Mary Joy T.

Angchangco - N1 CHAPTER 2 NOTES

JOB ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION

Also called work analysis is the gathering and analyzing information about the
Job Analysis work an employee performs, the conditions under which the work is performed,
and the worker characteristics needed to perform the work under the identified
conditions.

Importance of Job Writing Job Employee Selection Training

Analysis Descriptions
Foundation for almost ·It is difficult to imagine yield lists of
all human resources Job analysis is the how an employee can be job activities
activities. process of determining selected unless there is a that can be
Provides information the work activities clear understanding of systematically
how one could write a and requirements, the tasks to be used to
job description, select and a job description performed and the create
employees, evaluate is the written result of competencies needed to training
performance, or
the job analysis. perform those tasks. programs.
conduct training
programs.

Personpower Planning
Performance Appraisal
One important but seldom employed use of job analysis
is to determine worker mobility within an ·Another important use of job analysis is the
organization. construction of a performance appraisal instrument,
when properly administered and utilized, job-related
Peter Principle: promoting employees until they performance appraisals can serve as an excellent source
eventually reach their highest level of incompetence. of employee training and counseling.

Job Classification
Classify jobs into groups based on similarities in requirements and duties.
Job Evaluation
Used to determine the worth of a job.
Job Design
Job analysis information can be used to determine the optimal way in which a job should be performed.
By analyzing a job, wasted and unsafe motions can be eliminated, resulting in higher productivity and
reduced numbers of job injuries.

Any employment decision must be based on job-related information. One legally acceptable
Compliance way to directly determine job relatedness is by job analysis.
with Legal No law specifically requires a job analysis, but several important guidelines and court cases
Guidelines mandate job analysis for all practical purposes
 Organizational Analysis Writing a Good Job Description

During the course of their work,

job analysts often become
aware of certain problems A job description is a relatively short summary of a job and
within an organization. The should be about two to five pages in length.
discovery of such lapses in For a job description to be of value, it must describe a job in
organizational communication enough detail that decisions about activities such as selection
can then be used to correct and training can be made.
problems and help an I/O psychologists believe that job descriptions should be detailed
organization function better. and lengthy, many professionals in organizations resist such
Job analysis interview: efforts.
Obtaining information about a These professionals worry that listing each activity will limit their
job by talking to a person ability to direct employees to perform tasks not listed on the job
perform. description.

JOB DESCRIPTION by Hurtz and Wright (2012)

Describes the nature of the job, its power and status level, and the
1 Job Title
competencies needed to perform the job

The summary need be only a paragraph in length but should briefly describe
2 Brief Summary the nature and purpose of the job.

Lists the tasks and activities in which the worker is involved. should be
3
Work Activities organized into meaningful categories to make the job description easy to
read and understand.

4 Tools and Lists all the tools and equipment used to perform the work activities in the
Equipment Used previous section.

Describes the environment in which the employee works and mentions stress
5 Job Context level, work schedule, physical demands, level of responsibility, temperature,
number of coworkers, degree of danger, and any other relevant information.

Outline standards of performance. This section contains a relatively brief

6 Work
description of how an employee’s performance is evaluated and what work
Performance
standards are expected of the employee.

Compensation Contain information on the salary grade, whether the position is exempt, and
7 the compensable factors used to determine salary.
Information
Grade: A cluster of jobs of similar worth.

8 Job Contains what are commonly called job specifications or competencies. These
Competencies are the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs).
 PREPARING FOR A JOB ANALYSIS

Who Will Conduct the Analysis?

Conducted by a trained individual in the Human Resources department, but it can also be conducted by
job incumbents, supervisors, or outside consultants.
Consultants are a good choice for conducting a job analysis because they are well trained and have
extensive experience.
An interesting alternative to consultants is the use of college interns. Graduate students from I/O
psychology programs tend to have job analysis training and experience and can be employed for a
relatively small cost (often, at no cost).

How Often Should a Job Description Be Updated?

A job description should be updated if a job changes significantly.
An interesting reason that job descriptions change across time is job crafting—the informal changes that
employees make in their jobs.

For organizations with relatively few people in each job, it is advisable to

Which Employees have all employees participate in the job analysis.
Should Participate? In organizations in which many people perform the same job, every person
need not participate.

A group of subject-matter experts meet to ·generate the tasks

Committee-based job
performed, the conditions under which they are performed, and the
analysis
KSAOs needed to perform them.

The job analyst individually interviews/observes a number of incumbents

field-based job analysis
out in the field.

Job Competence Race Gender

Sanchez, Prager, Wilson, Aamodt, Kimbrough, Keller, and Landy and Vasey (1991) found possible
and Viswesvaran (1998) Crawford (1982); Schmitt and differences in the ways men and women
and Mullins and Cohen (1989); Veres, Green, and viewed their jobs.
Kimbrough (1988) found Boyles (1991); and Landy and
that high-performing Vasey (1991) report small but Education Level
employees generated significant differences in the ways Landy and Vasey (1991) found that police
different job analysis in which white and African officers with only a high school diploma
outcomes than did low- American incumbents viewed their were less involved in court activities than
performing employees. jobs. were their more educated counterparts.

Personality
Cucina, Vasilopoulos, and Sehgal (2005) found that the personality of the incumbent was related to the
personality traits rated by the incumbent to be important to the job.

Viewpoint
It should be no surprise that people with different perspectives on the job (e.g., incumbent, supervisor,
customer) produce different job analysis results.
 WHAT TYPES OF INFORMATION SHOULD BE OBTAINED?
Level of Specifity
should the job analysis break a job down into very minute, specific behaviors - should the job be analyzed
at a more general level.
Formal versus informal requirements
Formal requirements for a secretary might include typing letters or filing memos.
Informal requirements might involve making coffee or picking up the boss’s children from school.
informal requirements (e.g., picking up mail) may need to be made more formal to reduce potential
confusion regarding who is responsible for the task.

Conducting a Job Analysis

The goal of most job analyses is to identify the tasks performed in a job, the conditions under which the tasks are performed, and the
KSAOs needed to perform the tasks

Step 1: Identify Tasks Performed.

This information is usually gathered by obtaining previous information on the job, interviewing job incumbents, observing
performance, or actually performing the job itself.

1. Gather Existing Information II. Interviewing Subject-Matter Expert

Prior to interviewing incumbents, it is The most common method of conducting a job analysis.
always a good idea to gather SMEs are people who are knowledgeable about the job
information that has already been and include job incumbents, supervisors, customers, and
obtained. upper-level management.

Job analysis interviews come in two main

forms: Regardless of whether individual or group interviews
are used, certain guidelines should be followed that
individual and group.
will make the interview go more smoothly.
In the individual interview, the job analyst
1. Prepare for the interview
interviews only one employee at a time.
2. Open the interview by establishing rapport
In the group interview, or SME conference, a 3. Conduct the interview by asking open-ended
larger number of employees are interviewed questions
together.

Committee-based approach
a committee of SMEs meets to brainstorm the major duties involved in a job.
Ammerman technique
A job analysis method in which a group of job experts identifies the objectives and standards to be met by
the ideal worker.

III. Observing Incumbents IV. Job participation

Observations are useful job analysis methods, especially
when used in conjunction with other methods such as A job analysis method in which the job
interviews. Lets the job analyst actually see the worker analyst actually performs the job being
do her job and thus obtain information that the worker analyzed.
may have forgotten to mention during the interview.
 Step 2: Write Task Statements
Step 3: Rate Task Statements
write the task statements that will be used in
Once the task statements have been
the task inventory and included in the job
written (usually including some 200 tasks),
description.
the next step is to conduct a task
A properly written task statement must
analysis.
contain an action (what is done) and an
A group of SMEs to rate each task
object (to which the action is done). where
statement on the frequency and the
the task is done, how it is done, why it is
importance or criticality of the task being
done, and when it is done
performed.
Task inventory
Task analysis
A questionnaire containing a list of tasks each of
The process of identifying the tasks for which
which the job incumbent rates on a series of scales
employees need to be trained.
such as importance and time spent.

Step 4: Determine Essential KSAOs Step 5: Selecting Tests to Tap KSAOs

Knowledge-A body of information needed to
perform a task. The next step is to determine the best
Skill-The proficiency to perform a learned task. methods to tap the KSAOs needed at the
Ability-The basic capacity for performing a time of hire.
wide range of tasks, acquiring a knowledge, These methods will be used to select new
or developing a skill. employees and include such methods as
Other characteristics-Factors that are not interviews, work samples, ability tests,
knowledge, skills, or abilities such as personality tests, reference checks,
personality, willingness, interest, and integrity tests, biodata, and assessment
degrees. centers.

Using other Job Analysis method

Methods Providing General Information About Worker Activities

Several questionnaires have been developed to analyze jobs at a more general level. This general analysis saves
time and money and allows jobs to be more easily.

Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ)

Job Structure Profile (JSP)
A structured job analysis method developed by
A revised version of the Position Analysis
McCormick.
Questionnaire (PAQ) designed to be used more
The PAQ contains 194 items organized into six
by the job analyst than by the job incumbent.
main dimensions: information input, mental
Include item content and style, new items to
processes, work output, relationships with
increase the discriminatory power of the
other persons, job context, and other job-
intellectual and decision-making dimensions,
related variables such as work schedule, pay,
and an emphasis on having a job analyst,
and responsibility.
 Functional Job Analysis (FJA)
Job Elements Inventory (JEI)
A job analysis method developed by Fine that rates
A structured job analysis technique
the extent to which a job incumbent is involved with
developed by Cornelius and Hakel that
functions in the categories of data, people, and
is similar to the Position Analysis
things.
Questionnaire (PAQ) but easier to read.
The FJA process begins in a similar manner to many
Contains 153 items and has a
job analysis methods: a small group of subject matter
readability level appropriate for an
experts meets to identify the key functions of a job
employee with only a tenth-grade
(what gets done) as well as the tasks performed to
education.
complete each function (Cronshaw, 2012).

Methods Providing Information About Tools and Equipment

Job Components Inventory (JCI)

A structured job analysis technique that concentrates on worker requirements for performing a job
rather than on specific tasks.
Consists of more than 400 questions covering five major categories: tools and equipment, perceptual
and physical requirements, mathematical requirements, communication requirements, and decision
making and responsibility.
The only job analysis method containing a detailed section on tools and equipment.

Methods Providing Information About the Work Environment

AET (Arbeitswissenschaftliches Erhebungsverfahren zur Tätigkeitsanalyse)

An ergonomic job analysis method developed in Germany.
By ergonomic, we mean that the instrument is primarily concerned with the relationship between
the worker and work objects.
Developed in Germany by Rohmert and Landau (1983), the AET is a 216-item, standardized
questionnaire that analyzes a job.

Methods Providing Information About Competencies

Occupational Information Network (O*NET)

The job analysis system used by the federal government that has replaced the Dictionary of
Occupational Titles (DOT). Its developers understood that jobs can be viewed at four levels: economic,
organizational, occupational, and individual.
Critical Incident Technique (CIT)
The job analysis method developed by John Flanagan that uses written reports of good and bad
employee behavior. Used to discover actual incidents of job behavior that make the difference
between a job’s successful or unsuccessful performance.
Job Components Inventory
Provides information about the perceptual, physical, mathematical, communication, decision making,
and responsibility skills needed to perform the job.
 Threshold Traits Analysis (TTA)
A 33-item questionnaire developed by Lopez that identifies traits necessary to successfully perform a job.
Fleishman Job Analysis Survey (F-JAS)
A job analysis method in which jobs are rated on the basis of the abilities needed to perform them.
Job Adaptability Inventory (JAI)
A job analysis method that taps the extent to which a job involves eight types of adaptability.
1. Handling emergencies or crisis situations
2. Handling work stress
3. Solving problems creatively
4. Dealing with uncertain and unpredictable work situations
5. Learning work tasks, technologies, and procedures
6. Demonstrating interpersonal adaptability
7. Demonstrating cultural adaptability
8. Demonstrating physically oriented adaptability
Personality-Related Position Requirements Form (PPRF)
A job analysis instrument that helps determine the personality requirements for a job. The PPRF consists of 107
items tapping 12 personality dimensions that fall under the “Big 5” personality dimensions. Reliable and shows
promise as a useful job analysis instrument for identifying the personality traits necessary to perform a job.
Performance Improvement Character (PIC)
The 48 questions on the PIC help determine which of the seven main personality traits are needed to perform
a given job. Research on the PIC indicates that it has acceptable reliability and is able to differentiate
between jobs.

Evaluation of methods
The best method to use in analyzing a job appears to be related to the end use of the job analysis information.

Worker-oriented methods Job-oriented methods methods

Job-oriented
The best for employee selection and performance Best for work design and writing job descriptions.
appraisal

From a legal perspective, courts have ruled that job analysis is necessary (Sparks, 1988) and that acceptable
job analyses should
(1) use several up-to-date sources
(2) be conducted by experts
(3) use a large number of job incumbents, and
(4) cover the entire range of worker activities and qualifications

Survey research by Levine, Ash, and their colleagues has found the following:
1. The PAQ is seen as the most standardized technique 5. Task analysis has the highest-quality results and
and the CIT the least standardized. TTA the lowest.
2. The CIT takes the least amount of job analyst 6. Task analysis reports are the longest and job-
training and task analysis the most. elements reports the shortest.
3. The PAQ is the least costly method and the CIT the 7. The CIT has been rated the most useful and the PAQ
most. the least.
4. The PAQ takes the least amount of time to complete 8. Task analysis gives the best overall job picture and
and task analysis the most the PAQ the worst.
 The process of determining the monetary worth of
a job..

Job Evaluation Job evaluation is typically done in two stages:

determining internal pay equity and determining
external pay equity

Determining Internal Pay Equity

Internal pay equity involves comparing jobs within an organization to ensure that the people in jobs
worth the most money are paid accordingly.

Step 1: Determining Compensable Step 2: Determining the Levels for

Job Factors Each Compensable Factor

The first step in evaluating a job is to decide what

Once the compensable factors have been
factors differentiate the relative worth of jobs.
selected, the next step is to determine the
Possible compensable job factors include the
levels for each factor. For a factor such as
following:
education, the levels are easy to determine
Level of responsibility, Physical demands, Mental
(e.g., high school diploma, associate’s degree,
demands, Education requirements, Training and
bachelor’s degree).
experience requirements, Working conditions.

Step 3: Determining the Factor Weights

Because some factors are more important than others, weights must be assigned to each factor and to each
level within a factor. Here is the process for doing this:

1. A job evaluation committee determines the total number of points that will be distributed among the
factors.
2. Each factor is weighted by assigning a number of points. The more important the factor, the greater the
number of points that will be assigned.
3. The number of points assigned to a factor is then divided into each of the levels.
4. The total number of points for a job is compared with the salary currently being paid for the job. This
comparison is typically graphed in a fashion similar to the wage trend line which is a line that represents
the ideal relationship between the number of points that a job has been assigned (using the point method
of evaluation) and the salary range for that job.

Determining External Pay Equity

With external equity, the worth of a job is determined by comparing the job to the external market (other
organizations). External equity is important if an organization is to attract and retain employees. To determine
external equity, organizations use salary surveys.

Salary surveys
A questionnaire sent to other organizations to see how much they are paying their employees in positions
similar to those in the organization sending the survey.
Market position
Is where an organization wants to be in relation to the compensation policies of others. Most important in a
good economy where jobs are plentiful and applicants have several job options.
Direct compensation
The amount of money paid to an employee (does not count benefits, time off, and so forth).

Determining Sex and Race Equity

In addition to analyses of internal and external equity, pay audits should also be conducted to ensure that
employees are not paid differently on the basis of gender or race.

Two types of audits should be conducted: one that looks at pay rates of employees within positions with
identical duties (equal pay for equal work) and a second that looks at pay rates of employees in jobs of
similar worth and responsibility (comparable worth).

Comparable worth The idea that jobs requiring the same level of skill and responsibility should be paid the
same regardless of supply and demand.

Career Workshop

Negotiating Salary

KNOW WHAT THE All public organizations and some private organizations will make
JOB IS WORTH. their salary ranges available to applicants.

Ask about the typical starting salaries for graduates in your field ASK YOUR CAREER PLACEMENT
from your university. CENTER

KNOW WHAT YOU Think about the cost of living and your expenses. That will give you
NEED TO EARN an idea about the minimum salary you will accept.

If you have experience, graduated from a top school, you are

worth more than the typical applicant. KNOW WHAT YOU ARE WORTH

DON’T BE AFRAID TO When the organization makes an offer, counter with a higher
NEGOTIATE amount. Explain why you think an increased starting salary is
justifiable.

In addition to salary, there are times when you can negotiate such
OTHER BENEFITS
things as vacation time, starting dates, etc.