The Direct Indicating Compass

The Magnetic Compass

A compass indicates direction relative to a known datum. A magnetic compass uses the Earth's
horizontal magnetic eld as its reference. However, the Earth's magnetic eld usually doesn't align with
the true meridian, which is the ideal reference for measuring direction. The angular difference between
the true meridian and the magnetic meridian is known as magnetic variation.

The purpose of a magnetic ‘steering’ compass in an aircraft is to indicate heading, the direction in which
the aircraft is pointing.

Magnetic in uences - iron/steel components, electric currents - distort the earth’s eld so that the
compass magnet assembly deviates from the magnetic meridian. This is called compass deviation.

Direct Indicating Magnetic Compass

The direct indicating or direct reading magnetic compass, where the pilot directly reads his heading in
relation to the pivoted magnet assembly.
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The Vertical Card Compass

• The vertical card compass, also known as the B-type or E-type, is a

commonly used direct-reading compass.
• It is typically the main magnetic heading reference in light aircraft and
serves as a standby compass in larger aircraft.
• The compass consists of a circular card directly attached to the magnet
assembly, forming a combined unit.
• This unit is suspended in liquid within the compass bowl.
• A vertical lubber line on the glass window allows the pilot to read the
heading directly from the compass card.
Compass Requirements
The direct reading magnetic compass contains a pivoted magnet which must be able to align itself,
and remain aligned, with the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic eld. For the compass to
succeed certain requirements must be satis ed. The most important of these are that the magnet
system must be:
• Horizontal
• Sensitive
• Aperiodic

, "horizontality" in a direct reading compass refers to how the compass stays level, or horizontal, so it
can give an accurate reading. A compass needs to be perfectly at to work correctly because the
needle is designed to move freely in a horizontal plane. If the compass tilts or isn't level, the needle
might get stuck or give a wrong direction. So, maintaining horizontality means keeping the compass
level so it can point accurately to magnetic north.
To achieve horizontality, the magnet assembly is ‘pendulously suspended’, the centre of gravity of this
assembly being lower than its supporting pivot
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In this way, the tilting effect caused by the vertical component Z of the earth’s eld is opposed by the
weight of the magnet assembly, this equilibrium being achieved at the cost of only a very slight residual
tilt of the magnets (north-seeking ends down) - by about 2° in mid-latitudes

There are two turning couples involved.

One is produced by Z which exerts a downward force on the red
(north-seeking) end of the compass magnet and an upward force
on the blue end.
The other couple is produced by the weight W acting downwards
through the centre of gravity (displaced because of the tilt) and the
reaction R acting upwards through the pivot.

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Sensitivity
To make a compass needle more sensitive:

1. Increase Magnet Strength: Use multiple short magnets or a special circular magnet to enhance the
magnetic moment.

2. Reduce Friction:
- Use an iridium-tipped pivot in a jewelled cup.
- Lubricate the pivot with the compass's liquid.
- Use the liquid's density to lessen the weight of the magnet assembly.
Aperiodicity
The magnetic assembly is required to be aperiodic or ‘dead beat’, which means that it should settle
down quickly on a steady indication after being displaced by turbulence or manoeuvres.

To reduce oscillations in a compass:

1. Short Magnets: Using short magnets reduces the moment of inertia, making it easier to dampen
oscillations.
2. Damping Liquid: The liquid in the compass bowl dampens movement, with grid ring compasses
using additional wires for quicker damping.
The Compass Liquid
The liquid in the compass is crucial but can cause two issues:

1. Temperature Changes: The liquid may expand or contract, so an expansion chamber or 'Sylphon
tube' is used to accommodate these changes.

2. Liquid Swirl: In sustained turns, liquid swirl can cause errors due to the liquid's viscosity. To minimize
this, a low-viscosity liquid is used.

The main properties required of a compass liquid are:

‣Low coef cient of expansion
‣Low viscosity
‣Transparency
‣Low freezing point
‣High boiling point
‣Non-corrosiveness
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Deviation

Deviation is the error in a compass caused by the aircraft's metal components. It is the angle between
the compass's magnetic direction and the actual magnetic north.

Easterly Deviation (+): When the compass points east of magnetic north.
Westerly Deviation (-): When the compass points west of magnetic north.

Deviation changes with different headings, so it's measured during a compass swing. This involves
simulating normal ight conditions (engines running, radios on) and recording the deviation on a card
in the aircraft. Avoid placing metal objects near the compass, as they can introduce additional
deviation. For large ferromagnetic loads, a compass swing may be needed before ight.
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Acceleration and Turning Errors
Errors Caused by Linear Acceleration
The size of the acceleration error depends on a number of factors which includes aircraft heading.
Acceleration / deceleration errors are maximum on East and West (M) headings and zero on North
and South (M) headings.

Acceleration on 270°M (NH)

When an aircraft accelerates on a magnetic heading of 270° (west) in the
Northern Hemisphere, the compass can give a false reading. This happens
because the compass is pendulously suspended, meaning it swings back
slightly due to inertia during acceleration.

As the magnet assembly swings back, its north end is displaced, allowing
the Earth's vertical magnetic component (Z) to create a turning force. This
force causes the compass to rotate slightly, making it appear as though the
aircraft is turning toward the north.

As a result, the compass might show a heading of 280°, even though the
aircraft is still on a true heading of 270°. This is known as the compass
over-reading during acceleration.
 Acceleration on 090°M (NH)
When an aircraft accelerates on a magnetic heading of 090° (east) in the Northern
Hemisphere, the pendulously suspended compass needle swings back slightly
due to inertia. This backward swing allows the Earth's vertical magnetic
component to exert a turning force on the magnet assembly, causing it to rotate
clockwise.

As a result, the angle between the compass's north-seeking end and the aircraft's
nose decreases. This makes the compass show a heading of, say, 080°, even
though the aircraft is actually still heading 090°. This is known as the compass
under-reading during acceleration.
Deceleration on 090°M (NH)
When an aircraft decelerates on a magnetic heading of 090° (east) in the
Northern Hemisphere, the pendulously suspended compass needle swings
forward due to inertia. This forward movement allows the Earth's vertical
magnetic component to exert a turning force, causing the magnet assembly to
rotate anticlockwise.
As a result, the compass reading increases, making it seem as though the
aircraft is turning toward the south. The compass might show a heading of
100°, even though the aircraft is still on a true heading of 090°. This is known
as the compass over-reading during deceleration.
Summary of Acceleration Errors

• Acceleration errors are zero on N/S magnetic headings (in both hemispheres),
• maximum on headings 090°M and 270°M
• Acceleration causes an apparent turn towards the nearer pole (apparent turn north in the
northern hemisphere, apparent turn south in the southern hemisphere)
• Deceleration causes an apparent turn towards the further pole (apparent turn south in the
northern hemisphere, apparent turn north in the southern hemisphere).
• Whenever the magnet assembly is displaced clockwise, the readings will decrease and the
compass will under-read.
• Whenever the magnet assembly is displaced anticlockwise, the readings will increase and the
compass will over-read.
The size of a linear acceleration error depends on the:
• heading
• magnitude of the acceleration
• design of the magnet system
• magnetic latitude (which affects the relative strengths of H and Z).
The errors are maximum near the magnetic poles, decreasing to zero at the magnetic equator.
 Turning Errors
Turning errors are maximum when turning through north and south, and ignoring liquid swirl zero
when turning through east and west.
Turning from 045° to 315° (NH)

During a left-hand turn through 000°M in the Northern

Hemisphere, the compass magnet lags due to inertia and
rotates anticlockwise. This causes the compass to under-read;
for example, instead of showing 90°, it might only show 70°.
This makes the compass appear sluggish.

This means that if the pilot stops the turn at 315° indicated the actual heading will be numerically
smaller such as 295° - therefore the turn must be stopped early (such as 335°) to achieve the
correct heading.
This can also be described as undershooting the required heading

If the pilot deliberately undershoots, rolling out when the compass reads about 335°, he should
observe, when the wings are levelled, the compass ‘catch up’ and settle on 315°.
 Turning from 315° to 045° (NH)
During a right-hand turn through 000°M in the Northern Hemisphere, the
compass magnet is displaced due to inertia, causing it to rotate clockwise. As
the aircraft and magnet both rotate clockwise, the compass under-reads,
making it sluggish. For example, if the compass shows 045°, the actual heading
might be 065°. To get the correct heading, the pilot should stop the turn early,
around 025°.

Therefore the turn must be stopped early (such as 025°), or the pilot should undershoot the
indication, to achieve the correct heading
Turning from 135° to 225° (NH)
During a right-hand turn through south (180°M) in the Northern Hemisphere, the compass magnet,
due to inertia, rotates anticlockwise while the aircraft turns clockwise. This opposite rotation causes the
compass to over-read.
Whenever the magnet rotates anticlockwise it will over-read. This means that if the pilot stops the
turn at 225° indicated the actual heading will be numerically smaller, such as 205°.
turn must be stopped late (such as 245°), or the pilot should overshoot, to achieve the correct
heading
 Turning through East or West
Consider a turning aircraft passing through the magnetic headings of 090° and 270°.
The magnets are not horizontal but their tilt is north-south, that is in the vertical plane of the
magnetic meridian through the pivot.
There is no rotational couple acting round the pivot, so there is no turning error.
Turning errors are zero when passing through east or west.
Turning Errors - Liquid Swirl

Liquid swirl occurs during a turn as the liquid in the compass bowl is dragged around, creating eddies
that de ect the magnet assembly in the direction of the turn.

Northern Hemisphere:
• Turning through North: Increases turning error as the liquid swirls in the same direction as the turn.
• Turning through South: Reduces turning error as the liquid swirls in the opposite direction to the turn.
Southern Hemisphere: The swirl effect is in the opposite direction.
At the magnetic equator, where there's no vertical magnetic component, liquid swirl is the main source
of turning error but is usually minimal.
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Summary of Turning Errors
• These are maximum when passing through magnetic north or south, decreasing to zero when passing
through east or west.
• The error increases with increase in magnetic latitude.
• At the magnetic equator the only turning error is due to liquid swirl.
• Whenever the pilot turns through the nearer pole (north in the northern hemisphere, or south in the
southern hemisphere):
• the aircraft and compass rotate in the same direction
• the compass will be sluggish
• the pilot should undershoot the turn / roll out early
• liquid swirl will increase the turning error

• Whenever the pilot turns through the further pole (south in the northern hemisphere, or north in the
southern hemisphere):
• the aircraft and compass rotate in the opposite direction
• the compass will be lively
• the pilot should overshoot the turn / roll out late
• liquid swirl will reduce the turning error
•
At the MAGNETIC EQUATOR, there is NO TURNING ERROR because there is no “dip”.
Remember, that it is a displacement of the MAGNETS in a CLOCKWISE direction when viewed from
above which causes the compass to UNDER-READ, and a displacement in an ANTICLOCKWISE
direction which causes the compass to OVER-READ.