AGROFORESTRY FIELD GUIDE 2

Tree planting, spacing and care

Restore Africa: Restoring

Landscapes and Livelihoods in
East and Southern Africa with
Climate Asset Management
Programme

Tree spacing and planting depends on

the desired agroforestry system, crops
and or livestock associations. For most
tree-crop associations, one must consider
Authors: wider spacing for sun-loving crops and
Joyce Njoloma, Betserai I
Nyoka, Dickson Thebulo, closer spacing for tree-dominant systems.
Konisaga Mwafongo, Anthony This ensures the health, productivity and
Kimaro, Everlyne Obwocha, longevity of trees.
Edward Meleki, Phosiso Sola

March 2025
Acknowledgements

This publication is part of a series of agroforestry field guides for the Global
EverGreening Alliance’s Restore Africa: Restoring Landscapes and Livelihoods
in in East and Southern Africa with Climate Asset Management Programme.
These guides aim to empower extension staff and farmers with knowledge
and options for integrating trees in restoration, livelihood and carbon projects.
The programme is currently being implemented through a consortium of
partners led World Vision and Catholic Relief Service in Kenya, Malawi and
Uganda respectively. The Centre for International Forestry Research and World
Agroforestry (CIFOR-ICRAF) is providing technical support.
 A GRO F O RESTRY F I EL D GU I DE 2

1. What are tree planting niches and

agroforestry systems?

Agroforestry systems: This refers to a land-use approach that integrates

trees and shrubs with arable crops and/or livestock, leveraging ecological
and economic interactions and maximizing both economic and ecological
benefits. The systems are broadly categorized as:

• Agrosilvicultural systems: Also known as “silvoarable systems”, these

are systems in which trees and shrubs are combined with arable crops.

• Silvopastoral systems: These are systems where trees and shrubs are
combined with livestock.

• Agrosilvopastoral systems: These are systems where trees and shrubs

are combined with arable crops and livestock.

Tree planting niches and agroforestry systems involve integrating trees

with crops and/or livestock for ecological and economic benefits. These
include areas that can be planted with trees on field boundaries to serve
as windbreaks, live fences, and for boundary establishment. Trees can be
planted alongside both annual and perennial crops for farm productivity, for
watershed management, and for supporting biodiversity. In agroforestry,
tree spacing and planting strategies depend on the desired agroforestry
system, tree species, and crop and/or livestock associations.

i. Trees on farms integrated with either annual

or perennial crops

• In most smallholder farms there are scattered trees. These trees

were mostly left when the land was cleared for agriculture, or have
regenerated from roots and tree stumps, naturally dispersed seeds, and/
or seedlings deliberately planted during farming operations.

• Perennial crops and trees: Trees can be integrated into perennial

crop fields with a tree density of 45 trees ha¯¹ or 18 trees acre¯¹,
corresponding to a spacing of 15 m x 15 m based on the formular by
Coder (2023). Coffee, banana, cassava and tea are the most dominant
perennial crops observed in Restore Africa (RESAf) project sites.

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 AG R O FO R EST R Y F IE L D G U ID E 2

1
• Annual crops and trees: Tree density from initial spacing of 10 m x 10 m
giving a total of 100 trees ha¯¹ or 40 trees acre¯¹ is appropriate in high-
potential areas if the crop is light demanding, e.g., maize. Annual crop
plant requirements should be considered when choosing tree spacing.
Tree species selection and consideration of tree growth characteristics
are crucial for the success of the practice. In low-potential areas, tree
spacing of 20 m x 20 m giving a tree density of 25 trees ha¯¹ or 10 trees
acre¯¹ is recommended. Depending on the tree species, this can later be
increased up to 45 trees ha¯¹, corresponding to a square spacing of 15 m
(Tengnas 1994).

ii. Trees grown on farm boundaries

• Trees may be grown on boundaries to provide multiple services,
including acting as windbreaks, and for soil and water conservation.
• It is a common practice, but it requires agreement between the
neighbours involved to avoid conflicts. There are different ways of
sharing trees planted on a boundary. Sometimes two rows of trees are
planted, one on each side of the boundary, and then each farmer grows
and manages their own trees.
• Under the RESAf project, trees should not be planted on the farm
boundary, but instead at least three metres from the border to avoid
conflict in carbon crediting.
• Trees on boundaries / strip planting – there should be a minimum
spacing of 3 m between trees and a minimum 6 m between rows to
allow for the canopy, giving a total of 34 trees per 100 m distance.

Trees on farm boundaries.

Trees planted in pasture fields.

2 TREE PLANTING, SPACING AND CARE

 A GRO F O RESTRY F I EL D GU I DE 2

iii. Trees in homesteads

• Growing trees in homesteads is a common practice in most areas.

Spatial arrangements vary, but mostly the trees are scattered and of
many different species, including fruit trees and timber species.
• Growing scattered trees in homesteads is not being promoted by the
RESAf project, under which farmers can either plant trees on homestead
boundaries or in woodlots near homesteads.
• Large fruit trees, mango for instance, should be spaced at a minimum of
10–15 m depending on tree type.
• All trees planted in homesteads should be considered, with careful
exclusion of any buildings and roads.

iv. Trees in woodlots

• A woodlot is an area set aside entirely for tree planting.

In small-scale farming areas, woodlots are often small, measuring 0.1
hectare or less. Large-scale farms may have woodlots of many hectares.
• Under the RESAf project, monoculture woodlots are discouraged, as
mixed species stands contribute to sustainability and diversity. Trees
must be planted at their respective final spacing with an estimated
minimum spacing of 3 m x 3 m in high-potential areas and 4 m x 4 m
in low-potential areas.

v. Trees in rangeland or pastureland

• Trees in rangeland are beneficial in many ways, e.g., providing shade for
livestock and herders, and fodder and wood.
• Normally, such trees regenerate naturally from cut stumps or seed
banks, and are scattered at random in the landscape. Tree planting
should only be done to enrich the rangeland with preferred and locally
adapted tree species (FAO 2019) to support livestock production and
diversify livelihood options.
• Trees in pastureland should not be too dense since this may interfere
with grass production and mechanization.
• On silvopastoral sites the minimum tree density should be 25 trees
per hectare or 10 trees per acre, corresponding to a spacing of 20
m x 20 m. The maximum recommended density is 100 trees per ha,
corresponding to a spacing of 10 m x 10 m.

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 AG R O FO R EST R Y F IE L D G U ID E 2

vi. Riparian trees (trees on wetland buffer zones)

• Planting trees or allowing trees to regenerate in the periphery of buffer

zone areas of wetlands helps to arrest soil erosion, degradation and
siltation, and capture carbon.
• Natural regeneration, including enrichment tree planting for gaps filling
severely degraded sites, is highly recommended.
• The selection of tree species to plant should be conducted with care to
include only tree species adapted to riverine and water catchment sites,
like Ficus spp., Syzygium cordatum and to avoid introducing trees with
high water affinity, such as Eucalyptus sp.
• Planting indigenous trees is highly encouraged.
• Trees should be grown at an approved distance from the lakeshore,
river or stream bank based on local regulations.
• Observe government regulations on the preservation of wetlands and
rivers.
• Growing trees in protected wetland zones or sides of lakes, rivers
or streams is not desired in the Resaf project.

30 me es
tres 30 metr

2. Factors influencing spacing

Tree spacing is influenced by several factors that ensure optimal growth,
resource utilization and ecosystem balance (Smith et al. 1985; Salifu et al.
2025).

Tree size at maturity: Larger trees require more space to accommodate

their canopy and root systems, while smaller (shrubs) or dwarf varieties can
be planted closer together.

4 TREE PLANTING, SPACING AND CARE

 A GRO F O RESTRY F I EL D GU I DE 2

Tree species: Different Soil quality: Rich loamy

species have varying spacing soil supports better growth,
needs. For example, fruit reducing the need for wider
trees may have to be planted spacing. Poor or rocky soils may
at the right spacing from require more distance between
establishment as these are trees.
not recommended for tree
management practices such Tree management practices:
as thinning. Regular pruning can reduce
tree canopy, allowing for closer
Climate: In drier warmer spacing while maintaining
climates, trees may need airflow and reducing shading
more space to prevent to crops during the agricultural
overheating. Trees in these season.
regions can experience
heat stress, which can be Competition for resources:
exacerbated if they are Trees compete for sunlight,
planted too closely together. water and nutrients. Proper
Wider spacing allows for spacing minimizes this
better air circulation, reducing competition and promotes
the risk of overheating. On healthy growth.
the other hand, cool wetter
regions can allow for closer Ecosystem balance: Spacing
planting. Cooler temperatures impacts biodiversity and the
and higher moisture levels overall health of the ecosystem,
help prevent overheating, ensuring trees coexist
even when trees are planted harmoniously.
closely (Jackson 2024).

3. Steps for planting tree seedlings

There is more to planting a tree or shrub than just digging a planting pit or hole
in the ground and planting the tree. If you plant your trees or shrubs properly,
you will ensure that they will have a good start and become established quickly.

i. Choose the right species:

Select tree species that are adapted to the local climate, soil type and altitude.
Consider the purpose of tree planting (e.g., carbon, soil conservation, timber,
fruit). Order seedlings in good time, at least six months in advance, specifying
the species, seed origin and desired size (20 cm recommended).

Seedling quality: Be prepared to reject seedlings that do not meet agreed

specifications, such as small-sized seedlings, etiolated seedlings,
diseased seedlings, broken seedlings and weak seedlings.

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 AG R O FO R EST R Y F IE L D G U ID E 2

ii. Choose a time and place

• Decide on where you want to plant.

• Will the tree or shrub eventually become huge, blocking light,
causing an obstruction to paths/ roads, dumping leaves everywhere,
and possibly becoming a hazard to the foundations of buildings?
• Choose the location wisely.
• Trees can be planted at any time, but the ideal times for planting trees
are at the beginning or during the early part of the rainy season.
• Avoid planting late in the season. Ensure the soil is moist to a depth
of at least 20 cm.
• Potted plants are easy to handle since the root system is undisturbed
during planting.
• Bare-rooted plants, however, have little soil surrounding them,
and the plant can rapidly dehydrate, especially if planted during the
dry season.

Bare root seedlings

on a nursery bed
supported by grass
lining (right). Potted
plants in polythene
containers/ tubes
(far right).

Roots of a potted seedling

cover by a good amount
of soil when pulled out of
the container (right). Roots
barely covered with soil
when pulled out of the
nursery bed (far right)

Potted Bare root

• Remove weeds, grass or flowers in

the place where you intend to plant.
• If it is too weedy, slash out the
excess growth.
• These plants will compete with
your new tree.

6 TREE PLANTING, SPACING AND CARE

 A GRO F O RESTRY F I EL D GU I DE 2

iv. Prepare planting pits/basins

• For fruit trees, pits can range from 60 x 60 x 60 cm

to 100 x 100 x 100 cm, or even bigger

• For all other trees, a standard pit of

30 x 30 x 30 cm is adequate. Dig a hole
that is roughly twice the width of the
tree’s root ball, but no deeper.
• Dig pits two weeks in advance to allow Digging out the pit
moisture to build up and cure the and separating
planting hole. topsoil from subsoil.

• These pits have to be backfilled with compost/topsoil

• This mixture is loose and aerated, so roots can penetrate into it

more readily.
• If the roots quickly hit the solid walls of the hole, they will find it
more difficult to spread and get established.
• In areas with hardpans (hardened, impervious layers of soil –
often found below the topsoil layer – that restrict root penetration
and water movement (Idowu and Angadi 2013), pits have to be
deep enough to break through such layers, and should be backfilled
with topsoil.
• Compaction creates a dense
soil layer that may be too
hard for roots to penetrate.
• Roots tend to grow
laterally when they hit this
compaction zone, thereby
limiting the volume of soil
that the roots can explore
for water and nutrients.
• Compacted soil also limits
the movement of water into
the soil, thereby creating
conditions that promote soil
erosion and runoff (Idowu
and Angadi 2013).
Field ready for tree planting

TREE PLANTING, SPACING AND CARE 7

 AG R O FO R EST R Y F IE L D G U ID E 2

v. Backfill the bottom of the planting pit/basin with

compost/topsoil

• The aim is to surround the root system with a soil-compost mixture

or topsoil with some organic matter.
• For high value trees, use homemade compost on its own if it contains
some soil; a 50/50 mixture of compost and soil or good topsoil
(Wallace 2025).
• Mark the centre of the pit with a stick in readiness for planting.

Backfilling the
hole with topsoil
first, which may
be mixed with
compost.

vi. Seedling care in transit:

• Transport seedlings to the planting site on the same day they leave
the nursery.
• The base of the trucks carrying tree seedlings should be kept cool.
• Never leave seedling roots exposed to the sun.
• Cover seedling roots with wet sacks or soil to maintain moisture.
• Store seedlings temporarily under shade to prevent excessive evaporation.

vii. Remove tree seedlings from polythene tubes/bags

or from bare root beds

• Potted plants have more soil around

the roots when removed from the
polythene tube, while bare roots have
no, or less soil covering the roots when
dug out from the nursery bed.
• Ensure the tree seedling is loosened by
gently squeezing the polythene tube.
• Gently remove the polythene tube
to minimize disturbance to the root
system.

8 TREE PLANTING, SPACING AND CARE

 A GRO F O RESTRY F I EL D GU I DE 2

viii. Place the tree seedling in the centre of the planting

pit/basin

• Open up the centre by pulling the soil out then place the rooted part in
the hole and backfill with soil up to the root collar.

1 2 3
Place the potted Remove the polythene Press down
seedling in the tube gently befor back surface of the soil
centre of the pre- filling the planting pit. with your hands,
pared pit. feet or a piece of
timber.

• Firming: Press down the soil with your hands, feet or a piece of timber,
and construct a small water harvesting structure around the planting
pit where water can collect when it rains or when watering. In very dry
areas, instead of a circular basin, one may have to prepare halfmoon
basins. This ensures capture of runoff water.

Halfmoon basin on a gentle slope.

TREE PLANTING, SPACING AND CARE 9

 AG R O FO R EST R Y F IE L D G U ID E 2

ix. Management and protection of

planted trees against livestock and
fire damage

• Tree management and protecting planted trees

from livestock and fire damage are crucial for their
survival and growth. It is necessary to ensure there
is adequate soil moisture to sustain growth, and
to carry out staking to ensure upright growth if
planted seedlings are still limp.
• Watering: Give the plant a generous watering Polythene tube removed
depending on how wet the soil is at transplanting. and seedling planted in the
centre of the planting pit with
It is best to ensure tree seedlings are transplanted soil visibly wet enough to
to where there is adequate soil moisture to sustain tree establishment.
sustain tree establishment.
• Continue to water every few days if it does not
rain within a week, or if you dry planted in summer,
or if weather conditions are very dry.
• Where possible mulching is encouraged to conserve moisture, especially
in areas with no history of termites.
• Staking: Some young trees or shrubs, especially those with large crowns (the
upper leafy part), will need staking in windy areas to prevent wind breaking
or bending stems.
• Stems should be attached to stakes with suitable strapping. Avoid wire,
which can damage the bark.
• Weeding: Keep the planted site – and around trees generally – weed free
at all times for continued good growth, and to reduce competition and
plant pests.

4. Tree protection
• Fencing: Erect fences to prevent livestock from grazing
on, or damaging established trees. It is also possible
to fence individual trees, especially for fruit trees and
also when there are small numbers of trees.

• Erect protective fences around trees to protect

them from livestock damage.
• Do not cut down big trees to fence young tree
seedlings. However, you can use tree prunings
(brush fencing) to fence around newly planted
trees if wire fencing is difficult to install.

10 TREE PLANTING, SPACING AND CARE

 A GRO F O RESTRY F I EL D GU I DE 2

• Livestock-free zones:
Designate specific areas as
livestock-free zones during
the tree establishment phase.
Firebreak
This must be supported by a
set of bylaws developed by Fuelbreak

the community.
Creating a Firebreak
• Firebreaks: Create firebreaks
by clearing vegetation around the tree plantation to prevent the spread of
wildfires. Fire breaks may be 2–4 m wide around the planted field.
• Controlled burning: Conduct controlled burns in surrounding areas to
reduce fuel loads and minimize fire risks. However, this action must be
done with care to avoid burning the planted trees. The appropriate age for
controlled burning in tree stands depends on several factors, including the
tree species and the specific objectives of the burn. Generally, controlled
burns are recommended for stands of trees that are at least 4 m tall and
8 cm in diameter. Grass slashing or weeding must be promoted instead of
burning in the early stages of tree growth.
• Community awareness: Educate local communities about fire prevention
and involve them in protecting tree plantations.
• Pruning: Prune trees as needed to promote healthy growth and shape.
Most indigenous trees are self-pruning; however, in instances where a
farmer wants to prune the trees, low pruning using the correct tools
is encouraged to preserve carbon in tree branches. High pruning is not
allowed. Pruning is best done when the trees are dormant.

High pruning (left) is

not recommended in
the RESAf project; Low
pruning (right) to promote
healthy growth.

• Thinning: This must be designed to get the desired spacing between trees
(spacing is dependent on species mix and agroforestry practice, especially
where farmer managed natural regeneration (FMNR) is used as a method
of growing trees).

• In woodlots this can be done at year 3, 7 and 12 to reduce tree density

in the stand and allow healthy growth of trees.
• Correct spacing and densities must be attained at final thinning.
• In carbon projects: the following tree management practices are not
allowed; pollarding and coppicing of trees; stumping and coppicing
of trees.

TREE PLANTING, SPACING AND CARE 11

 AG R O FO R EST R Y F IE L D G U ID E 2

5. Benefits of proper tree spacing and

planting

Proper planting and spacing of trees is vital for several reasons, including
ensuring the health, productivity and sustainability of trees. With appropriate
tree spacing, the below listed benefits can be achieved:

• Healthy growth: Adequate spacing allows each tree to access

sufficient sunlight, water and nutrients, preventing competition
among roots and branches, thereby promoting balanced growth.
• Disease prevention: Overcrowded trees are more susceptible to
pests and diseases, as poor air circulation creates ideal conditions
for infestations and infections.
• Ease of maintenance: Proper spacing makes it easier to prune,
inspect and harvest trees, especially in orchards or timber plantations.
• A good foundation for tree growth: Planting trees correctly ensures
their roots establish well, providing stability, reducing the risk of
toppling or damage during storms, and increased access to nutrients.
• High survival rate: Poor planting practices can lead to stunted
growth or premature death. Correct techniques give trees the best
chance to thrive for decades. Well-spaced trees promote good air flow,
which helps to regulate moisture levels and prevent fungal issues.
• Attainment of environmental benefits: Trees planted strategically
contribute to soil conservation, erosion control and carbon
sequestration, while supporting biodiversity.

A combination of proper spacing and good tree planting practices

may also lead to:

1
Higher productivity: With reduced competition,
fruit and timber trees can focus their energy on
producing quality yields, in terms of fruits, nuts
or wood

2 Uniform harvests: Proper spacing ensures

that trees grow uniformly, leading to consistent
harvests in terms of both quantity and quality.

3
Efficiency in tree management: Strategic
planting facilitates easier harvesting, pruning and
maintenance, thereby saving time and effort.

12 TREE PLANTING, SPACING AND CARE

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AGROFORESTRY FIELD GUIDE 2
Tree planting, spacing and care

Tree spacing and planting depends on

the desired agroforestry system, crops
and or livestock associations. For most
tree-crop associations, one must consider
wider spacing for sun-loving crops and
closer spacing for tree-dominant systems.
This ensures the health, productivity and
longevity of trees.

Njoloma J, Nyoka BI, Thebulo D, Mwafongo K, Kimaro A, Obwocha E, Meleki E, Sola P. 2025.
Agroforestry field guide 2: Tree planting, spacing and care. Restore Africa project with climate asset
management. Bogor, Indonesia: CIFOR; Nairobi, Kenya: ICRAF.

The Center for International Forestry Research and World Agroforestry (CIFOR-ICRAF) harnesses the
power of trees, forests and agroforestry landscapes to address the most pressing global challenges of
our time – biodiversity loss, climate change, food security, livelihoods and inequity. CIFOR and ICRAF are
CGIAR Research Centers.
[Link]