their expectation educational success.
Bisrell (1977) stated that educational aspirations or expectations as an
individuals expressed desire to pursue further formal education beyond high
school. These aspirations reflect one’s eagerness, inspirations and desires to
fulfil specific goals. The extent of these aspirations significantly influences

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one’s motivation. When aspirations are high, individuals are more likely to
pursue their goals with enthusiasm and determination. And the opposite is
true when aspirations are low.
Lerner (1981) stated that aspirations as the desire for what one has
accomplished with progress being the ultimate goal. The term ‘aspirations’
has been utilized across various fields, including; sociology, psychology,
religion, ethics, vocational and educational guidance. While education plays a
crucial role in human life, it can only benefit individuals if they possess a
sufficient level of educational aspirations. These aspirations represent the
educational objectives that person sets for themselves, and they are vital
because motivate and inspire individual to reach those goals.
Furlong and Cartmel (1995) viewed that educational aspirations reflect
not just a person’s perceived abilities but also their expectation for their own
educational achievement. These aspirations represent the goals that
individual set for themselves, playing a crucial role in motivating and
energizing them to reach those goals. They are vital component of a well-
rounded personality and deserve careful attention, individuals often align their
aspirations with what they believe they can realistically achieve, allowing them
to anticipate potential challenge or obstacles they may encounter. Their levels
of aspiration are seen as a compelling orientation along the spectrum of
difficulty concerning the goals they wish to attain.
Arbona (2000) emphasized that educational aspirations develop early
in a student’s life and continue to influence their academic journey. These
aspirations act as a bridge between ambition and actual work, providing
individuals with a clear sense of direction. They help students remain focused,
motivated and goal-oriented throughout their education.
Aspirations also play a significant role in shaping future achievements.
They provide individuals with a sense of purpose and determination, enabling
them to set long-term educational and career goals. The level of aspirations a
student possesses directly affects their academic success and professional
growth. If aspirations are high, individuals tend to work harder, stay
committed, and achieve their objectives with dedication. Conversely, those
with low aspirations may struggle with motivation, face uncertainly, and fail to

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utilize their potential effectively. The relationship between aspirations and
abilities is crucial in determining success. While abilities reflect an individual’s
innate talents and acquired skills, aspirations serve as the driving force that
helps them maximize their potential. In many cases, aspirations prove to be
more significant than abilities, as they encourage individuals to push their
limits, enhance their skills and strive for excellence.
Garg et al. (2002) highlighted the role of parents in shaping their
children’s educational aspirations. Parents act as primary influences by
providing support, encouragement and opportunities for learning.
Educational aspirations are influenced by three key factors:
background factors, personal factors and environmental factors. Background
factors include social and demographic attributes such as age, gender, socio-
economic status and family structure. Personal factors encompass an
individual’s attitude, interest and commitment to education. Environmental
factors involve external influences such as parental involvement, school
environment and peer support.
Sirin et al. (2004) described aspirations as the dreams and ambitions
that student hold for their educational and vocational future. These aspirations
help shape their academic goals, career choices and overall approach
towards learning.
Sharma and Gupta (2015) viewed educational aspirations as a part of
a hierarchical system, where individuals set goals based on social prestige
and personal ambition. In this sense, aspirations not only define academic
targets but also influence career pathways and social mobility.
Aspirations expand an individual’s educational perspective by
encouraging systematic thinking and goal-setting. They require deep
realization and careful planning to ensure progress in education. Setting
aspirations involves key questions: What do I want to become? What
challenges will I face? How much effort is required? What will be the
outcome? These questions guide individuals in developing a structured
approach towards their educational and career objectives.

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 Educational aspirations depend on an individual’s ability to think
critically and set realistic goals. A distinction is often made between
aspirations and expectations. Expectations are shaped by external factors
such as family, society and cultural norms, whereas aspirations arise from an
individual’s inner drive and personal ambition. While expectations may
change based on external circumstances, aspirations remain a fundamental
force that directs individuals towards their goals.
Aspirations play a vital role in predicting academic achievement and
self-confidence. They help individuals focus on their desire for success and
develop strategies to attain their goals. Different theoretical perspectives
highlight the significance of aspirations in shaping future behaviour.
Educational aspirations are linked to motivation, self-discipline and
perseverance, which are essential qualities for academic and professional
success.
A strong connection exists between educational aspirations and
lifelong learning. Individuals with high aspirations continue to seek knowledge,
improve their skills and explore new opportunities even after formal education
ends. Lifelong learning is essential for adapting to changing circumstances,
enhancing career prospects and achieving personal growth. In conclusion,
educational aspirations are an integral part of an individual’s academic and
professional journey. They provide motivation, direction and a sense of
purpose, enabling individuals to set and achieve meaningful goals. The
development of aspirations is influenced by various factors, including personal
ambition, parental support and socio-economic conditions. By fostering high
educational aspirations, individuals can unlock their full potential, enhance
their career prospects and contribute positively to society.
The National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 further reinforces the
importance of educational aspirations by promoting a student-centred
approach that supports individual growth, creativity, and exploration. It
emphasises flexibility in the learning process, allowing students to pursue
subjects that align with their interests and long-term goals. National Education
Policy (2020) encourages schools to foster curiosity and self-discovery
through activity-based and multidisciplinary learning, while also integrating

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vocational education from an early stage to broaden career perspectives. By
introducing guidance and counselling services, the policy aims to help
students set meaningful goals based on their strengths and aspirations. This
approach not only boosts their confidence but also motivates them to aim
higher, regardless of their socio-economic background. In this way, National
Education Policy (2020) aligns closely with the broader understanding of
educational aspirations, as it helps students form clear academic and career
objectives and supports them in pursuing their potential with purpose and
direction.

[Link] Factors Influencing Educational Aspirations

Several factors influence a person’s educational aspirations. These
factors shape the way individuals set and pursue their educational goals. The
most significant ones are:
 Socio-economic status: A family’s financial condition plays a major
role in a child’s education. Wealthy parents with good social standing
can effort to send their children to well-reputed and well-equipped
schools, where their aspirations can develop and expand. In contrast,
children from financially disadvantaged backgrounds often face limited
opportunities, which may restrict their aspirations and educational
growth.
 Psychological well-being: A person’s mental health significantly
affects their ability to set and achieve educational goals. A child with
strong mental health will be more confident, willing to explore different
perspectives and ready to face challenges. On the other hand, a child
struggling with poor mental health may find it difficult to overcome
obstacles, making them more likely to give up.
 Parental support: Parents play a crucial role in shaping a child’s
aspirations. Encouragement and positive reinforcement, such as
simple words of praise like “well-done, you can do this” can boost a
child’s morale and motivation, even in difficult situations. However, if
parents set unrealistic expectations without considering and negatively
impact their aspirations.

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  Peer groups: The influence of friends and classmates also play a vital
role in a child’s aspirations. Being surrounded by supportive, ambitious
and optimistic peers can encourage a child associates with a group
that lacks motivation, encourages in negative activities, or has a
pessimistic outlook, their aspirations may diminish.
 Society: The social environment in which a child grows up can either
nurture or limits their aspirations. A resourceful and progressive society
that offers opportunities for growth and success will naturally inspire
children to aim higher. However, if a society lacks the necessary
support systems or resources, a child’s motivation to pursue education
may decline. These factors can be broadly classified into two
categories:
(i) Personal factors: These are shaped by an individual’s interests,
attitude, intelligence, caste, personality, age and gender.
(ii) Environmental factors: These include external influences such as
media, type and location of the school, family atmosphere, parental
support, family structure, societal support, competitive environment,
family status, friendships, parents’ educational background, their
expectations and their socio-economic status.
While aspirations reflect what a person wants to achieve, their
realization depends on external support and available opportunities. To bridge
the gap between aspirations and achievement, all these factors must be
considered when designing educational policies and programs at local,
national and international levels.

[Link] Role of Educational Aspirations in Designing the Future Career

A child’s career depends greatly on their aspirations. Aspirations act
as a guiding and motivating force, shaping the child’s development and future
success. They influence the way a child sets goals, overcomes challenges
and achieves personal and academic growth. The key ways in which
educational aspirations impact a child’s progress are as follows:

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 Helps in identifying and learning the ways to achieve success:
Educational aspirations guide an individual towards their goals, saving
both time and effort. They help a person recognize their needs and
provide exposure to ways of fulfilling them. Aspirations serve as fuel for
the human soul, which remains restless until it reaches its goal.
 Provides a framework for achieving goals: Having clear aspirations
helps an individual plan and structures their efforts effectively. It allows
them to create a blueprint for their journey towards success, enabling
them to navigate obstacles with determination. Aspirations offer a
sense of direction, keeping the individual focused on their objectives
and ensuring smoother progress.
 Encourages the development of new skills and values: Aspirations
push individuals to explore new areas, learn new things and enjoy the
process of learning. They broaden a person’s perspective and inspire
them to acquire valuable skills. As a person aspires to grow, they
develop a mind-set that values continuous improvement. This makes
achieving goals easier and more rewarding.
 Enables self-evaluation and improvement: Aspirations do not just
set a path; they also provide a way to access progress. Individuals can
measure their achievements against their goals, identify their strengths
and work on their weaknesses. This process fosters self-awareness,
resilience and a strong determination to overcome challenges.
 Offers effective strategies for achieving goals: Educational
aspirations help individuals develop effective strategies to achieve their
targets. When a person has a clear goal, they can determine the best
course of action to reach it. This ensures they use their resources
wisely and make the most of their time and efforts.
 Encourages planning for the future: Aspirations play a crucial role in
shaping an individual’s future. During a student’s life, aspirations help
them gather knowledge, reflect on their experiences and prepare for
their career. Adolescence, in particular, is a time when individuals start
to understand their purpose and existence. Having the right aspirations
at the right time can guide them towards a meaningful future.

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 Promotes lifelong learning: Educational aspirations foster a deep
interest in learning, which enhances long-term memory and personal
growth. Learning is a lifelong process that begins at birth and continues
until the end of life. Aspirations provide individuals with a sense of
purpose, keeping them engaged in continuous learning and
development.
 Supports the realization of goals: Aspirations help individuals set
their goals and stay committed to achieving them. They keep people
motivated, encouraging them to work hard and patiently wait for the
results. The process of striving towards a goal makes individuals
appreciate their efforts and take pride in their achievements.
 Develop tolerance and flexibility: While setting goals is easy,
achieving them requires patience and adaptability. A person with high
aspirations learns to adjust to changing circumstances and work hard
to meet their targets. Aspirations test an individual’s ability to tolerate
challenges and adapt to situations, strengthening and resilience.
 Ensures the implementation of plans: Having aspirations is not
enough; success depends on the ability to implement and execute
plans effectively. Educational aspirations help individuals stay focused
and overcome obstacles, making it easier to put their plans into action.
They eliminate doubts and anxieties, providing clarity and motivation to
move forward.
 The impact of aspirations on academic success: Educational
aspirations play a crucial role in shaping a student’s academic career.
Those with high aspirations are more likely to make the most of
educational opportunities and achieve success. On the other hand,
students with low aspirations may struggle to take advantage of
learning opportunities and fall behind in their academic journey.
 Aspirations are an integral part of a child’s development: The
primary motivation behind education is to secure a better career and
financial stability. Therefore, it is essential to teach children the value of
hard work and perseverance in education. Sustaining economic and
technological development depends on educational aspirations, as
they drive individuals to pursue excellence.

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 People who do not aspire to achieve anything in life often struggle to
make progress. Aspirations give individuals a sense of purpose and direction.
Students learn from their past experiences and use that knowledge, wisdom
and understanding serves as the foundation for success. Aspirations not only
empower individuals to evaluate their performance but also help them realize
their potential, guiding them towards a successful future.

1.1.2 STUDENT ENGAGEMENT

Student engagement is frequently used to depict students’ willingness
to participate in routine school activities, such as attending class, submitting
required work and following teachers’ direction in the class. However, the term
is also increasingly used to describe meaningful student involvement
throughout the learning environment including students participating
curriculum design, classroom management and school climate. It refers to the
student’s active involvement in a learning activity. It is the degree of
awareness, curiosity, interest, optimism and passion that students show when
they are learning or being taught.
Finn (1989) viewed that two dimensional model of student engagement
which includes participation, or the behavioral component that contains
students’ compliance with school rules, response to teacher directions,
completion of assigned work and identification, an affective component which
concerns a sense of belonging and feelings toward school and learning.
Marks (2000) opinioned that student engagement as a composite of
psychological processes, involving the attention, investment and efforts
expended by students in their school work. It is the level of participation and
intrinsic interest shown in school.
Student engagement deals in educational psychology and one of the
imperative examination fields of educational research. It is essential and
helpful not just for students’ scholastic adequacy, learning, accomplishment,
their socialization, welfare, fulfilment with life and compelling learning. It is
characterized as the quality and amount of students’ mental, subjective and
enthusiasm furthermore, behavioural responses to the learning procedure and
also to in-class/ out-of-class scholarly and social exercise, to accomplish

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fruitful learning results. Student engagement as a multi-aspect construct that
includes effort, resiliency, passion, inspiration and involvement in learning
activities as the main facets of this construct.
Johnson et al. (2001) stated that engagement in school work involves
both students’ behavior and attitudes therefore engaged students seek
activities that lead them to become successful in their learning.
Hu and Kuh (2002) viewed that engagement as the quality of effort
devoted by the students themselves for educationally purposeful activities that
contribute directly to desired outcomes.
Fredricks et al. (2004) described that student engagement as
encompassing three interrelated dimensions: affective, behavioral, and
cognitive.
Coates (2007) stated that engagement as a broad construct which
encompasses salient academic as well as certain non-academic aspects of
the student experience. This broad construct comprises active an
collaborative learning, participation in challenging academic activities,
communication with academic staff, involvement in enriching educational
experiences and feeling legitimated and supported by university learning
communities.
Student engagement develops through continuous process such as
spending more time by the students’ lead to more clarify of the subjects,
which is then analyzed by the faculty, afterwards, feedback is provided to
them, which helps in the improvement of the skills related to academics and
deep learning. It is concerned with the interaction between the time, effort and
other relevant resources invested by both students and their institutions,
intended to optimize the students’ experience, enhance the learning
outcomes, development of the students, their performance and reputation of
the institution.
Krause and Coates (2008) opinioned that engagement to the active
commitment and purposeful effort expended by students toward all aspects of
their learning including both formal and informal activities.
Kuh et al. (2008) stated that student engagement denotes the time and
energy students employ in educationally fruitful activities. It was viewed as a
two dimensional construct. This term usually used to represent constructs
such as quality of effort and involvement in productive learning activities.

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 Skinner et al. (2009) viewed that engagement to the quality of a
students’ sense of connection or involvement with the endeavor of schooling
and hence with the people, activities, goals, values and place that compose it.
Student engagement refers to the degree of attention, curiosity,
interest, optimism and passion that students show when they are learning or
being taught, which extends to the level of motivation they have to learn and
progress in their education. It is predicted on the belief that learning improves
when students are inquisitive, interested or inspired and that learning tends to
suffer when students are bored, dispassionate, disaffected or otherwise
“disengaged.” It shows how intrinsically motivated students are in their
learning process.
Strydom and Mentz (2010) viewed that two key components: one is
that students do or the amount of time and energy that the students spends
on educationally purposive activities and Secondly, what institutions do or the
ways in which the institutions employ resources for effective educational
practices are included in the concept of student engagement.
Trowler (2010) described that engagement refers to the investment of
resources i.e. time and effort that either students or instructors make to
optimize experience of learning and enhance learning outcomes in the
classroom.
Christenson et al. (2012) viewed that student engagement as the
students’ active participation in academic and co-curricular or school-related
activities and commitment to educational goals and learning. Students those
are engaged find learning meaningful and are interested in their learning and
future.
Skinner and Pitzer (2012) stated that student engagement is not only
linked with positive behavior of students and their sense of belonging in the
classroom but also it is linked with positive academic outcomes. It is a
multidimensional construct that consists of behavioral, cognitive and affective
subtypes. It drives learning, requires energy and effort. It is affected by
multiple contextual influences; and can be achieved for all learners.
The National Education Policy (2020) suggests several ways to
improve student engagement in schools. It highlights the need to make
learning more enjoyable, meaningful, and connected to real life. The policy

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 encourages activity-based, hands-on, and experiential learning, where
students learn by doing rather than just memorising. It promotes the use of
storytelling, games, arts, group work, and projects to make classrooms
more interactive. National Educational Policy (2020) also suggests giving
students more choices in subjects and allowing them to follow their
interests, which can make them more involved and motivated. The policy
stresses the importance of creating a friendly and inclusive school
environment where all students feel safe, respected, and supported.
Teachers are encouraged to focus on each child’s needs and help them
grow at their own pace. By doing all these, National Education policy (2020)
aims to make students active participants in their education, rather than
passive listeners.
Student engagement has three interrelated dimensions: affective
engagement, behavioral engagement and cognitive engagement which are
explained as below:
1. Affective Engagement: Affective engagement refers to how students
feel about their school, teachers, classmates and subjects. It includes
emotions such as happiness, sadness, boredom, anxiety and interest.
This is also known as emotional engagement and sometimes called
‘identification’ with school and learning. Students are more engaged
when they feel a sense of belonging in school and form emotional
connections with their teachers and classmates. Affective engagement
looks at whether students have positive or negative feelings towards
their teachers, peers and schoolwork or school life in general.
Emotions play a big role in engagement. For example, when students
enjoy learning, they are more likely to pay attention and stay involved.
On the other hand, emotions like relief can sometimes make students
lose focus and become disengaged. While both positive and negative
emotions can affect engagement, research shows that positive
emotions are usually more helpful in keeping students motivated.
Affective engagement can be seen in how students emotionally
respond to a particular subject, like science or to their overall school
experience.

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2. Behavioral Engagement: Behavioral engagement refers to a
student’s active participation, effort, attention and persistence in
academic tasks. It involves positive conduct in class and school,
including rules, adhering to classroom norms and avoiding disruptive
behaviour such as truancy or misbehaviour. It includes participation in
classroom learning and academic activities, such as concentrating,
asking questions, contributing to discussions and showing persistence
in learning. Furthermore, behavioural engagement extends beyond
academics to participation in extracurricular activities such as sports
and school governance. It also involves self-directed academic
behaviour, such as overcoming challenges and seeking information
independently. It includes punctuality, attendance and adherence to
school rules. Importantly, behavioural engagement contributes to high
student performance through collaboration and communication with
peers. It reflects a student’s willingness to put in effort and persist in
the force of academic challenges.
3. Cognitive Engagement: Cognitive engagement relates to a student’s
psychological investment in learning. It involves using learning
strategies, self-regulation and strategic thinking to deep understanding.
Students, who are cognitively engaged show commitment to their
learning, set goals, remain focused and adapt when facing difficulties.
Cognitive engagement is measured by factors such as homework
completion, class participation, interaction with teachers and motivation
in classroom discussions. It involves interest, attention and mental
effort in learning tasks, using cognitive strategies to grasp complex
ideas and master new skills. Students with high cognitive engagement
frequently use study techniques like retrieval practice and self-
regulated learning strategies, which help in long-term comprehension
of challenging subjects. Self- regulated learning plays a crucial role in
cognitive engagement. Students, who self-regulate their learning set
specific academic goals, plan their study schedules, monitor their
progress and adjust their strategies based on performance. They are
proactive in their learning, using techniques such as summarisation,

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 elaboration and critical thinking to enhance understanding.
Metacognition, or the ability to think about one’s own thinking, is
another essential aspect of cognitive engagement, allowing students to
assess their comprehension and make necessary adjustments.
Furthermore, cognitive engagement is closely linked to intrinsic
motivation. Students who are intrinsically motivated engage in learning
activities out of interest and curiosity rather than external rewards. This
motivation fosters a deeper understanding of concepts and encourages
persistence when faced with academic challenges. Teachers can
enhance cognitive engagement by creating a stimulating learning
environment, incorporating active learning strategies and providing
opportunities for problem-solving and critical thinking. Encouraging
students to ask questions engage in discussions and apply knowledge
in real-world scenarios fosters deep cognitive involvement.

1.1.3 ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT

The term ‘academic achievement’ is a combination of two words:
‘academic’ and ‘achievement.’ It refers to the knowledge, attainment and skills
that pupils develop in school subjects. These are assessed by authorities
using achievement test in the form of examinations. With advancements in
science, education, culture and civilization, people have become more
education-minded. In the process of educating young learners, there are has
been an increasing focus on measuring performance in school subjects.
Techers’ grading and the marks obtained by students are considered the most
valuable indicators for classifying and placing students in different
occupations at the time of employment. Academic achievement, as a
measure of competency in school, is usually assessed through standardized
tests and expressed in graded based on norms derived from a broad sample
of students’ performance. It is the total sum of information a student
possesses at the end of a course of instruction. It becomes evident when a
student develops into a resourceful and enthusiastic learner who is ultimately
capable.

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 Crow and Crow (1956) defined achievement as the extent to which a
learner benefits from instruction in a specific area of learning. Academic
achievement as the knowledge attained or skills developed in school subjects,
usually determined by test scores or marks assigned by teachers.
The term ‘academic achievement’ is generally used to describe
performance in curriculum subjects. It refers to the qualities, attributes,
characteristics or traits of an individual that contribute to or directly influence
learning and proficiency in academic tasks. It represents the level of success
achieved by an individual or group upon completing a task, particularly at the
end of an academic session. Achievement is reflected in the level of skill or
knowledge an individual acquires through training. The depth and range of a
student’s knowledge of proficiency in learning and behavior indicate their level
of achievement.
Uhlinger and stephens (1960) viewed academic achievement as a
unique responsibility of educational institutions, which are established by
society to promote the development of learners. It is the performance of
students in school or college in a standardized series of educational tests.
Academic or scholastic achievement refers to the level at which a
student is performing in different school subjects such as Hindi, social studies
and science measured by school marks or grades. It can be assessed in
several ways, including CGPA, percentage of marks in exams and
performance on tests. Academic achievement can represent either general
achievement; the total scores or grades obtained at the end of an examination
or specific achievement in a particular subject. It is a complex concept, not a
single-dimensional phenomenon but a multi-dimensional activity. Continuous
assessment of academic achievement is now gaining more importance. Since
education systems have become achievement-oriented, high academic
achievement is considered one of the primary goals of education. It is
recognized as a strong foundation for progress and ambition, involving self-
improvement, self-actualization and elements of competitiveness.
Achievement refers to the success or proficiency gained during an
individual’s educational journey, assessed by school authorities using
standardized or teacher-made achievement tests. When assessing
achievement, it is essential to consider learning goals, the assessment

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method used and purpose of evaluation, as these factors influence the
interpretation of student achievement results. Academic achievement includes
everything students accomplish at school, college or university whether in the
classroom, laboratory, library or fieldworks. It can also include excellence in
co-curricular activities such as sports, arts and cultural events. It involves not
only academic excellence but also qualities such as punctuality, confidence,
communication skills, assertiveness and positive behaviour. Standardized
achievement tests developed for school subjects measure academic
achievement, determining what has been learned at the end of a course as
part of medium or long-term educational progress.
Mehta and Kumar (1985) stated that academic achievement is the
average score in examinations across all subjects. It is one of the most
important educational goals and serves as a measure of student success and
failure.
Achievement tests are designed to measure educational progress in
school according to a standard pattern of skills and knowledge. The term is
generally used to describe performance in curriculum subjects. It refers to the
characteristics, qualities and skills of an individual that influence their
proficiency in academic tasks. Academic achievement measures knowledge
and understanding in specific subjects or multiple subjects combined. It is
concerned with both the quantity and quality of learning gained in a subject or
group of subjects over time. Achievement is usually recorded using the best
scores or marks assigned by teachers. Assessing academic achievement
helps both students and teachers understand progress and areas for
improvement.
Chhabra (1990) stated that achievement is synonymous with
performance. The recognition of an individual’s knowledge or proficiency in a
specific area of learning or behaviour indicates their level of achievement. It is
a crucial part of broader educational growth. Test scores and marks assigned
to students based on their achievement test performance determine their
academic status compared to other students and the standards set by the
school or college. Academic achievement is the outcome of education,

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reflecting what students, teachers and institutions have achieved in their
educational goals. Students acquire knowledge through classroom teaching,
where teachers assign tasks and evaluate their performance.
Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary (2001) defined that academic
achievement is the art of achieving results through effort, reflecting the quality
and quantity of a student’s work.
Dictionary of Education (2002) described that academic achievement
as a measure of knowledge gained through formal education, usually
indicated by test scores, grade point averages or degrees earned. Many
factors influence academic achievement, including geographical location, as
different environments shape students’ educational experiences.
Academic achievement is essential for students’ occupational and
economic success. It enhances self-esteem, boosts confidence and reduces
stress and anxiety. Higher academic achievement is linked to greater
happiness and overall well-being. Students who achieve well academically
become resourceful and enthusiastic learners who are capable of handling
future challenges. Academic success requires dedication, self-discipline,
motivation and positive relationship with parents, peers and teachers.
Achievement is the progress a learner makes in their studies, typically
measured using standardized or teacher-made tests. It represents the
knowledge and acquired skills developed in school subjects, usually indicated
by marks obtained in tests.
The National Education Policy (2020) and the Annual Status of
Education Report (2024) both focus on improving the academic achievement
of school students in India. National Education Policy (2020) highlights the
need for strong foundational skills in literacy and numeracy, especially in the
early years of schooling, as these are seen as the building blocks for all future
learning. It also promotes activity-based and experiential learning, less rote
memorisation, and more focus on understanding concepts. National
Education Policy (2020) encourages continuous assessment and the use of
technology to support learning. Annual Status of Education Report (2024) on
the other hand, found that while enrolment remains high, many students still
struggle with basic reading and arithmetic. It recommends urgent attention to

18
improving teaching methods and providing additional support for children who
are falling behind. Both National Education Policy (2020) and Annual Status of
Education Report (2024) stress the importance of trained teachers, engaging
classrooms, and regular assessment to ensure that all students can learn
effectively and reach their academic potential.
In a broader sense, academic achievement refers to the knowledge an
individual gains from their education. It results from both general and specific
learning experiences. It is the primary goal of formal education and
individual’s success or failure in life is often measured by their academic
performance. Academic includes attitudes, interests and values, which are
learned, acquired, retained and sometimes forgotten just like knowledge and
skills.
Thus, achievement refers to a person’s skill level, range of knowledge
and accomplishments in a particular area of learning or behavior. From the
above explanations, it can be concluded that academic achievement is at the
core of the broader concept of ‘educational growth.’ few would deny its
importance in a child’s life. Achievement in school represents any desirable
learning outcome observed in students. However, whether a specific learning
outcome is considered an achievement depends on whether it is regarded as
valuable or not. Academic achievement is largely concerned with developing
knowledge, facts, understanding and acquiring essential.

[Link] Factors Influencing Academic Achievement

Following are the factors that affect academic achievement of adolescents:
 Positive attribution: Students who attributes their success and
failures to positive factors tend to perform better than those with a
negative outlook. Positive attribution means believing that success is
due to high ability, while failure is due to a lack of effort. In contrast,
negatively oriented students believe their success is due to luck and
their failures are caused by low ability or external factors.
 Self-efficacy: Self-regulated learners are active learners who
effectively manage the cognitive, motivational and behavioral aspects
of their learning. Academic self-regulation includes a strong sense of
self-efficacy, which refers to a student’s resilience and their ability to
recover from setbacks or difficulties.

19
  Parental expectations: The expectations that parents have regarding
their child’s abilities influence their academic achievement in school
and college. If parents set high expectations and encourage their
children to work hard, students tend to perform better. The Michigan
Department of Education states that children do well in school when
parents set high but achievable expectations and share their children’s
success with family and friends.
 School interest: Parental involvement in school activities can have a
significant impact on a student’s academic success. If parents regularly
visit school, attend meetings and participate in events, students feel
that their school and family life are connected. In contrast, parents of
students who drop out of school often do not attend school meeting.
When parents help their children with homework or attend school
events, such as sports matches, students are more likely to become
high achievers.
 Parenting: The way parents supervise or do not supervise their
children’s time outside school is linked to academic achievement.
Students perform better academically when parents encourage
reading, supervise homework and monitor the time spent watching
television. The American Academy of Paediatrics also suggest that
when parents regularly read at home, their children notice this and will
also develop an interest in books and reading, which will help them
achieve academic success at school.

1.1.4 SELF-CONFIDENCE
Life is full of difficulties and surprises. Self-confidence plays a vital role
in helping us face these challenges and accept unexpected situations as
effectively as possible. In psychology, self-confidence refers to a person’s
overall emotional evaluation of their own worth. It is considered an important
personality trait.
Good (1959) defined self-confidence as having trust in oneself, one’s
abilities judgement and decisions.

20
 Breckenridge and Vincent (1965) stated that self-confidence is the
ability to handle criticism, show affection, remain optimistic and be assertive.
People with self-confidence have a positive outlook, believe in their own
abilities and feel capable of completing the tasks they need to do.
Confidence is a state of mind that allows a person to act without
hesitation, uncertainly or embarrassment. It reflects a belief in oneself and
one’s abilities without arrogance. Confidence comes from experience, while
assurance implies a strong sense of certainly. A person with self-confidence
remains calm under stress and responds to difficult situations with self-control.
Basavanna (1975) stated that self-confidence is an individual’s belief in
their ability to act effectively in situation, overcome obstacles and make things
go right.
Bandura (1977) suggested that self-confidence people trust their
abilities, feel in control of their lives and believe they can achieve their goals
within reason.
In general, self-confidence is a good predictor of how well people
perform in different tasks. A high level of self-confidence increases motivation
and persistence. It is an attitude that reflects a positive belief in one’s ability to
take control of life and future plans. Confidence means being certain that a
chosen course of action is the best in a given situation.
Although self-confidence is mainly situational, it can develop across
different areas of life. For example, if a student performs well in mathematics
and other subjects, they will likely develop overall self-confidence. On the
other hand, if a student struggles in academics, sports and social situations,
they may develop low self-confidence. This makes it important to study self-
confidence among teacher educators. Self-confidence allows individuals to
have an optimistic and realistic view of themselves and their situations. It is
linked to success. A confident attitude, belief in oneself and determination are
essential for progress. However, self-confidence also grows with
achievements.
Sander (2009) defined self-confidence as trust in one’s own abilities
and judgement.

21
 Goel and Aggarwal (2012) described self-confidence as a personality
trait made up of a person’s thoughts, feelings, hopes, fears and view of their
own worth.
Self-confidence is an individual trait that helps a person have a positive
or realistic view of themselves and their circumstances. It is an essential part
of life. Every person has unique skills, abilities and interests, but without
confidence, they may struggle to achieve their goals. A person with self-
confidence is more likely to be successful. Self-esteem and confidence
influence inclusion and achievement. Raised self-esteem and confidence are
linked to academic success, as recognised in educational policies. Self-
confidence is defined as trust in one’s abilities and judgement. It develops
from past successes, while negative experiences can create fear and
hesitation. Psychologists suggest that confidence grows through life
experiences, where positive experiences strengthen confidence and negative
experiences cause worry about repeating past mistakes.
Anierobi and Ezennaka (2019) defined self-confidence as a person’s
belief in their ability to achieve a goal in a given situation, which plays a
crucial role in reaching their potential.
National Education Policy (2020) suggests many ways to build self-
confidence among school students. It encourages a learning environment that
is stress-free, supportive, and focused on each child’s unique talents. The
policy promotes activity-based learning, critical thinking, and problem-solving,
which help students become more independent and sure of themselves. It
also supports the use of the mother tongue or regional language in early
education to make learning easier and more comfortable for children. National
Education Policy (2020) focuses on reducing rote learning and an exam
based on memorisation, and instead encourages creativity, curiosity, and
practical understanding. By allowing students to choose subjects based on
their interests and giving equal value to arts, sports, and vocational training,
the policy helps every child feel capable and valued. This balanced and
flexible approach helps students grow with confidence and a strong sense of
self-worth.

22
 Clirio et al. (2022) viewed self-confidence as personal characteristics
that enable individuals to have a positive or realistic view of themselves and
their situations.
Self-confidence allows us to have a constructive and realistic
awareness of our abilities. It includes qualities such as independence, pride,
trust, the ability to handle criticism and emotional maturity. It is a personal trait
that sets individuals apart from others. A self-confident person sees
themselves as socially competent, emotionally mature, intellectually capable,
successful, satisfied, decisive, optimistic, independent, self-reliant and self-
assured. Many thinkers consider self-confidence an essential part of human
existence, making it a key concept in theories of human behavior and
personality. Self-confidence is a feeling of certainly in one’s own abilities. It is
a belief in one’s self-worth and the value they bring to the world. It gives
people the power to achieve their dreams and is essential for success.
Developing self-confidence can positively transform many aspects of life.
In essence, self-confidence is an attitude that allows individuals to have
a realistic and positive perception of themselves and their abilities. It includes
key personal qualities such as assertiveness, enthusiasm, optimism, affection,
independence, pride, trust, the ability to handle criticism and emotional
maturity. Self-confident people have strong faith in their future and can
accurately assess their capabilities.

[Link] Traits of Self-confidence

Self-confident person is the one who has the following traits:
 Believe in their own strengths: They trust in their own strength,
abilities and powers without being weighed down by doubt or low self-
esteem. They do not impose their ideas and beliefs on others but are
skilled and creative in persuading people to understand their way of
thinking. They do not seek approval from others.
 Belief in their uniqueness: They believe they are special and have a
unique mission in this world. They expect to be treated well and with
respect. They are not afraid or embarrassed to demand their rights.

23
  Realistic and determined: They set realistic goals and openly share
their aspirations. They believe in their plans and confidently encourage
others to join them in achieving success. Any failure is seen as a
temporary challenge rather than a permanent setback. A self-confident
person enjoys challenges.
 Skilled negotiators: They are strategic in achieving their goals,
effectively managing other people’s strengths and abilities.
 Competitive and success-driven: They love reaching their goals and
take pride in their achievements while striving to remain successful.
 Inspired by successful people: They associate themselves with
successful and accomplished individuals, enjoying reading about and
learning from others’ success stories.
 Ambitious and proactive: They dream big and take action to turn
their dreams into reality. They can envision themselves as successful,
popular and the best in whatever they do.
 Gracefully accept praise: They receive compliments and admiration
with confidence and appreciation.
 Self-acceptance: They accept themselves as they are and do not feel
the need to conform to the majority to be accepted in any group. They
are not afraid of disapproval and use criticism as constructive
feedback.
 Open to new ideas: They are receptive to new ideas and willing to
discuss them. They acknowledge their mistakes and move forward to
complete their tasks.
 Good sense of humour: Their positive outlook and ability to laugh at
challenges help them stay resilient, reducing stress and anxiety.
 Hardworking and responsible: They are dependable, responsible
and always prepared to do their best in any task.
In synthesizing the core variable explored in this study, educational
aspirations, student engagement, academic achievement and self-confidence,
it becomes evident that each factor interconnects to significantly shape
students’ educational outcomes. Educational aspirations form the foundational
drive, representing students’ long-term goals and ambitions influenced by

24
personal, familial and socio-environmental factors. These aspirations give
students’ motivation to pursue academic success and serve as a guiding force
in their educational journey. Student engagement encompassing behavioral,
emotional and cognitive dimensions translates these aspirations into
actionable effort within the learning environment. Higher levels of engagement
are closely associated with improved academic performance, as students
channel their aspirations into active participation, curiosity and resilience in
learning activities. Academic achievement represents the measurable
outcome of students’ combined aspirations and engagement, reflecting their
acquired knowledge, skills and competencies across disciplines. Self-
confidence plays a vital supportive role empowering students to tackle
challenges and persevere through difficulties which in turn reinforces both
their engagement and academic performance. Together, these interlinked
variables emphasize the importance of nurturing a holistic educational
approach where educational aspirations, student engagement, academic
achievement and self-confidence collectively contribute to students’ academic
success and personal development.

1.2 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

In the globalization era, the psychological, cultural and environmental
changes are affecting all aspects of social and personal life. Even the field of
education did not remain untouched from the impact of these changes. The
universal tendency to ‘aspire towards’ something gets amply manifest in the
task of education. Aspirations are an individual’s ability to identify and set
goals for the future, while being inspired in the present to work towards those
goals. Every child has a goal to which he aspires and the levels of his
aspirations have a bearing on his levels of performance.
The educational system bears great responsibility in identifying the
aspirations of the students. There is a need for enriching the educational
system to uplift the spirit of the students in terms of education. The right kind
of education is necessary to realize the aspirations of the students and to
satisfy them to materialize their goals which they desire to achieve. The aim of
education system is also to promote academic achievement. Teachers,
parents and schools who are linked with the educational system are trying

25
making every effort to see that students achieve more and more. This has
drawn greater attention as the world is becoming more competitive and
global. Often young people seem to be in a dilemma for the future educational
goals.
The present study may help to explore the educational aspirations of
secondary school students in relation to their students’ engagement,
academic achievement and self-confidence. Maximum problems in the
students is to develop the understanding about educational aspirations in
order to assist them in the exploration of available educational options help
them seek career-related information and obtain support for their career
plans. In different studies, problems are that an individual is not aware of the
consequences of his or her actions, their career decisions could result in
expectations that are beyond or below their capabilities and unrealized
expectations often lead to frustration, insecurity and lost talent and this will
ultimately prove to be a great loss to society and the nation at large. So, this
research is useful in the area of education to study new factors which are
affecting the students at different levels. This study is vital for educational
policymakers, school administrators, teachers, parents, and students in
Punjab, and how it contributes to the wider academic discourse on
educational aspirations. Educational aspirations reflect students' hopes and
ambitions for future learning and academic success. They serve as
motivational drivers, pushing students to achieve their goals. However,
aspirations are influenced by various factors including engagement in school
activities, academic performance, and personal self-confidence. By studying
how these elements interact with educational aspirations, this research seeks
to provide a clear understanding of what motivate students to set and pursue
educational goals. This knowledge can empower stakeholders in Punjab’s
education system to foster an environment where students’ aspirations are
nurtured and encouraged.
Punjab, a diverse and culturally rich state in India, faces specific
challenges and opportunities in its education sector. With many students
coming from different socio-economic background, a range of barriers impact

26
their educational journey. By focusing on secondary school students in
Punjab, this study addresses the unique cultural, social, and economic factors
influencing educational aspirations within this region. Understanding these
aspects allow the study to offer insight specific, helping local authorities and
educators adapt strategies that resonate with students' unique needs and
aspirations. Policymakers play a significant role in shaping educational
practices that impact students' futures. This study highlights the importance of
educational aspirations as a policy focus. With evidence of the links between
educational aspirations, student engagement, academic achievement and
self-confidence, the study could advocate for policies that support the
development of student engagement programs, remedial academic support,
and confidence-building initiatives. Policies that consider these elements can
better support students in achieving their educational goals and improving the
overall quality of secondary education in Punjab.
Student engagement, which includes behavioural, emotional, and
cognitive participation in school, is a key factor in educational success. This
study explores how engagement influences educational aspirations, providing
data that can inform engagement strategies within secondary schools. For
example, if the study finds that active engagement in school correlates with
higher aspirations, schools may focus more on interactive and participatory
teaching methods. Educators can design engagement practices that not only
improve academic outcomes but also foster an environment where students
feel motivated to aim higher in their educational pursuits. Academic
achievement is a crucial aspect of a student’s educational journey, often
linked to their future goals and aspirations. This study explores the
relationship between students' academic success and their aspirations,
helping to clarify how academic performance shapes the ambitions of young
learners. A clearer understanding of this relationship allows educators to
create targeted support for students who may struggle academically but have
high aspirations. For these students, additional resources, such as tutoring or
mentorship programs can be instrumental in bridging the gap between their
current academic status and future aspirations.

27
 Self-confidence influences a student's willingness to set ambitious
educational goals. This study examines how self-confidence affects
aspirations, especially in the context of Punjab’s secondary school students
who may face various challenges. By identifying the impact of self-confidence,
this study can inform initiatives that build students' self-belief, encouraging
them to set higher goals and achieve greater academic success. For
example, schools may implement workshops or counselling sessions that
build students' confidence which in turn supports their educational aspirations.
Teachers are often the first to observe and influence students’ aspirations. By
examining the link between student engagement, academic achievement,
self-confidence, and educational aspirations, this study provides actionable
insights for educators in Punjab. Understanding how these factors interact can
guide teachers in fostering a supportive learning environment. For instance, if
the study shows that self-confidence is highly correlated with educational
aspirations, teachers may adopt practices that affirm and encourage students’
abilities, thereby enhancing their confidence and aspirations.
Parental influence and community support play an important role in
shaping students’ educational aspirations. This study’s findings may help
parents understand the significance of nurturing student engagement,
academic achievement and self-confidence in their children. By engaging
parents and communities, schools can create a supportive network that
boosts students' aspirations. This may involve workshops, information
sessions, and parent-teacher meetings focused on building a culture of high
aspirations within the school community. Educational aspirations are often
influenced by socio-economic factors which can create disparities among
students. In Punjab, where economic diversity is significant, some students
may face barriers to achieving their educational goals. By identifying how
factors like student engagement and self-confidence impact educational
aspirations, this study can highlight ways to reduce inequalities. Schools can
implement programs specifically tailored to underprivileged students, ensuring
they have the same opportunities to aspire and achieve as their peers.

28
 This study also contributes to the broader academic literature on
educational psychology, motivation, and educational policy. By exploring the
connections between educational aspirations, student engagement, academic
achievement and self-confidence in the context of Punjab, the study provides
a region-specific perspective that adds to the global understanding of
educational aspirations. Furthermore, it lays a foundation for future research,
particularly in areas such as the long-term impact of engagement and
confidence building interventions on students’ aspirations and career
outcomes. Overall, this study has the potential to strengthen Punjab’s
education system by providing insights that help align educational practices
with students' aspirations. If aspirations are nurtured and supported, students
are more likely to engage in learning and perform better academically, leading
to a more educated and skilled population. Schools that understand and
encourage aspirations can become environments where students feel valued,
motivated, and capable of achieving their dreams. So, this research will be
useful in the area of education to study new factors which are affecting the
students at different levels. It will also helpful to develop new skills, new
behaviors and individual personality in educational institutions. The present
study will be useful for policy makers, educators, parents and students. With
the help of this study, students will come to know the importance of
educational aspirations towards the student engagement, academic
achievement and self-confidence.

1.3 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

EDUCATIONAL ASPIRATIONS AMONG SECONDARY SCHOOL
STUDENTS OF PUNJAB IN RELATION TO STUDENT ENGAGEMENT,
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT AND SELF-CONFIDENCE

1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

1. To study educational aspirations, student engagement, academic
achievement and self-confidence among secondary school students of
Punjab.
2. To compare the educational aspirations, student engagement,
academic achievement and self-confidence among secondary school
students of Punjab in relation to gender and locale.

29
 3. To study the relationship among educational aspirations, student
engagement, academic achievement and self-confidence among
secondary school students of Punjab in relation to gender and locale.
4. To study the conjoint and separate contribution of student engagement,
academic achievement and self-confidence in predicting educational
aspirations among secondary school students of Punjab.

1.5 DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

The present study was delimited as follows:
1. The study was delimited to 9th class students only.
2. The study was delimited to Government Senior Secondary Schools
located in Punjab only.
3. The study was delimited to Punjab School Education Board, S.A.S.,
Nagar only.

1.6 OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS OF THE TERMS USED

The terms used in the present research are operationally defined as
follows:
1. Educational Aspirations: Educational aspirations defined as
educational aspirations stand for a wish for something. It is the basic
requirement to achieve targets. Aspirations are the targeted word
which is not yet achieved but can be achieved in future. These are the
way, eagerness, inspiration and desire to achieve the target. It totally
depends upon the level of aspiration that one perceives. If the levels of
aspirations are high, one can reach the goal with full energy and spirit.
In the present study, it refers to educational aspirations among
secondary school students as measured by Educational Aspirations
Scale by Sharma and Gupta (2015).
2. Student Engagement: Student engagement defined as it is the extent
to which students show attention, curiosity, optimism and interest in the
material that they are being taught. It may refer to students’ cognitive
investment in their learning, including participating and committing to
their studies. It is made up of emotional, behavioural and cognitive
engagement. In general, students’ learning improves when

30
 engagement levels are high. In the present study, it refers to student
engagement among secondary school students as measured by
Student Engagement Scale by Lam et al. (2014).
3. Academic Achievement: Academic achievement describes academic
outcomes that indicate the extent to which a student has achieved their
learning goals. It indicates how much knowledge and skills an
individual has obtained in various school subjects. In the present study,
it refers to academic achievement among secondary school students
as measured through the academic achievement test of social science
prepared by investigator herself.
4. Self-confidence: In the present study self-confidence defined as it
refers to an individual’s perceived ability to act effectively in a situation
to overcome obstacles and to get all right. People with self-confidence
have a positive outlook and engage in positive thoughts about
themselves, believing that their abilities match the task that they must
take on. In the present study, it refers to self-confidence among
secondary school students as measured by Self-confidence Scale
Gupta and Lakhani (2018).

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