Unit 1 Introduction

1.1 Introduction and development of Graphics system

• Computer graphics is the field of study which deals with pictures or images.
• Computer graphics is the pictorial representation and manipulation of data with the
help of computer hardware and software.

• Computer Graphics: Synthesize pictures from mathematical or geometrical models.

• Image Processing: analyze pictures to derive descriptions (often in mathematical or
geometrical forms) of objects appeared in the pictures.

1.1.1. Application Areas of Computer Graphics

• Graphical User Interface (GUI): It is a way of interacting with a computer using the
icon, menu, and other visual, graphics by which user easily interacts.
• Art: Computer Graphics provides a new way of making designs. Many artists and
designers use illustrator, coral draw, Photoshop, adobe muse, and other types of
applications for creating new designs.
• Entertainment: Computer graphics allow the user to make animated movies and
games. Computer graphics are used to create scenes. Computer graphics are also used
for special effects and animations.
• Presentations: Computer graphics are used for making charts, bar diagrams, and other
images for the presentation purpose, with the graphical presentation the user, can
easily understand the points.
• Engineering Drawings: Computer Graphics has also provided us the flexibility to
make 3D models, house circuits and engineering drawings, etc. which is helpful for us.
• Education and Training: Computer graphics are also used to provide training to
students with simulators. The students can learn about the machines without
physically trying them.
• Medical Imaging: MRIs, CT scans, and other internal scans are possible because of
computer graphics.
• Flight Simulator: Computer graphic is used to provide training to pilots of aircraft.
The pilots give much time to a flight simulator on the ground instead of real airplanes.
• Printing Technology: Computer graphics are used in textile designing and flex
printing.
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 • Typography: Use of character pictures to replace the rough form of the past in
printing.
• Satellite Imaging: Computer graphics are used to forecast the movement of the cloud
and to predict the weather.
• Cartography: Computer graphics are used in map drawing.
• CAD/CAM: CAD/CAM is also known as Computer-aided design and computer-aided
manufacturing. CAD/CAM is used to design and build prototypes, finished products,
and manufacturing processes.

1.1.2. Advantages of Computer Graphics

• High quality graphics provides the best way to communicate with computer. It is
possible to produce animation
• Can be used to control animation such as speed, total scene in view etc.
• Provides facility of update dynamic which can be used to change shape, color and
other properties of object in view.
• Used to present data or information in the form of bar diagram, pie chart etc. which
makes visualization better.
• Provides tools for producing pictures.

1.1.2. Disadvantages of Computer Graphics

• Hardware characteristics and cost.
• Technical issues.
• Coupling issues (display-to-simulation).
• Define the motion.
• Structure of drawings (making the structure explicit).
• Hidden line removal.
• Program instrumentation and visualization.

1.1.3. History of Computer Graphics

• 1940-1941: The first directly digital computer-generated graphics that would associate
with today as being actual CG. The very first radiosity image was invented at MIT in
the 1940s.
• 1946: The images were first presented at the 1946 national technical conference of the
Illuminating Engineering Society of North America.
• 1948: The images were published in the book: Lighting Design by Moon and D. E.
Spencer. 1948.
• 1950: John Whitney Sr. invents his computer-assisted mechanisms to create some of
his graphic artwork and short films.
• 1951: Vector scope computer graphics display on the computer at MIT.
• The General Motors Research Laboratory also begins the study of computer-aided
graphical design applications.
• 1955: Sage system uses the first light pen as an input device at MIT Lab by Bert
Sutherland.

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• 1956: Lawrence Livermore labs associate graphics display with IBM 704 and film
recorder for color images.
• Bertram Herzog uses analog computers to create CRT graphics in the behavior of
military vehicles at the University of Michigan computing center.
• 1957: In the National Bureau of Standards first image-processed photo was used.
• The IBM 740 created a sequence of points on a CRT monitor to represent lines and
shapes.
• 1958: Steven Coons, Ivan Sutherland, and Timothy Johnson started working with
the TX-2 computer system to manipulate the drawn pictures.1959: The first
commercial film recorder produced in San Diego, CA.
• Don Hart and Ed Jacks invented the first computer-aided drawing system at General
Motors Research Laboratory and IBM.
• 1960: William Fetter was first termed “Computer Graphics” for cockpit drawing.
• John Whitney Sr. invents motion graphics in LA.
• 1962: In MIT Lincoln Laboratory Ivan Sutherland produced a man-machine
graphical communication system.
• 1963: An analog computer was developed by Charles Csuri and used to transform a
drawing.
• Edgar Horwood introduced a computer graphics mapping system which is used by U.
S. Housing and urban development.
• 1965: IBM 2250, the first graphics computer available.
• 1966: Ralph Baer developed the first consumer computer graphics game, “Odyssey.”
• 1968: Tony Pritchett made the first computer animation “FLEXIPEDE” in the UK.
• 1972: Nolan Bushnell, “the father of Electronic games,” developed PONG game.
• 1973: The concept of Z-buffer algorithm and texture mapping were developed
by Edwin Catmull.
• 1974: The Phong shading method is developed by Phong Bui-Toung.
• 1975: Dr. Edwin Catmull introduced the Tween animation system.
• 1976: The first 3D appearance film was created by Gary Demos, John Whitey Jr. at
Triple-I.
• 1978: For the mechanical Universe Jim Blinn produced the first series of animation.
Jim Blinn has also published the technique of bump mapping.
• 1979: Ray tracing created at Bell Laboratory & Cornell University.
• 1980: The first digital computer was used in computer graphics in the Digital
Equipment Corporation (DEC).
• 1981: The making of computer graphics for IMAX film format is done by Nelson
Max at Lawrence Liver more National Laboratory. The Donkey Kong video game was
introduced by Nintendo.
• 1982: The first broad use of 3D graphics animation was done in Disney featured film.
• AutoCAD 1.0 is launched-It is only used for wire frame representation.
• 1985: Medical imaging software combined with Voxel technology.
• 1987: Video graphics array (VGA) standard was introduced.
• 1989: Super video graphics array (SVGA) was recommended. Tim Berners Lee
developed the first website ever, which has the original URL (Universal resource
locator).
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 • 1993: Mosaic, the web browser was released by UIUC for general usage. The
Codename of mosaic was “Mozilla.”
• The Mosaic, the first web browser was released. First public call made by cell phone.
• 1994: Netscape founded by developers of the Mosaic.
• 1995: First, fully CGI (Computer-generated imagery) was released. MS Internet
Explorer 1.0 released.
• 2000: The first web-based CAD system Sketchup released.
• 2006: Google acquires Sketchup.
• 2009: The state of the art of computer graphics, as of 2009, was brief in a short video.
• 2013: Now, it is possible to create graphics on a home computer.
• 2015: Big data is being used to create animations.
• 2018: Now, we can create “realistic” graphics on mobile phones. We can also create a
completely CGI-based human face in real-time.

1.2 Hardware and Software for Computer Graphics

1.2.1. Input Devices

• An Input device is the piece of computer hardware equipment used to give input to
the computer.
• The input can be in the form of graphics, text, sound, audio, video, and image, etc.
• “Input devices are those devices through which we can give the data and
instructions to the computer.”
• For Example- Mouse, Trackball, Keyboard, Light pen, etc.
Classification of Input Devices
• Manual data entry devices
• Direct data entry devices

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Data Glove

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 • A data glove that can be used to grasp a "virtual" object. The glove is constructed with
a series of sensors that detect hand and finger motions.
• Electromagnetic coupling between transmitting antennas and receiving antennas is
used to provide information about the position and orientation of the hand.
• The transmitting and receiving antennas can each be structured as a set of three
mutually perpendicular coils, forming a three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate
system.
• Input from the glove can be used to position or manipulate objects in a virtual scene.

Touch Panel
• Touch panels allow displayed objects or screen positions to be selected with the touch
of a finger.
• Touch input can be recorded using optical, electrical, or acoustical methods.

• Optical touch panels employ a line of infrared light- emitting diodes (LEDs) along one
vertical edge and along one horizontal edge of the frame
• The opposite vertical and horizontal edges contain light detectors. These detectors are
used to record which beams are interrupted when the panel is touched.
• The two crossing beams that are interrupted identify the horizontal and vertical
coordinates of the screen position selected.
• An electrical touch panel is constructed with two transparent plates separated by a
small distance.
• One of the plates is coated with a conducting material, and the other plate is coated
with a resistive material.
• When the outer plate is touched, it is forced into contact with the inner plate.
• This contact creates a voltage drop across the resistive plate that is converted to the
coordinate values of the selected screen position.
• In acoustical touch panels, high-frequency sound waves are generated in the horizontal
and vertical directions across a glass plate.
• Touching the screen causes part of each wave to be reflected from the finger to the
emitters.
• The screen position at the point of contact is calculated from a measurement of the
time interval between the transmission of each wave and its reflection to the emitter.

Digitizers

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 • A digitizer, also known as a graphics tablet or drawing tablet, is a device that allows
you to input drawings, sketches, and handwritten notes into a computer.
• It consists of a flat surface and a stylus or pen-like instrument that you use to draw or
write on the surface.
• The device captures the movements and pressure applied by the stylus and translates
them into digital data that can be interpreted by the computer.
How does a digitizer work?
• A digitizer uses a combination of technologies to accurately capture and convert your
pen strokes into digital information.
• The surface of the digitizer is pressure-sensitive and registers the movements and
pressure levels applied by the stylus.
• Draw or write on the surface, the digitizer's sensors detect these movements and send
the corresponding data to the computer.
• The computer then processes this data and translates it into visual elements on the
screen.

1.2.2. Output Devices

• An output device is a component of hardware or the main physical part of a computer
that can be touched and seen. An output device is an electromechanical device.
• “The computer gives instructions and data from input devices and processes it
and returns the result called as output.”
• For Example: Printer, Plotter, Monitor, Projector etc.
Hard Copy
• Hard copy devices are those that give the output in the tangible form.
• Printers and Plotters are two common hard copy devices.

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Printers:
• A printer is a peripheral device which is used to represent the graphics or text on
paper. The quality is measured by its resolution. The resolution of any printer is
measured in dot per inch (dpi).
• The printer usually works with the computer and connected via a cable. In present,
many digital device support printer features so that we can use Bluetooth, Wi-fi, and
cloud technology to print.
Types of Printers

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Some types of printers are:
• Impact Printers
• Non-impact Printers
Impact Printers
• In impact printers, there is a physical contact established between the print head,
ribbon, ink-cartridge, and paper.
• The printers hit print head on an ink-filled ribbon than the letter prints on the paper.
Impact printers are works like a typewriter.
• These printers have three types:
o Daisy Wheel Printers
o Drum Printers
o Dot Matrix Printer
Daisy Wheel Printers:
• By these, we can print only one character at a time.
• The head of this printer looks like a daisy flower, with the printing arms that appear
like petals of a flower; that’s why it is called “Daisy printer.”
• It can print approx. 90 characters per second.

• Daisy wheel printers are used to print the professional quality document. It is also
called “Letter Quality Printer.”
Advantages:
1. More reliable
2. Better printing Quality

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Disadvantages:
1. Slow than Dot Matrix
2. More Expensive
3. Noisy in operation
Drum Printers:
• It has a shape like a drum, so it is called “Drum Printer.”
• This type of printer contains many characters that are printed on the drum.
• The surface of the drum is break down into the number of tracks.
• Total tracks are equal to character132.
• A drum will have 132 tracks.
• The number of tracks is divided according to the width of the paper.
• It can print approx. 150-2500 lines per minute.

Advantages:
1. High Speed
2. Low Cost
Disadvantages:
1. Poor Printing Quality
2. Noisy in Operation
Dot Matrix Printer:
• It is also known as the “Impact Matrix Printer.”
• Dot Matrix Printer can print only one character at a time.
• The dot matrix printer uses print heads consisting of 9 to 24 pins.
• These pins are used to produce a pattern of dots on the paper to create a separate
character.

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 • Dot-matrix printer can print any shapes of character, special character, graphs, and
charts.

Advantages:
1. Low Printing Cost
2. Large print size
3. Long Life
Disadvantages:
1. Slow speed
2. Low Resolution
Non-impact Printers
• In Non-impact printers, there is no physical contact between the print head or paper
head.
• A non-impact printer prints a complete page at a time.
• The Non-impact printers spray ink on the paper through nozzles to form the letters and
patterns.
• The printers that print the letters without the ribbon and on papers are called Non-
impact printer.
• Non-impact printers are also known as “Page Printer.”
These printers have two types:
• Inkjet Printer:
• Laser Printer:
1. Inkjet Printer:
• It is also called “Deskjet Printer.”
• It is a non-impact printer in which the letters and graphics are printed by
spraying a drop of ink on the paper with nozzle head.

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 • A Color inkjet printer has four ink nozzles, sapphire, red, yellow, and black, so
it is also called CMYK printer.
• We can produce any color by using these four colors.
• The prints and graphics of this printer are very clear.
• These printers are generally used for home purposes.

Advantages:
1. High-Quality Printout
2. Low noise
3. High Resolution
Disadvantages:
1. Less Durability of the print head
2. Not suitable for high volume printing
3. Cartridges replacement is expensive
2. Laser Printer:
• It is also called “Page Printer” because a laser printer process and store the
whole page before printing it.
• The laser printer is used to produce high-quality images and text.
• Mostly it is used with personal computers.
• The laser printers are mostly preferred to print a large amount of content on
paper.

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Advantages:
1. High Resolution
2. High printing Speed
3. Low printing Cost
Disadvantages:
Costly than an inkjet printer
Larger and heavier than an inkjet printer

Plotters:
• A plotter is a special type of output device. It is used to print large graphs, large
designs on a large paper.
• For Example: Construction maps, engineering drawings, architectural plans, and
business charts, etc.
• It was invented by “Remington rand” in 1953.
• It is similar to a printer, but it is used to print vector graphics.

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Types of Plotters

1. Flatbed Plotter:
• In a flatbed plotter, the paper is kept in a stationary position on a table or a tray.
• A flatbed plotter has more than one pen and a holder.
• The pen rotates on the paper upside-down and right-left by the using of a motor.
• Every pen has a different color ink, which is used to draw the multicolor design.
We can quickly draw the following designs by using a flatbed printer.
• For Example: Cars, Ships, Airplanes, Dress design, road and highway blueprints, etc.

Advantages of Flatbed Plotter

1. Larger size paper can be used
2. Drawing Quality is similar to an expert
Disadvantages of Flatbed Plotter
1. Slower than printers

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 2. More Expensive than printers
3. Do not produce high-Quality text printouts
3. Drum Plotter:
• It is also called “Roller plotter.” There is a drum in this plotter. We can apply the
paper on the drum. When the plotter works, these drums moves back and forth, and
the image is drawn.
• Drum plotter has more than one pen and penholders. The pens easily moves right to
left and left to right.
• The movement of pens and drums are controlled by graph plotting program.
• It is used in industry to produce large drawings (up to A0).

Advantages of Drum Plotter

1. Draw Larger Size image
2. We can print unlimited length of the image
Disadvantages of Drum Plotter
1. Very costly

1.2.3. Video Display Devices

• The display device is an output device used to represent the information in the form of
images (visual form). Display systems are mostly called a video monitor or Video
display unit (VDU).
• Display devices are designed to model, display, view, or display information. The
purpose of display technology is to simplify information sharing.
• Today, the demand for high-quality displays is increasing.
There are some display devices given below:

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 1. Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)
2. Color CRT Monitor
3. Liquid crystal display (LCD)
4. Light Emitting Diode (LED)
5. Direct View Storage Tubes (DVST)
6. Plasma Display
7. 3D Display

1. Refresh cathode-Ray Tubes

• CRT stands for Cathode ray tube. It is a technology which is used in traditional
computer monitor and television.
• Cathode ray tube is a particular type of vacuum tube that displays images when an
electron beam collides on the radiant surface.

Component of CRT
• Electron Gun: The electron gun is made up of several elements, mainly a heating
filament (heater) and a cathode. The electron gun is a source of electrons focused
on a narrow beam facing the CRT.
• Focusing & Accelerating Anodes: These anodes are used to produce a narrow and
sharply focused beam of electrons.
• Horizontal & Vertical Deflection Plates: These plates are used to guide the path
of the electron the beam. The plates produce an electromagnetic field that bends the
electron beam through the area as it travels.

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 • Phosphorus-coated Screen: The phosphorus coated screen is used to produce
bright spots when the high-velocity electron beam hits it.
• There are two ways to represent an object on the screen:
o Random
o Raster

2. Color CRT Display

• It is similar to a CRT monitor.
• The basic idea behind the color CRT monitor is to combine three basic colors- Red,
Green, and Blue. By using these three colors, we can produce millions of different
colors.
• The two basic color display producing techniques are:
a. Beam-Penetration Method:
• It is used with a random scan monitor for displaying pictures. There are two
phosphorus layers- Red and Green are coated inside the screen.
• The color shown depends on how far the electron beam penetrates the phosphorus
surface.
• A powerful electron beam penetrates the CRT, it passes through the red layer and
excites the green layer within.
• A beam with slow electrons excites only the red layer.
• A beam with the medium speed of electrons, a mixture of red and green light is
emitted to display two more colors- orange and yellow.

Advantages:
• Better Resolution
• Half cost
• Inexpensive
Disadvantages:
• Only four possible colors
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 • Time Consuming
b. Shadow-Mask Method:
• It is used with a raster scan monitor for displaying pictures.
• It has more range of color than the beam penetration method. It is used in television
sets and monitors.
Structure:
• It has three phosphorus color dots at each position of the pixel.
o First Dot: Red color
o Second Dot: Green color
o Third Dot: Blue color
• It has three different guns. Each for one color.
• It has a metal screen or plate just before the phosphorus screen, named “Shadow-
Mask.”
• It also has a shadow grid just behind the phosphorus coated screen with tiny holes in a
triangular shape.
Working:
• A Shadow Mask is a metal plate with tiny holes present inside a color monitor.
• A Shadow Mask directs the beam by consuming the electrons so that the beam hits
only the desired point and displays a resulting picture.
• It has three different guns. These guns direct their beams to shadow mask, which
allows them to pass.
• It is a task of a shadow mask to direct the beam on its particular dot on the screen and
produce a picture on the screen.
• A Shadow Mask can display a wider range of pictures than beam penetration.

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Advantages:
• Display a wider range picture.
• Display realistic images.
• In-line arrangement of RGB color.
Disadvantages:
• Difficult to cover all three beams on the same hole.
• Poor Resolution.

3. Flat-panel Display
• Although most graphics monitors are still constructed with CRTs, other technologies
are emerging that may soon replace CRT monitors.
• The term Bat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced
volume, weight, and power requirements compared to a CRT.
• A significant feature of flat-panel displays is that they are thinner than CRTs, and we
can hang them on walls or wear them on our wrists. Since we can even write on some
flat-panel displays, they will soon be available as pocket notepads.
• Current uses for flat-panel displays include small TV monitors, calculators, pocket
video games, laptop computers, armrest viewing of movies on airlines, as
advertisement boards in elevators, and as graphics displays in applications requiring
rugged, portable monitors.
Types of Flat Panel Display:
1. Emissive Display:
• The emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into light.
• Examples are Plasma Panel, thin film electroluminescent display and LED (Light
Emitting Diodes).

2. Non-Emissive Display:
• The Non-Emissive displays use optical effects to convert sunlight or light from some
other source into graphics patterns.
• Examples are LCD (Liquid Crystal Device).

4. LCD
• The LCD depends upon the light modulating properties of liquid crystals.
• LCD is used in watches and portable computers. LCD requires an AC power supply
instead of DC, so it is difficult to use it in circuits.
• It generally works on flat panel display technology. LCD consumes less power than
LED. The LCD screen uses the liquid crystal to turn pixels on or off.
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 • Liquid Crystals are a mixture of solid and liquid. When the current flows inside it, its
position changes into the desired color.
• For Example: TFT (Thin Film Transistor)

Advantages:
• Produces very bright images due to high peak intensity. Very suitable for
environments that are brightly lit.
• Produce considerably lower electric, magnetic and electromagnetic fields than CRT.
• Consume less than 1/3rd the power of a comparable CRT.
• Life span: 50,000 - 100,000 hours
• Screen size: 13-57 inches
• Power Consumption: Require less power to operate compared to plasma, but more
than OLED TVs
• Viewing Angle: Up to 165°, Picture suffers from the side
Disadvantages:
• The aspect ratio and resolution are fixed.
• Lower contrast than CRTS due to a poor black-level.
• Slow response times and scan rate conversion result in severe motion artifacts and
image degradation for moving or rapidly changing images.

5. LED
• LED is a device which emits when current passes through it. It is a semiconductor
device.
• The size of the LED is small, so we can easily make any display unit by arranging a
large number of LEDs.

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 • LED consumes more power compared to LCD. LED is used on TV, smartphones,
motor vehicles, traffic light, etc.
• LEDs are powerful in structure, so they are capable of withstanding mechanical
pressure. LED also works at high temperatures.
Advantages:
1. The Intensity of light can be controlled.
2. Low operational Voltage.
3. Capable of handling the high temperature.
Disadvantages:
1. More Power Consuming than LCD.

6. Plasma Display
• It is a type of flat panel display which uses tiny plasma cells. It is also known as the
Gas-Discharge display.
Components of Plasma display
• Anode: It is used to deliver a positive voltage. It also has the line wires.
• Cathode: It is used to provide negative voltage to gas cells. It also has fine wires.
• Gas Plates: These plates work as capacitors. When we pass the voltage, the cell lights
regularly.
• Fluorescent cells: It contains small pockets of gas liquids when the voltage is passed
to this neon gas. It emits light.

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Advantages:
• Larger screen size availability.
• Better contrast ratio and ability to render deeper blacks.
• Better color accuracy and saturation.
• Better motion tracking (little or no motion lag in fast moving images).
Disadvantages:
• Plasma Displays are more susceptible to "burn in" or "screen burn" of static images.
• Plasma Displays requires more power thus more heat produced than LCDs.
• Does not perform as well at higher altitudes.
• Shorter display life span than LCD. This can vary according to other environmental
and use factors.

Frame Buffer
• It is a digital memory where the image is stored as a matrix of intensity values of
pixels.
• The portion of the memory used to hold the pixels is called "frame buffer".
• The Intensity values for all pixels are stored into an array. It is used to raster-scan
display.
• A 1024 x 1024 element square raster requires 220 (210 = 1024, 220 = 1024 x 1024) or
1,048,576 memory bits in a single bit plane.

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1.3 Random Graphics
• It is also known as stroke-writing display or calligraphic display.
• In this, the electron beam points only to the area in which the picture is to be drawn.
• It uses an electron beam like a pencil to make a line image on the screen. The image is
constructed from a sequence of straight-line segments.
• On the screen, each line segment is drawn by the beam to pass from one point on the
screen to the other, where its x & y coordinates define each point.
• After compilation of picture drawing, the system cycle back to the first line and create
all the lines of picture 30 to 60 times per second.

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 Fig: A Random Scan display draws the lines of an object in a specific order
Advantages:
• High Resolution
• Draw smooth line Drawing
Disadvantages:
• It does only the wireframe.
• It creates complex scenes due to flicker.

1.3.1. Video Controller

Display Processor
• It is a part of hardware or interpreter which is used to transform display processor code
into pictures. It is used to convert digital information from CPU to analog data.
• It is a digital-analog conversion which depends on the types of devices and graphics
functions. The main function of display processors is called scan conversion.
• In this process, contiguous graphics objects have to be separated as collections of
ellipse, rectangles, and polygons.
• The display processor is also sometimes called a display processing unit (DPU).
Parts of Display Processor: It has the following four parts:
1. Display Controller
2. Display File Memory
3. Display Generator
4. Display Console

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 • Display Controller: It is also called the Video controller. It is used to control the
operations of the display device. Its functions are as follows:
1. It is used to handle the interrupt.
2. It is used to interpret the instructions.
3. It is also used to manage time.
• Display File Memory: It is used to create an image. It is also used for visual object
recognition.
• Display Generator: It is used to produce the character. It is also used to create curves.
• Display Console: It consists of a CRT, Light pen, keyboard, and Deflection system.
Features of Display Processor:
• It is used to perform operations such as different line styles, displaying color area, and
manipulating and transforming objects on display.
• Display Processors were used before the GPU (Graphics Display Processor).
• Video Controller is the widely used Display device that is based on CRT (Cathode
Ray Tube).
• The Display Processor has a separate memory area in addition to the system memory.

1.3.2. Random Scan Display Processor

• The graphics command in the application program are translated by the graphics
package into a display list (display file) stored in system memory.
• The display list is accessed by the display processor to refresh the screen. The display
processor cycles through each command in the display list once during each refresh
cycle.
• Graphics are drawn on a vector display system by directing the electron beam along
component lines of the picture.

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Advantages:
• Can produce output with high resolutions.
• Better for animation than raster system since only end point information is needed.
• Can produce smooth line drawing
Disadvantages:
• No color intensity
• Complex scenes cause visible flickers.
• Expensive

1.4 Raster Graphics

• It is a scanning technique in which the electron beam moves along the screen. It
moves from top to bottom, covering one line at a time.
• A raster scan is based on pixel intensity control display as a rectangular box on the
screen called a raster.
• Picture description is stored in the memory area called as Refresh buffer, or Frame
Buffer.
• Frame buffer is also known as Raster or Bitmap. Raster scan provides the refresh rate
of 60 to 80 frames per second.
• For Example: Television
The beam refreshing has two types:
A. Horizontal Retracing
B. Vertical Retracing
• When the beam starts from the top left corner and reaches bottom right, and again
return to the top left, it is called the vertical retrace.
• It will call back from top to bottom more horizontally as a horizontal reversal.

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Advantages:
• Real image
• Many colors to be produced
• Dark scenes can be pictured
Disadvantages:
• Less resolution
• Display picture line by line
• More costly

1.4.1. Raster Scan Display Processor

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• The video controller in the output circuit develops horizontal and vertical drive signals
so that the monitors can be scanned.
• The register X is set to 0, and register Y is set to Y max. This address (X, Y`) is
converted into the frame buffer’s memory address where the color value is stored for
this pixel location.
• The controller has received the color value (In binary form) from the frame buffer.
The controller divides it up into three parts and sends every element to an individual
DAC (Digital to analog converter).
• In turn, these voltages control the intensity of a 3-e beam, which is focused on the (X,
Y) screen position by vertical and horizontal drive signals.
• For every pixel along with the top scan line, this process is repeated, each time Y
increases the X register.
• When the pixels are created on the first scan row through Xmax, it increases the X
register. Then the X register is set to 0, and the Y register decreases by 1 to access the
next scan line.
• The pixels are then processed along each scan line, and the process is repeated on the
last scan line (Y=0) for each scanning unit pixels are generated.
• It is not directly used to control the sharpness of the CRT beam for a display system
using a color lookup table buffer value.
• Taking the three pixel-color value from the lookup table is used as an index. On each
display cycle, this lookup operation is done for each pixel on every display cycle.
• The time in the window for viewing or refreshing a single pixel is short.
• It takes longer to reach the frame buffer each time to read the intensity value of each
pixel which is allowed.

Er. Rajan Bhandari

1.5 Scan Conversion Algorithms
• The process in which the object is represented as the collection of discrete pixel is
called the scan conversion.
• It includes the concepts that are required for understanding of two-dimensional
graphics.
• The graphics objects used in scan conversion are in continuous, but the pixels used are
in discrete. Each pixel can have either on or off state.
• Point, line, sector, arc, rectangle, ellipse, characters etc. are the examples of objects
which can be scan converted.
• Different algorithms are used for scan conversion of these types of objects which are
called scan conversion algorithms.
Advantages of developing algorithms for scan conversion
• Algorithms can generate graphics objects in faster rate.
• Using algorithms, memory can be used efficiently.
• Algorithms can develop a higher level of graphical objects.

1.5.1. Line Drawing Algorithms

• A line drawing algorithm is a graphical algorithm for approximating a line segment on
discrete graphical media.
• There are mainly three most widely used line drawing algorithms as follows:
o Direct use of line equation
o Digital Differential Analyzer Algorithm (DDA)
o Bresenham line Drawing Algorithm (BSA)
• Here we study about only two: DDA algorithm and BSA algorithm.

[Link]. DDA
• In any 2D plane, if we connect any two points (x0, y0) and (x1, y1) we get a line
segment.
• But in the case of computer graphics, we cannot directly join any two coordinate
points. For that we should calculate intermediate points coordinates using a basic
algorithm called DDA.
As we know the general equation of the straight line is:
y = mx + c
Here, m is the slope of (x1, y1) and (x2, y2).
m = (y2 – y1)/ (x2 – x1)
Now, we consider one point (xk, yk) and (xk+1, yk+1) as the next point.
Then the slope m = (yk+1 - yk)/ (xk+1 - xk)

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Now, we have to find the slope between the starting point and ending point. There can be
following three cases to discuss:
Case 1: If m < 1

Then x coordinate tends to the Unit interval.

xk+1 = xk + 1
yk+1 = yk + m
Case 2: If m > 1

Then y coordinate tends to the Unit interval.

yk+1 = yk + 1

xk+1 = xk + 1/m

Case 3: If m = 1

Then x and y coordinate tend to the Unit interval.

xk+1 = xk + 1
yk+1 = yk + 1
We can calculate all intermediate points with the help of above three discussed cases.

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Algorithm of Digital Differential Analyzer (DDA) Line Drawing
Step 1: Start.

Step 2: We consider Starting point as (x1, y1), and ending point (x2, y2).

Step 3: Now, we have to calculate ?x and ?y.

?x = x2-x1

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 ?y = y2-y1

m = ?y/?x

Step 4: Now, we calculate three cases.

If m < 1
Then x changes in Unit Interval
y moves with deviation

(xk+1, yk+1) = (xk+1, yk+1)

If m > 1
Then x moves with deviation
y change in Unit Interval

(xk+1, yk+1) = (xk+1/m, yk+1/m)

If m = 1
Then x moves in Unit Interval
y moves in Unit Interval

(xk+1, yk+1) = (xk+1, yk+1)

Step 5: We will repeat step 4 until we find the ending point of the line.

Step 6: Stop.

Advantages of DDA:
• It is simple to understand.
• It requires no special skills for implementation.
• It is faster method than direct use of the line equation y=mx+c.
Disadvantages of DDA:
• m is stored in floating point number.
• Accumulation of round-off error in successive additions can cause calculated pixel
positions to drift away from the actual line path for long line segments.
• Rounding operations and floating-point-arithmetic are time consuming.

Er. Rajan Bhandari

K Xk+1 = Xk + 1/M YK+1 = Yk + (X,Y)
1
1 =2 + 0.8 = 2.8 ~ 3 4 (3,4)
2 =2.8 + 0.8= 3.6 ~ 4 5 (4,5)
3 =3.6 + 0.8 = 4.4 ~ 4 6 (4,6)
4 = 4.4 + 0.8 = 5.2 ~ 5 7 (5,7)
5 = 5.2 + 0.8 = 6 8 (6,8)

Er. Rajan Bhandari

Q.> Digitize a Line with end point A(2,3) and B(6,8) , using DDA
Q.> Digitize a Line with end point A(3,2) and B(8,4) , using DDA
Q.>Digitize a Line with end point A(2,6) and B(4,2) , using DDA

[Link]. BLA
• In DDA algorithm each successive point is computed in floating point, so it requires
more time and more memory space. While in BLA each successive point is calculated
in integer value or whole number. So it requires less time and less memory space.
• In DDA, since the calculated point value is floating point number, it should be
rounded at the end of calculation but in BLA it does not need to round, so there is no
accumulation of rounding error.
• Due to rounding error, the line drawn by DDA algorithm is not accurate, while in BLA
line is accurate.
• DDA algorithm cannot be used in other application except line drawing, but BLA can
be implemented in other application such as circle, ellipse and other curves.

Er. Rajan Bhandari

BLA for slope +ve and |m| ≤ 1

+ +
1 1
+ +
1 1
+ +
1 1

Let us assume that pixel (xk, yk) is already plotted assuming that the sampling direction is
along X-axis i.e. (xk+1, yk) or (xk+1, yk+1).
Thus, the common equation of the line is y = m(xk+1) + c
Now,
d1 = y - yk = m (xk +1) + c - yk and
d2 = (yk +1)- y = yk+1– {m (xk +1) + c }

The difference between these two separations is,

d1 - d2 = [m (xk +1) + c - yk ] - [yk+1– {m (xk +1) + c }] Or,
d1- d2 = 2m (xk+1)+ 2c - 2yk -1
Since, slope of line (m) = Δy / Δx,
We have,
Δx (d1- d2) = 2 Δy (xk+1) + 2 Δx C - 2 Δx Yk – Δx

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Define Decision parameter at Kth step,
Pk = Δx (d1- d2)
= 2 Δy (xk+1)+ 2 Δx C - 2 Δx yk – Δx
=2 Δy Xk+2 Δy + 2 Δx c - 2 Δx yk – Δx
Pk= 2 Δy Xk+2 Δy + 2 Δx c - 2 Δx yk – Δx
Now, K+1th term
Pk+1 = 2 Δy Xk+1+2 Δy + 2 Δx c - 2 Δx yk+1 – Δx
Here,
Pk+1- Pk = 2 Δy Xk+1+2 Δy + 2 Δx c - 2 Δx yk+1 – Δx – {2 Δy Xk+2
Δy + 2 Δx c - 2 Δx yk – Δx }
= 2 Δy Xk+1+2 Δy + 2 Δx c - 2 Δx yk+1 – Δx – 2 Δy Xk- 2
Δy - 2 Δx c + 2 Δx yk + Δx
Pk+1 = Pk +2 Δy Xk+1 - 2 Δx yk+1– 2 Δy Xk+ 2 Δx yk

Pk+1 = Pk +2 Δy(Xk+1 – Xk)- 2 Δx(Yk+1– Yk)

Case 1

If Pk < 0 (i.e. d1-d2 is Negative)

then,

Xk+1 = Xk+1

Yk+1 = Yk

P =P + 2 Δy
k+1 k

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 Case 2

If Pk ≥ 0 (i.e., d1-d2 is Positive)

then,

Xk+1 = Xk+1

Yk+1 = Yk+1

P =P + 2 Δy -2Δx
k+1 k

Initial Decision Parameter (P0)

y = m(xk+1) + c

Let, X0 = 0, Y0 = 0 then C = 0

Δx (d1- d2) = 2 Δy Xk+2 Δy + 2 Δx c - 2 Δx yk – ΔxP0 = 0 + 2 Δy + 0 + 0 – Δx

P0 = 2 Δy - Δx

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Er. Rajan Bhandari
BLA for slope +ve and |m|> 1

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BLA for slope -ve

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[Link]. Circle
• Similarly, to the case with lines, there is an incremental algorithm for drawing circles
– the mid-point circle algorithm
• In the mid-point circle algorithm, we use eight-way symmetry so only ever calculate
the points for the top right eighth of a circle, and then use symmetry to get the rest of
the point

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For Anticlockwise Midpoint circle

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 P0 ≈ 1-r

Bresenham Circle Drawing Algorithm

Procedure-
Given-
Centre point of Circle = (X0, Y0)
Radius of Circle = R
The points generation using Bresenham Circle Drawing Algorithm involves the following
steps-
Step-01:
Assign the starting point coordinates (X0, Y0) as-
X0 = 0
Er. Rajan Bhandari
Y0 = R
Step-02:
Calculate the value of initial decision parameter P0 as-
P0 = 3 – 2 x R
Step-03:
Suppose the current point is (Xk, Yk) and the next point is (Xk+1, Yk+1).
Find the next point of the first octant depending on the value of decision parameter Pk.
Follow the below two cases-

Step-04:
If the given centre point (X0, Y0) is not (0, 0), then do the following and plot the point-
Xplot = Xc + X0
Yplot = Yc + Y0
Here, (Xc, Yc) denotes the current value of X and Y coordinates.
Step-05:
Keep repeating Step-03 and Step-04 until Xplot => Yplot.
Step-06:
Step-05 generates all the points for one octant.
To find the points for other seven octants, follow the eight-symmetry property of circle.
This is depicted by the following figure-
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Now, the points for rest of the part are generated by following the signs of other quadrants.
The other points can also be generated by calculating each octant separately.

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Here, all the points have been generated with respect to quadrant-1-

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Er. Rajan Bhandari
Er. Rajan Bhandari
Now, the points for rest of the part are generated by following the signs of other quadrants.
The other points can also be generated by calculating each octant separately.

Here, all the points have been generated with respect to quadrant-1-

Er. Rajan Bhandari

Er. Rajan Bhandari
 Note:
• Bresenham algorithm deals with integers, so is very less time and memory
consuming.
• This algorithm is accurate and efficient as it avoids using round function or
floating-point calculations.
• Mid-point circle algorithm also avoids square root or trigonometric calculation by
adopting integer operation only.

[Link]. Ellipse
• An ellipse can be defined as a closed plane curve, which is a collection of points. It is
the cause of the intersection of a plane over a cone.
• The ellipse is a symmetric shape figure.
• It is similar to a circle, but it contains four-way symmetry.
• We can also define an ellipse as a closed curve created by the points moving in such
an order that the total of its distance from two points is constant. These two points are
also called “foci.”

• Equation of Ellipse centered at origin: F(X, Y) = b2 X 2 + a2Y 2 - a2b2 = 0

• Length of the major axis: 2a; and minor axis: 2b.
• f(x, y)<0 then (x, y) is inside the ellipse.
• f (x, y)>0 then (x, y) is outside the ellipse.
• f(x, y)=0 then (x, y) is on the ellipse.

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1.6 Area Filling
Region filling is the process of filling image or region. Filling can be of boundary or interior
region as shown in fig. Boundary Fill algorithms are used to fill the boundary and flood-fill
algorithm are used to fill the interior.

Boundary Filled Algorithm:

This algorithm uses the recursive method. First of all, a starting pixel called as the seed is
considered. The algorithm checks boundary pixel or adjacent pixels are colored or not. If the
adjacent pixel is already filled or colored then leave it, otherwise fill it. The filling is done
using four connected or eight connected approaches.

Four connected approaches is more suitable than the eight connected approaches.
1. Four connected approaches: In this approach, left, right, above, below pixels are tested.
2. Eight connected approaches: In this approach, left, right, above, below and four
diagonals are selected.

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Boundary can be checked by seeing pixels from left and right first. Then pixels are checked
by seeing pixels from top to bottom. The algorithm takes time and memory because some
recursive calls are needed.
Problem with recursive boundary fill algorithm:
It may not fill regions sometimes correctly when some interior pixel is already filled with
color. The algorithm will check this boundary pixel for filling and will found already filled
so recursive process will terminate. This may vary because of another interior pixel unfilled.
So check all pixels color before applying the algorithm.

Er. Rajan Bhandari