METALS

Objectives ✓
The process of concentrating an ore include:
(i) Name the chief ores of some metals [Link] any magnetic materials with a magnet.
(ii) Describe and explain the general methods used in [Link] the mineral in a suitable solvent.
the extraction of some metals from the ores. [Link] with water to remove earthy matter.
(iii) Select and describe suitable methods for their iv. Froth flotation.
extraction of some metals from their ores. Froth flotation.
(iv) Describe and explain physical and chemical ✓ This is one of the methods used in purifying metal ores.
properties of some metals. ✓ Involves the following steps
(v) State and explain various uses of these metals and (i) The ore is ground into a fine powder.
their alloys. (ii) Then mixed with water containing special oils
(vi) Describe the effects of industrial production such as pine oil as frothing agents.
processes of metals on the environment. (iii) The mixture is then stirred vigorously by blowing
compressed air
Introduction (iv) A froth rich in minerals is formed at the top and is
✓ An ore is a compound in which a metal can be extracted skimmed and dried while the impurities sink to
from. the bottom
✓ A chief ore is an ore from which a metal can be
NOTE
obtained on a commercial scale.
✓ Metal ores concentrated by froth floatation include;
Ores of Some Metals
i. Copper pyrites,
Metal Ores Formula
ii. Zinc blende
Sodium Sodium chloride NaCl
iii. Galena
Rock salt*
SODIUM
Aluminum Bauxite* Al2O3. 2H2O
Occurrence
Mica K2Al2 Si6O6
✓ Sodium occurs as
Corundum Al2O3
i) Rock salt - Solid sodium chloride (The Chief ore)
Zinc Zinc blende* ZnS
ii) Dissolved chloride - in sea water and salt lakes.
Calamine* ZnCO3
iii) Trona - double salt, NaHCO3.Na2CO3.2H2O
Zinc oxide ZnO
iv) Saltpetre - Solid sodium nitrate
Iron Haematite* Fe2O3
✓ Saltpetre is mainly found in Chile, hence its
Magnetite Fe3O4
common name, Chile saltpetre.
Siderite FeCO3
Extraction of Sodium
Pyrite FeS2
✓ Sodium metal is extracted by the Down’s process
Copper Copper pyrites* CuFeS2
✓ This process involves electrolysis of molten sodium
Malachite [Link](OH)2
chloride
Cuprite Cu2O
Azurite Cu3(OH)2(CO3)2
Lead Galena* PbS
Cerussite PbCO3
Anglesite PbSO4
NOTE
✓ Before any extraction process is carried out, qualitative
and quantitative analysis is done to determine the
metal present and the quantity of the metal in the ore.
General Methods of Extraction
✓ The methods used to extract metals include
I. Electrolysis – used to extract reactive metals e.g Na,
Mg, Ca, Al
II. Reduction – to extract less reactive metals from their
oxides using suitable reducing agents. E.g iron
✓ Some metal ores are not concentrated enough hence
they are concentrated before purification.
✓ The Down’s cell consists of (iv) Sodium vapour is used in street lamps which give
(i) Iron shell lined with heat bricks on the outside. yellow light.
✓ The heat resistant wall is meant to maintain the (v) As a reducing agent in some reactions such as reduction
high temperature so that the electrolyte does not of titanium (IV) chloride to form titanium metal.
crystallize. (vi) NaOH, a compound of sodium, is used in the
(ii) Carbon anode at the centre of the cell. manufacture of detergents, paper glass and artificial
(iii) Steel cathode surrounding the anode. silk.
(iv) Molten NaCl as the electrolyte. ALUMINIUM
NOTE Occurrence
1. CaCl2 is added to the NaCl to lower the melting point ✓ Aluminium forms about 7% of the earth’s crust.
of NaCl from 800°C to 600°C. ✓ The chief ore of aluminium is bauxite (Al 2O3.2H2O)
✓ This makes the process economical because it saves ✓ Bauxite ore has impurities of;
on electricity used in heating. (i) Iron (III) oxide (Fe2O3)
2. During the electrolysis, sodium metal forms at the (ii) Silica (SiO2).
cathode whereas chlorine gas forms at the anode. ✓ Other ores are: - Mica (K2Al2Si6O6)
Reaction at the Anode; - Corundum (Al2O3).
2Cl-(l) →Cl2 (g) + 2e Extraction process
Reaction at the Cathode; ✓ Al is extracted by the electrolytic method because it is a
2Na+(l) + 2e → 2Na (l) reactive metal.
3. Molten Na is less dense than molten NaCl, hence it ✓ The ore is first concentrated before it is electrolyzed.
rises to the top of the cathode from where it is ✓ The concentration process is summarized in flow chart
periodically removed. below
4. Steel gauze diaphragm is suspended between the Hot pressurized
electrodes to prevent sodium and chlorine from NaOH
Grinding Ground ore
recombining. Bauxite Step 1 Step II
5. Liquid calcium metal may also be produced at the
cathode White ppt Step IV
Ca2+(l) + 2e → Ca (l) Al(OH)3 (s) Bubbling CO2
Step III
Heat
✓ But easily separates from liquid sodium because of Al2O3 Filtration
Step V …………….
the following reasons White ppt Step IV
Al(OH)3 Seeding process
(i) Calcium liquid is much denser than sodium liquid Red mud
hence does not mix. (density) …………….
(ii) Calcium has a higher melting point compared to ✓ The process concentration of bauxite involves;
sodium, hence crystallizes out first during cooling Step 1: Bauxite is ground into a fine powder
leaving liquid sodium which is trapped off. - This is to increase the surface area for reaction.
(melting point) Step 2: Dissolving the ground ore in hot concentrated
6. Cl2 is not allowed into the atmosphere because it is a NaOH under pressure.
poisonous gas and hazardous to the environment. - Here, the amphoteric Al2O3 and acidic SiO2 dissolve
in the NaOH while Fe2O3 is insoluble. i.e.
Uses of Sodium Al2O3(s) + 2NaOH(aq) + 3H2O(l) → 2NaAl(OH)4 (aq)
(i) Manufacture of sodium cyanide (NaCN) used in the SiO2(s) + 2NaOH (aq) → Na2SiO3(aq) + H2O(l)
extraction of gold. - The ionic equations for this reactions are;
(ii) An alloy of sodium with lead was used in the Al2O3(s) + 2OH- (aq) + 3H2O(l) → 2[Al(OH)4]- (aq)
manufacture of tetraethyl lead (Pb(C2H5)2) used as an SiO2(s) + 2OH- (aq) → SiO32- (aq) + H2O(l)
anti-knock additive in petrol. Step 3: Filtration is done to remove the red mud
✓ This has been discontinued as use of leaded fuel has (Fe2O3) and the filtrate taken to step 4
been phased out. Step 4: Al(OH)3 (s) is precipitated from the filtrate
(iii) An alloy of Na and K is used as a coolant in nuclear by 2 methods
reactors I. Bubbling CO2 gas through the filtrate
✓ This is because the alloy is a liquid over a wide CO2 (g)+ 2NaAl(OH)4 (aq)→2Al(OH)3 (s)+Na2CO3 (aq)+ 2H2O (l)
range of temperatures. i.e high heat capacity II. Seeding process by adding pure Al(OH)3 crystals.
NaAl(OH)4 (aq) +Al(OH)3 (s)→ Al2O3 (s) + 3H2O (l) + NaOH (aq)
Step 5: The Al(OH)3 is heated to obtain Al2O3. iv) As a reducing agent in the thermite process
2Al(OH)3 (s) → Al2O3 (s) + 3H2O (l) ✓ This involves extraction of some elements such as
✓ Al metal is then extracted by electrolysis of the Al2O3 chromium, iron, cobalt, manganese and titanium.

Electrolysis of Al2O3 ZINC

✓ Aluminium oxide is dissolved in molten cryolite Occurrence
(Na3AlF6) which lower its melting point, from ✓ Zinc is a transition element whose valency is 2.
2,0150C to about 800°C. ✓ It has two chief ores;
- This lowers the cost of electricity for heating. I. Zinc blende (ZnS)
✓ The molten mixture is electrolyzed in a steel tank lined II. Calamine (ZnCO3).
with graphite which acts as the cathode and Graphite III. Zinc blende is often found mixed with galena
rods are dipped into the electrolyte to act as the anode. (PbS).
Extraction Process
I. Concentration
✓ The ore is first concentrated by froth floatation.
II. Roasting
✓ The concentrated ore is then roasted in air to form the
metal oxide.
a) Calamine, decomposes to zinc oxide and CO2(g)
ZnCO3 (s) → ZnO (s) +CO2 (g)
b) Zinc blende, two reactions occur:
✓ Zinc sulphide is oxidized to ZnO and SO2 gas.
2ZnS (s) + 3O2 (g) → 2ZnO (s) +2SO2 (g)
✓ The impurity, galena is oxidized to PbO and SO2 (g)
✓ During electrolysis, aluminium is deposited at the
2PbS (s) + 3O2 (g) 2PbO (s) + 2SO2 (g)
cathode and oxygen is liberated at the anode.
NOTE
- Reaction at the Cathode;
1. SO2 (g) is fed to H2SO4 factory to avoid its pollution effect
4Al3+ (l) + 12e → 4Al (l)
on the environment.
- Reaction at the Anode;
III. Obtaining Zinc metal
6O2-(l) → 3O2 (g) + 12e
✓ Zinc metal may be obtained from the oxide either by
NOTE
Reduction or Electrolytic method.
1. The anode is replaced from time to time
- This is because O2 (g) produced at the anode reacts with (i) Reduction method
the graphite at 8000C to form CO2 (g) ✓ Carbon and CO(g) are used as the reducing agents
C (s) + O2 (g) → CO2(g) ✓ The ZnO from the roaster is mixed with coke and
2. Molten aluminium is tapped off at the bottom because limestone and heated in a blast furnace.
its denser than the electrolyte.
3. Most of aluminium used is obtained by recycling since
the cost of extraction by electrolysis is expensive.

Uses of Aluminium
i) Making duralumin (an alloy of Al and Mg)
✓ Its light, hard and strong
✓ Hence, used in making parts of aeroplanes, railway
trucks, trains, buses, tankers, furniture and cars
ii) Making cooking vessels such as cooking pans,
✓ Reasons
(i) it is a good conductor of heat.
(ii) It is not easily corroded by cooking liquids
since it forms protective coat of Al2O3. ✓ Reactions in the Blast Furnace are 6
iii) Making overhead electric cables, i) ZnO(s) + C (s) → Zn (s) +CO (g)
✓ Reasons (i) it is light ii) ZnO (s) + CO (g) → Zn (s) + CO2 (g)
(ii) A good conductor of electricity
✓ The limestone decomposes into CaO and CO2 (g) Summary of extraction of Zinc
iii) CaCO3 (s) → CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
Gases
✓ The CO2 is reduced by coke to CO (g).
iv) CO2 (g) + C (s) → 2CO (g) Mined ore Froth floatation Roaster
✓ Thus, CO(g) and coke are the reducing agents.
✓ CaO combines with silica and is removed as slag Pb(l) ZnO H2SO4 (aq)
v) CaO (s) + SiO2 (s) → CaSiO3 (l)
NOTE Limestone + Coke Blast furnace Dissolution
1. The furnace temperatures are maintained above
1,000°C, hence zinc (boiling point of 913°C) exists in Slag Zinc Gases Electrolysis
vapour form.
✓ The zinc vapour leaves at the top of the furnace
with the hot gases Uses of Zinc 99.5% Zinc
✓ The zinc vapour is condensed rapidly to 600°C by 1. Zinc is used to galvanize iron to prevent it from rusting.
mixing it with a spray of molten lead. 2. To make brass, an alloy of copper and zinc.
✓ The lead spray also prevents it from being re- 3. Making of outer casing in dry batteries.
oxidized
2. The liquid zinc separates and settles above the molten IRON
lead since it is less dense and is run off. Occurrence
✓ The zinc can be further purified by electrolysis. ✓ Fe is a transition element.
3. The lead produced during the extraction of zinc is a ✓ Forms compounds with two oxidation states
liquid at the furnace temperatures and it trickles to the i) Iron (II) – Fe2+
bottom of the furnace from where it is taped off. ii) Iron (III) - Fe3+
✓ It’s the second most abundant metal after aluminium.
(ii) Electrolytic Extraction of Zinc ✓ The chief ores are
✓ ZnO from the roaster is dissolved in dilute H2SO4 to i) Haematite (Fe2O3),
form zinc sulphate. ii) Magnetite (Fe3O4)
ZnO(s) + H2SO4 (aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + H2O(l) iii) Siderite (FeCO3).
✓ Any PbO present reacts with the acid to form PbSO4 ✓ Other ores include – iron pyrite (FeS)
which is insoluble hence precipitated. ✓ Impurities in the ores of iron are
PbO(s) + H2O4(aq) → PbSO4(s) + H2O(l) - Silica (SiO2)
✓ ZnSO4 is then dissolved in water and the solution - Alumina (Al2O3)
electrolyzed. The extraction process.
✓ The electrolytic process consists of
Process 2
i) Electrolyte – ZnSO4 (aq) Ore
Process 1 Crushed
Grinding ore Roaster
ii) Cathode - Lead containing 1% silver
iii) Anode - Aluminium sheets. 1. Haemetite
2. Silica
3. Alumina
Reactions at the Electrode
Limestone Hot
At the Anode Blast Furnace
Coke blast air
- OH-(aq) are discharged in preference to SO42- as O2
4OH-(aq) → O2 (g) + 4OH-(aq) + 4e Fe (l) CO2 Slag
At the Cathode NOTE .....
✓ Zn 2+ are preferentially discharged to H+ as zinc metal 1. When extracting from siderite, the ore is first roasted in
2Zn2+(aq) + 4e → 2Zn(s) air to convert it to iron(II) oxide.
✓ If graphite electrode were used, H2 (g) would have been ▪ FeCO3 (s) → FeO (s) + CO2 (g)
evolved instead. 2. FeO is then oxidised by O2 (g) in the atmosphere to
✓ Zn is stripped off the cathode regularly and is about form Fe2O3. (haematite).
99.5% pure ▪ 4FeO(s) + O2 (g) → 2Fe2O3 (s)
✓ Over 80% of zinc is extracted by the electrolytic The Blast furnace
methods. ✓ The blast furnace is about 30m high, made of steel and
lined the inside with bricks made from MgO.
 ✓ The fire bricks conserve heat energy in order to - CaO reacts with impurities being basic, acidic (SiO2)
maintain the optimum temperature needed for the and amphoteric (Al2O3) in the furnace to form slag.
reduction of Fe2O3. CaO(s) + SiO2(s) → CaSiO3(l)
✓ Haemetite, Fe2O3 is mixed with limestone and coke CaO(s) + Al2O3(s) → CaAl2O4(l)
then fed into a furnace from the top. 4. The slag formed is tapped off at a higher level of the
✓ The mixture is heated by blasts of hot air at furnace because of its lower density.
temperatures of between 800°C – 1000°C from the 5. The iron obtained from the blast furnace is 90–95%
bottom of the furnace. pure and it is called “pig Iron”.
✓ The main impurities in pig iron are C, Si, Mn, S and
P, depending on the composition of the original ore.
✓ These impurities affect the properties of iron by making
it Brittle and Lowers the melting point

Uses of Iron
a) Cast Iron (Pig Iron)
▪ This is iron produced in the blast furnace.
▪ It contains about 3–5% carbon 1% silicon and 2%
phosphorus.
▪ The main disadvantages of cast iron is that it’s very
brittle but extremely hard
▪ Used in making furnaces, gates, drainage pipes,
engine blocks, iron boxes
▪ Also used in the manufacture of wrought iron and
Reactions in the Blast furnace steel railings for balconies.
I. At the bottom of the furnace, b) Wrought Iron
- Coke is oxidized to carbon (IV) oxide. ▪ Contains about 0.1% carbon.
C(s) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g) ▪ It is malleable hence easily forged (moulded) and
- The reaction is exothermic hence raises the temperature welded.
of the furnace to about 1600 °C. ▪ Used to make iron nails, iron sheets, horse shoes and
II. In the middle part of the furnace, agricultural implement
- As CO2 moves up, is reduced by coke to CO ▪ Its important is decreasing due to increased use of mild
CO2 (g) + C(s) → 2CO(g) steel.
- The temperature drops to about 1000°C since the c) Steel
reaction is endothermic. i. Mild steel
III. At the upper part of the furnace - Contains 99.75% iron and 0.75% carbon.
- The temperature has fallen to about 700 °C, - Used to make nails, car bodies, railway lines, ship
- Iron(III) oxide is reduced to iron metal. bodies, gliders, rods for reinforced concrete, pipes.
2Fe2O3 (s) + 3C (s) → 4Fe (s) + 3CO2 (g) ii. Cobalt Steel
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) → 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g) - This contains about 97.5% iron and 2.5% cobalt.
- Both carbon and CO(g) act as reducing agents. - It is tough, hard and highly magnetic
- CO(g) is the main reducing agent because of the large - Used to make electromagnets.
surface that is in contact with the Fe 2O3. iii. Stainless steel
NOTE - Contains 74% iron, 18% chromium and 8% nickel.
1. The iron produced falls to the lower part of the furnace - Stainless steel containing 10–12% chromium and some
where the temperatures are high enough to keep it nickel is used to make cutlery, sinks and vats.
molten. - Steel containing 5–18% tungsten is used for making
2. The CO2 (g) produced is recycled. high speed cutting and drilling tools because it is
3. The limestone fed into the furnace alongside coke and tough and hard.
Fe2O3 is decomposed by heat in the furnace to form
CaO and CO2 (g) .
CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)
 LEAD ✓ Oxygen in the air oxidizes the impurities into
Occurrence compounds which are less dense than lead.
✓ Lead is a transition element. ✓ These compounds float on the molten lead and are
✓ It forms compounds with two oxidation states, skimmed off.
i) Lead (II) - Pb2+ (ii)Electrolysis
ii) Lead (IV) - Pb4+ ✓ More pure lead can be obtained by electrolysis.
✓ Its chief ore is galena (PbS). ✓ The electrolysis process consists of;
✓ Other ores include; Cerussite (PbCO3) i) Cathode - a pure strip of lead
Anglesite (PbSO4). ii) Anode - impure lead
iii) The electrolyte - Pb(NO3)2 solution
Summary of Extraction of Lead
Air Gas

Ore Grinding Ground Froth

ore Floatation Roaster
e
PbO

Limestone + Coke + Iron Blast Furnace

Air
Slag
Process 1 NOTE
Lead 1. Lead is deposited at the cathode, while the impure lead
Pure lead
Process 2 dissolves at the anode.
At the cathode:
Pb2+(aq) + 2e- → Pb(s)
Extraction Process
At the anode:
Step 1: Grinding
Pb(s) → Pb2+(aq) + 2e-
✓ The ore is first ground into a fine powder.
Uses of Lead
Step 2: Froth floatation
i. Making weight for lifting and weighing scales
✓ The ground ore is concentrated through froth floatation
ii. Making bullets
Step 3: Roasting
iii. Making car batteries in lead acid accumulators
✓ The concentrated ore is then roasted in air to obtain
iv. Making paints
lead(II) oxide and sulphur(IV) oxide.
v. Making soldering wires
2PbS(s) + 3O2(g) → 2PbO(s) + 2SO2(g)
vi. Making radiation protection equipments.
Step 4: Blast Furnace
✓ The PbO from the roaster is mixed with coke and
COPPER
limestone and heated in the furnace
Occurrence
✓ The PbO is reduced by the coke to lead.
✓ Copper is a transition element.
2PbO(s) + C(s) → Pb(s) + CO2(g)
✓ Forms compounds with 2 oxidation states
✓ Fe is added to the blast furnace to reduce any remaining
I. Copper (I) - Cu+
PbS to lead.
II. Copper (II) – Cu2+
Fe(s) + PbS(s) → FeS(l) + Pb(s)
✓ Copper ores include,
✓ Calcium oxide combine with silica to form calcium
i. Pyrites (CuFeS2),
silicate.
ii. Cuprite (Cu2O2)
CaO(s) + SiO2 (s) → CaSiO3 (l)
iii. Chalcocite (Cu2S)
✓ The FeS and CaSiO3 form slag which is tapped off
iv. Malachite - [Link](OH)2.
separately from the lead.
✓ Copper also occurs in uncombined state in various parts
Step 5: Purification
of the world
✓ The lead produced in the blast furnace is not pure.
✓ Such as Canada, USA, Zambia, Tanzania and the
✓ Pure lead is obtained by two processes
Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC).
(i) Blowing a blast of air through the molten impure
lead.
 NOTE • At the anode: Cu(s) → Cu 2+(aq) + 2e–
1. The chief ore is copper pyrites. (CuFeS2) • At the cathode Cu (aq) + 2e → Cu(s)
2+

2. Impurities in copper ores are mainly traces of gold and ✓ Traces of gold and silver collect as a sludge at the
silver. bottom of the cell.
Extraction Process
I. Crushing - The ore is crushed into a fine powder NOTE
II. Concentration – the ore is concentrated by froth ✓ Where copper carbonate is the chief ore,
flotation. I. First it is roasted to obtain copper(II) oxide.
III. Roasting - The concentrated ore is roasted in a limited CuCO3 (s) → CuO (s) + CO2(g)
supply of air to obtain Cu2S and Fe2O3 II. CuO is then reduced to copper metal using coke
• 2CuFeS2(s)+4O2(g)→Cu2S(s) + 2FeO(s)+ 3SO2(g) and CO as reducing agents.
iv. Heat converter 2CuO(s) + C(s) → Cu(s) + CO2(g)
✓ Silica (SiO2) is then added and the mixture is heated in CuO(s) + CO(g) → Cu(s) + CO2(g)
the absence of air.
✓ The silica reacts with FeO to form iron (II) silicate Uses of Copper
which separates out as a slag leaving behind the Cu2S. 1. Making electrical wires and contacts in switches, plugs
✓ FeO(l) + SiO2(l) → FeSiO3(l) and sockets because copper is a good conductor of
v. Regulated oxidation electricity.
✓ Cu2S is then heated in a regulated supply of air where ✓ Pure copper is necessary for this use because
some of it is converted to Cu2O. impurities increase electrical resistance.
✓ 2Cu2S(l) + 3O2(g) → 2Cu2O(l) + 2SO2(g) 2. Making soldering instruments due to its high thermal
✓ The Cu2O then reacts with the remaining Cu2S to form conductivity.
Cu metal and SO2 (g). 3. Making alloys such as
NOTE ✓ Brass (Cu and Zn)
1. SO2 (g) produced in the process is either ✓ Bronze (Cu and Sn)
i) Fed into adjacent H2SO4 plant or ✓ German silver (Cu, Zn and Ni)
ii) Scrubbed using Ca(OH)2 (aq). 4. Making coins and ornaments.
SO2(g) + Ca(OH)2(aq) → CaSO3(s) + H2O(l)
2. The copper obtained in this process is about 97.5%
pure.
✓ It is called blister copper.
✓ Blister copper is refined by electrolysis

Purification of blister copper by Electrolysis

✓ The electrolysis process constitutes of;
I. Stripes of pure copper are used as the cathode
II. The anode is made of the impure copper.
III. Copper(II) sulphate solution is used as the
electrolyte

✓ The impure copper anode goes into solution as Cu2+

while copper metal is deposited on the pure copper at
the cathode.