Control Systems Notes
1. Introduction to Control Systems
• System: A combination of components that act together to perform a
certain objective.
• Control System: A system that regulates or directs the behavior of other
systems.
• Open-Loop Control System: Output has no effect on the control action.
◦ Simple, less expensive, but less accurate and no compensation for
disturbances. (e.g., toaster, washing machine timer).
• Closed-Loop Control System (Feedback Control System): Output
affects the control action.
◦ Uses feedback to compare the output with the desired input (reference).
◦ More accurate, reduced sensitivity to disturbances, improved transient
response, but more complex and risk of instability. (e.g., thermostat,
cruise control).
• Components of a Closed-Loop System:
◦ Reference Input (R(s) or r(t)): Desired output.
◦ Controller: Generates the control signal.
◦ Actuator: Device that implements the control signal (e.g., motor).
◦ Plant/Process: The system to be controlled.
◦ Output (C(s) or c(t)): Actual output.
◦ Sensor/Transducer: Measures the output.
◦ Feedback Element: Converts output to appropriate form for comparison.
◦ Error Signal (E(s) or e(t)): Difference between reference and feedback
signal.
• Types of Control Systems:
◦ Linear vs. Non-linear: Based on the linearity of governing equations.
◦ Time-Invariant vs. Time-Variant: Parameters constant or changing
with time.
◦ Continuous-Time vs. Discrete-Time: Based on signal nature.
◦ SISO (Single Input Single Output) vs. MIMO (Multiple Input
Multiple Output).
2. System Modeling
• Mathematical Models: Represent physical systems using equations.
◦ Differential Equations: Describe continuous-time systems.
◦ Difference Equations: Describe discrete-time systems.
• Laplace Transform: Used to convert differential equations into algebraic
equations in the s-domain.
◦ Allows easier analysis of LTI systems.
• Transfer Function G(s): Ratio of the Laplace transform of the output to
the Laplace transform of the input, assuming zero initial conditions.
◦ G(s) = Y(s) / X(s).
◦ Characterizes LTI systems.
• Poles and Zeros:
◦ Poles: Roots of the denominator of G(s). Indicate system's natural
frequencies and influence stability.
◦ Zeros: Roots of the numerator of G(s). Influence system response.
• Block Diagram Reduction: Techniques to simplify complex block
diagrams into a single transfer function.
◦ Series, Parallel, Feedback connections.
◦ Forward path gain, Loop gain.
• Signal Flow Graphs (SFG): Alternative to block diagrams for
representing systems.
◦ Nodes (variables), Branches (transfer functions).
◦ Mason's Gain Formula: T = (1/Δ) Σ P_k Δ_k.
P_k: k-th forward path gain.
Δ: Determinant of the graph (1 - Σ(individual loop gains) + Σ(product of
two non-touching loop gains) - ...).
Δ_k: Δ for the part of the graph not touching the k-th forward path.
• State-Space Representation: A set of first-order differential (or
difference) equations.
◦ x'(t) = Ax(t) + Bu(t) (State Equation)
◦ y(t) = Cx(t) + Du(t) (Output Equation)
◦ x(t): state vector, u(t): input vector, y(t): output vector.
◦ A: system matrix, B: input matrix, C: output matrix, D: direct transmission
matrix.
◦ Provides a complete description of system behavior, including internal
states.
◦ Transfer function from state-space: G(s) = C(sI - A)⁻¹B + D.
3. Time-Domain Analysis
• Test Signals: Step, Ramp, Impulse, Parabolic. Used to evaluate system
response.
• Transient Response: Behavior of the system as it moves from its initial
state to a new steady state.
◦ First-Order Systems: Characterized by a single time constant (τ).
Response: x(t) = x_f + (x_0 - x_f)e^(-t/τ).
◦ Second-Order Systems: Characterized by undamped natural frequency
(ω_n) and damping ratio (ζ).
Underdamped (0 < ζ < 1): Oscillatory, decaying response.
Rise Time (t_r): Time to go from 10% to 90% of final value.
Peak Time (t_p): Time to reach the first peak. t_p = π / (ω_n√(1-ζ²)).
Percent Overshoot (%OS): ((C_peak - C_final) / C_final) * 100%. %OS =
e^(-ζπ / √(1-ζ²)) * 100%.
Settling Time (t_s): Time to settle within a certain percentage (e.g., 2% or
5%) of the final value. t_s ≈ 4/(ζω_n) for 2%.
Critically Damped (ζ = 1): Fastest response without oscillation.
Overdamped (ζ > 1): Slow response without oscillation.
• Steady-State Response: Behavior of the system after the transient has
died out.
• Steady-State Error (e_ss): Difference between the desired output and
the actual output as time approaches infinity.
◦ For a unity feedback system, E(s) = R(s) / (1 + G(s)H(s)).
◦ e_ss = lim(s→0) sE(s).
◦ Type of System: Number of pure integrators (poles at s=0) in the open-
loop transfer function G(s)H(s).
Type 0: Constant position error for step input, infinite error for
ramp/parabolic.
Type 1: Zero position error, constant velocity error for ramp, infinite error
for parabolic.
Type 2: Zero position/velocity error, constant acceleration error for
parabolic.
◦ Static Error Coefficients: K_p (position), K_v (velocity), K_a
(acceleration).
K_p = lim(s→0) G(s)H(s)
K_v = lim(s→0) sG(s)H(s)
K_a = lim(s→0) s²G(s)H(s)
4. Stability Analysis
• Definition: A system is stable if its output remains bounded for every
bounded input (BIBO stability). For LTI systems, this means all poles of the
closed-loop transfer function must be in the left-half of the s-plane.
• Routh-Hurwitz Criterion: Determines the number of poles in the right-
half s-plane from the coefficients of the characteristic equation.
◦ No sign changes in the first column of the Routh array implies no RHP
poles.
◦ Special cases: Zero in first column, entire row of zeros.
• Root Locus: Graphical method that shows the locations of the closed-
loop poles as a system parameter (typically gain K) is varied from 0 to ∞.
◦ Rules for Construction:
Number of branches = number of poles.
Symmetry about the real axis.
Starts at open-loop poles, ends at open-loop zeros (or ∞).
Real axis segments: To the left of an odd number of poles+zeros.
Asymptotes: Angle = (2k+1)180° / (P-Z), Centroid = (Σpoles - Σzeros) / (P-
Z).
Breakaway/Break-in points: dK/ds = 0 (where K = -1/G(s)H(s)).
Angle of departure/arrival from complex poles/zeros.
Intersections with jω-axis (Routh-Hurwitz or substitute s=jω).
• Frequency Response Analysis:
◦ Bode Plots: Magnitude (dB) and Phase (degrees) vs. log(ω).
Gain Margin (GM): Amount of gain change at phase crossover frequency
until instability.
Phase Margin (PM): Amount of phase change at gain crossover frequency
until instability.
GM > 0 dB and PM > 0° for stability.
◦ Nyquist Plot: Polar plot of G(jω)H(jω) for ω from 0 to ∞.
Nyquist Stability Criterion: Z = N + P (Z = closed-loop RHP poles, N =
number of encirclements of (-1,0), P = open-loop RHP poles). For stability,
Z = 0.
Focus on (-1,0) point (critical point).
◦ Gain Crossover Frequency (ω_gc): Frequency where |G(jω)H(jω)| = 1
(0 dB).
◦ Phase Crossover Frequency (ω_pc): Frequency where ∠G(jω)H(jω) = -
180°.
5. Control System Design
• Controllers/Compensators: Used to modify system performance
(stability, transient response, steady-state error).
• Proportional (P) Controller: K_p.
◦ Increases speed, reduces steady-state error (but doesn't eliminate for
Type 0).
◦ Increases overshoot, may make system less stable.
• Integral (I) Controller: K_i / s.
◦ Eliminates steady-state error for step inputs (by adding a pole at origin,
increasing system type).
◦ Slows down response, can increase overshoot and decrease stability.
• Derivative (D) Controller: K_d * s.
◦ Improves transient response, increases damping, reduces overshoot,
speeds up response.
◦ Sensitive to noise, not good for steady-state error.
• PID Controller: Proportional-Integral-Derivative (K_p + K_i/s + K_d s).
◦ Combines benefits of P, I, D. Most widely used controller.
◦ Tunes for optimal performance:
P: Adjust rise time, reduce steady-state error.
I: Eliminate steady-state error.
D: Reduce overshoot, improve settling time.
• Lead Compensator: Adds a zero closer to the origin than a pole.
◦ Increases phase margin, improves stability, speeds up transient response.
◦ Used to reshape Root Locus or improve phase margin in Bode.
• Lag Compensator: Adds a pole closer to the origin than a zero.
◦ Improves steady-state error (increases gain at low frequencies).
◦ Decreases bandwidth, slows down transient response, reduces phase
margin.
• Lag-Lead Compensator: Combines benefits of both.
◦ Improves both steady-state error and transient response/stability.
6. Digital Control Systems (Brief Overview)
• Sampling: Converts continuous signals to discrete.
• Z-Transform: Used for analysis of discrete-time systems.
• Discrete Controllers: Digital versions of P, I, D.
• Mapping from S-plane to Z-plane: s = (1/T) ln(z).
◦ Left-half s-plane maps to inside unit circle in z-plane (stability).
◦ Imaginary axis in s-plane maps to unit circle in z-plane.