ALTIMETER

Capt. N RAMAKRISHNAN
Principle of Operation
The pressure altimeter is a reliable instrument used to measure an aircraft's height by gauging atmospheric
pressure. As altitude increases, the air column above the aircraft shortens, resulting in lower pressure. Thus, the
altimeter measures height by detecting pressure changes. However, the relationship between pressure and
height is nonlinear, complicating the altimeter's calibration. Additionally, weather systems and varying
temperature conditions can further in uence pressure readings, making accurate measurement more
challenging.
De nitions
Height
The vertical distance of a level, point or object considered as a point, measured from a speci ed datum.
Elevation
The vertical distance of a xed (non-moving) point or object measured from MSL.
Altitude
The vertical distance of a moveable object measured from MSL.
Pressure Altitude
This is the altitude of the aircraft with reference to the pressure level of 1013.25 hPa.
True Altitude
True Height means the height of the aircraft vertically above the surface immediately below. Used more often in
connection with radio or radar altimeters than with pressure altimeters. Capt. N RAMAKRISHNAN
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Calibration
The altimeter is calibrated in accordance with the Standard Atmosphere (ISA) over its entire operating
range. (This range is usually from 5000 ft below sea level up to 80 000 ft).

1. The pressure altimeter is designed to present a linear reading despite the non-linear nature of
atmospheric pressure distribution. This is achieved through a variable magni cation lever system
and specially designed capsules.

2. Temperature compensation in the altimeter is accomplished using a bimetal compensator integrated

3. Standard atmospheric pressure is 1013.25 hPa, equivalent to 29.92 inHg or 14.7 psi.

Capt. N RAMAKRISHNAN

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Simple Altimeter
The static pressure from the aircraft's static source is fed
into the altimeter's case. As altitude increases, the
static pressure decreases, causing a capsule within
the altimeter to expand under the control of a leaf spring.
A mechanical linkage magni es this expansion and
converts it into a rotational movement of a pointer over
a height scale. The linkage also includes a
temperature-compensating device to reduce errors caused by temperature uctuations affecting the
mechanism.

The altimeter has a setting knob that allows the pointer to be adjusted. It can be set to zero when the
aircraft is on the ground, indicating height above the aerodrome after takeoff, or to the aerodrome
elevation, showing height above mean sea level during ight.

Capt. N RAMAKRISHNAN
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Sensitive Altimeter
The re ned altimeter operates on a principle similar to a simple altimeter but
includes several enhancements:
• Multiple Capsules: A bank of two or three capsules increases movement to
drive three pointers, each indicating different altitude increments (100,000 feet,
10,000 feet, and 1,000 feet per revolution).

• Jewelled Bearings: These bearings reduce friction and lag, enhancing the accuracy of the altimeter.

• Knocking/Vibrating Devices: Some systems use these devices to overcome the initial inertia of the internal gea
train.

• Variable Datum Mechanism: This allows the altimeter to be set to any desired pressure datum using a setting
knob. The pilot can adjust the subscale on the instrument face to match a speci c pressure level (e.g., 1005 hPa).
As the knob is turned, the height pointers adjust to indicate the aircraft's height above this pressure level.

• Subscale Independence: The subscale setting only changes when the pilot turns the knob, and it remains
unaffected by altitude changes or surface pressure variations. The range for British altimeters is typically between
800 to 1050 hPa.
Capt. N RAMAKRISHNAN
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Servo-assisted Altimeters
Most counter-pointer altimeters are servo-assisted, which enhances their operating range and accuracy,
particularly at high altitudes. At higher altitudes, the pressure changes for a given height change are
smaller, resulting in minimal capsule movement. In a non-servo-assisted altimeter, this small movement
is more affected by friction in the linkage, leading to greater errors and lag.

Servo-assistance addresses this issue by using a sensitive electromagnetic pick-off to detect the small
capsule movements. This pick-off generates an electric current, which is ampli ed to drive a motor that
rotates the counters and pointer, thereby improving the accuracy of the altimeter by overcoming
frictional resistance.

Capt. N RAMAKRISHNAN

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This system describes a servo-assisted altimeter with an electromagnetic mechanism for high precision,
particularly at high altitudes:

1. AC and Magnetic Fields: AC is supplied to the middle leg of an E bar, creating alternating magnetic elds in
the outer legs ‘A’ and ‘B’. These coils are wound 180° out of phase, so the currents they induce cancel each other
out when no pressure change is detected, keeping the I bar equidistant from both legs.

2. Pressure Change Detection: When pressure changes, the altimeter’s capsules expand or contract, causing the
I bar to pivot. This movement creates an imbalance in the magnetic elds and currents in the ‘A’ and ‘B’ coils.

3. Error Signal Generation: The imbalance generates an error signal, which is ampli ed and recti ed before
being sent to the servomotor.

4. Servo Response: The servomotor adjusts the counter-pointer system of the altimeter and simultaneously
realigns the E bar with the I bar using a cam drive. When realigned, the error signal ceases, and the altimeter
accurately indicates the correct height.

5. Accuracy and Sensitivity: The capsules in this system only need to move the I bar, reducing the effects of
friction and imperfections found in conventional altimeters. This design allows the altimeter to detect very small
pressure changes, making it particularly accurate at high altitudes. The system greatly reduces lag during rapid
height changes.

6. Instrument Error: The typical error is equivalent to the effect of a 1 hPa pressure change, translating to about
30 feet at mean sea level (MSL), 50 feet at 20,000 feet, or 100 feet at 40,000 feet. The tolerance at MSL (as per
CS-25 standards) is ±30 feet per 100 knots of calibrated airspeed (CAS). Capt. N RAMAKRISHNAN
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Tolerances

Example only, and do not have to be learnt

Capt. N RAMAKRISHNAN
Altimeter Errors
Position (or Pressure) Error: This accuracy limitation is mainly due to the dif culty in accurately
sensing the true static pressure outside the aircraft, as discussed in the chapter on Pressure Heads.
While this error is typically small, it tends to increase at high Mach numbers, which are often
encountered at high altitudes.
Instrument Error: Manufacturing imperfections, such as friction in the linkage, can introduce errors
across the altimeter's operating range. These errors are minimized through adjustments within the
instrument, and the calibration process ensures they stay within allowed tolerances. Any remaining
errors are documented on a correction card.

Note: In a sensitive altimeter, errors increase with altitude, contributing to decreased accuracy at higher
altitudes. This is less problematic in a servo altimeter, where the design helps maintain accuracy even at
higher altitudes.

Capt. N RAMAKRISHNAN

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Manoeuvre-induced Error: These errors are caused by transient pressure uctuations at the static vent
during changes in pitch attitude, as well as delays in pressure transmission due to viscous and acoustic
effects in the static pipeline. These issues are covered in more detail in Chapter 2, which focuses on
pressure heads.
Barometric Error: When an altimeter has a pressure subscale and the local pressure is set correctly, it
will indicate height above mean sea level (AMSL), though other errors may still be present. If the local
surface pressure changes after setting the subscale, a barometric error will occur, approximately 30 feet
per hectopascal. If the pressure has decreased, the altimeter will over-read.

Capt. N RAMAKRISHNAN

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 Time Lag: Many altimeters exhibit a lag in response to changes in height, causing them to under-read
during climbs and over-read during descents. This lag becomes more noticeable with rapid and
prolonged altitude changes. In laboratory calibrations, the lag for sensitive altimeters should not
exceed 150 feet between increasing and decreasing readings.

Servo-assisted altimeters, however, experience minimal lag unless the rate of height change exceeds
10,000 feet per minute. This is because servo altimeters avoid the linkage friction issues that cause
greater errors in sensitive altimeters.

Temperature Error: A pressure altimeter will not provide true altitude (height AMSL) unless the
surface temperature and lapse rate of the air column match those assumed during its calibration. In
colder air, where air density is greater than ISA for that altitude, the altimeter will over-read. Although
approximate corrections can be made with navigational computers for temperature deviations at
cruising levels, these corrections are considered too imprecise to be useful at altitudes above 25,000
feet.
ight from HIGH TO LOW TEMPERATURE the altimeter would read HIGH

ight from HIGH TO LOW PRESSURE the altimeter also reads HIGH.

Capt. N RAMAKRISHNAN
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 Standard Datum Settings
Standard Setting
When 1013.25 hPa is set on the subscale, the altimeter reading is called “Pressure Altitude”. If 1013.25
hPa is set, an aircraft would normally y Flight Levels. A Flight Level is the aircraft’s height, above
1013.25 hPa, expressed in 100s of feet. Flight Levels only occur at 500 ft intervals. (e.g. 4500 ft will be
FL45, or FL360 will be 36 000 ft.)

QFE: Setting the aerodrome level pressure (QFE) on the altimeter will make it read zero on the ground. In
ight, with QFE set, it shows height above the aerodrome, assuming ISA conditions and no other errors.
QFE is mainly used for circuit- ying and gives a reliable height above the aerodrome.

QNH is the mean sea level (MSL) pressure calculated from the aerodrome level
pressure, assuming ISA conditions. With QNH set, the altimeter reads the aerodrome
elevation on the ground. In ight, it indicates altitude, which will be true altitude only if
the mean temperature below the aircraft matches ISA conditions. Deviations from
standard conditions can cause signi cant discrepancies, though an approximate
correction can be made with a navigational computer.
Capt. N RAMAKRISHNAN
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 Blockages and Leaks
If the static source becomes blocked:

• The altimeter will not register changes in height and will indicate the altitude at which the blockage
occurred, regardless of any climb or descent.
• In pressurized aircraft, a static line fracture will show the lower cabin altitude rather than the true aircraft
altitude.
• In unpressurized aircraft, a static line fracture typically causes the altimeter to over-read due to lower
cabin pressure from aerodynamic suction.

Errors:
• During a climb, the altimeter will under-read.
• During a descent, the altimeter will over-read.
The error increases as the aircraft moves away from the blockage altitude.
Density Altitude
Density altitude can be de ned as the altitude in the standard atmosphere at which the prevailing
density would occur, or alternatively, as the altitude in the standard atmosphere corresponding to the
prevailing pressure and temperature. It is a convenient parameter in respect of engine performance
Capt. N RAMAKRISHNAN
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